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AERO Engine Maintenance AND Repair notes-1

B.E (Anna University)

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AERO ENGINE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

UNIT I PISTON ENGINES

Carburation and Fuel injection systems for small and large engines - Ignition system components -
spark plug detail - Engine operating conditions at various altitudes – Engine power measurements –
Classification of engine lubricants and fuels – Induction, Exhaust and cooling system - Maintenance
and inspection check to be carried out.Inspection and maintenance and trouble shooting -
Inspection of all engine components - Daily and routine checks - Overhaul procedures - Compression
testing of cylinders - Special inspection schedules - Engine fuel, control and exhaust systems - Engine
mount and super charger - Checks and inspection procedures.

UNIT II PROPELLERS

Propeller theory - operation, construction assembly and installation - Pitch change mechanism-
Propeller axially system- Damage and repair criteria - General Inspection procedures - Checks on
constant speed propellers - Pitch setting, Propeller Balancing, Blade cuffs, Governor/Propeller
operating conditions – Damage and repair criteria.

UNIT III JET ENGINES

Types of jet engines – Fundamental principles – Bearings and seals - Inlets - compressors- turbines-
exhaust section – classification and types of lubrication and fuels- Materials used - Details of control,
starting around running and operating procedures – Inspection and Maintenance- permissible limits of
damage and repair criteria of engine components- internal inspection of engines- compressor
washing- field balancing of compressor fans- Component maintenance procedures - Systems
maintenance procedures - use of instruments for online maintenance - Special inspection procedures-
Foreign Object Damage - Blade damage .

UNIT IV TESTING AND INSPECTION

Symptoms of failure - Fault diagnostics - Case studies of different engine systems - Rectification
during testing equipments for overhaul: Tools and equipments requirements for various checks and
alignment during overhauling - Tools for inspection - Tools for safety and for visual inspection -
Methods and instruments for non destructive testing techniques - Equipment for replacement of
parts and their repair. Engine testing: Engine testing procedures and schedule preparation - Online
maintenance.

UNIT V OVERHAULING 9

Engine Overhaul - Overhaul procedures - Inspections and cleaning of components - Repairs

schedules for overhaul - Balancing of Gas turbine components. Trouble Shooting: Procedures for
trouble shooting - Condition monitoring of the engine on ground and at altitude - engine health
monitoring and corrective methods.

TEXT BOOK:

1. Kroes & Wild, "Aircraft Power plants ", 7th Edition - McGraw Hill, New York, 1994.

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UNIT I

PISTON ENGINES

CARBURETOR

Carburetor is a device which is used in spark ignition engine to mix air-fuel in correct ratio
outside the cylinder. This process is known as carburation.
Carburetor Parts
1. Float Chamber:
The float chamber serves as a storage tank of fuel for continuous supply of fuel. It contains a
float valve which maintains the level of fuel in float chamber. When the level of fuel
decreases in float chamber the float moves downward, which open the fuel supply valve and
allow flow of fuel into float chamber. As the fuel level increases, the float moves upward
which close and stop the fuel supply. This fuel level is maintained below the discharge nozzle
outlet hole to prevent overflow.
2. Strainer:
It is a device which is used to filter the fuel before entering into float chamber. It consist a
fine wire mesh which filters the fuel and removes dust and other suspended particles from it.
These particles if not removed can cause blockage of nozzle.
3. Metering System:
The metering system controls the flow of fuel into nozzle. It is responsible to form correct
mixture of air fuel. It consist two main parts, first one is known as metering orifice and other
one is known as fuel discharge nozzle. When the air passes through venturi, it generates a low
pressure field across throat compare to pressure at float chamber. Due to this pressure
difference, fuel is discharge into the air stream. The quantity of fuel is control by the metering
orifice and discharge hole at the exit of fuel discharge nozzle.
4. Idling System:
It consist a passage directly from the float chamber to venturi tube. It provides rich mixture
during idling and at low speed. It works during idling or when the throttle is open below
15%.
5. Throttle Valve:
It is a butterfly valve situated at the exit of the venturi tube. It controls the speed of the
vehicle by providing control amount of mixture. It controls the quantity of air fuel mixture. If

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throttle is fully opened, than more mixture drawn into cylinder and thus gives high output.
But if it is little opened, less mixture is drawn into the cylinder, which gives less power.
6. Choke Valve:
It is same as throttle valve in construction but situated at the entrance of venturi tube. It is
used to provide very rich mixture during starting in cold season. It controls the quantity of air
flow through the venturi tube. If the choke is fully open, normal amount of air flow through
venturi, which forms a normal mixture. But if the choke is partially closed, it results low
amount of air flow through venturi and large amount of fuel flow through discharge nozzle. It
gives rich mixture.
Working of Carburetor:
Now we know about basic parts of carburetor and its function. These all parts work together
to perform a common function of providing homogenous air-fuel mixture in proper ratio. Its
working can besummarized into following points.
 First fuel is supplied into the float chamber through strainer. Strainer works as a filter.
It does not allow dust and other suspended particles into the float chamber which can choke
any fuel passage.
 The float maintains a constant level of fuel into float chamber. If the amount of fuel in
the float chamber goes down below designed limit, the float goes down which opens the fuel
supply valve and allow fuel to flow into float chamber. If the fuel reaches designed limit, the
float goes up, which closes the fuel supply valve and thus stop fuel supply into float chamber.
 The fuel discharge nozzle connects float chamber to venturi tube. The one end of fuel
supply nozzle connected to the bottom of the float chamber and other one is to the venturi
tube slightly above the
designed fuel level in the float chamber. This will avoid overflow when engine is not
running.
 During suction stroke air is drawn into cylinder through venturi tube. Venturi is a tube
of decreasing cross section and has a minimum area at throat. The fuel supply nozzle
connects at the throat of venturi tube. This air has maximum velocity at throat. Due to this
high velocity, the pressure at the throat goes down below float chamber pressure.
 This will create a pressure difference between float chamber and venturi tube. This
pressure difference is known as carburettor depression. It acts as driving force for fuel. It
drives fuel from float
chamber to venturi tube through fuel supply tube and the fuel is discharged into the air
stream.
 The fuel-air ratio depends on the size of discharge jet and metering system. So they
are chosen as such, they can give desired air-fuel ratio.
 This air fuel mixture provided to the cylinder through throttle valve. The SI engine is
a quantity governed engine. So the quantity of the mixture provided into the cylinder is
controlled by the throttle valve and hence control output power.
 For idling or when required rich mixture, extra fuel is supplied by the idling system
into venturi tube.

Air fuel Ratio

Air fuel Ratio is the mass ratio of Air/fuel in the combustion chamber of internal combustion engine.

For complete burning adequate air and fuel is provided called stoichiometric ratio.

For gasoline engines, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is 14.7:1

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For diesel Engines, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is 14.5:1

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Battery Ignition
Battery Ignition System is used in automobile to produce spark in the spark plug for the
combustion of fuel in the I.C. engine. Here the main source for the spark generation is the
battery. It is mostly used in light commercial vehicles.
Main parts
1. Battery
It is a device which provides electrical energy for the ignition. The battery is charged by
dynamo driven by engine. Generally two types of batteries are used in spark ignition engine,
lead acid battery & alkaline battery. The lead acid battery is used in light duty commercial
vehicle whereas alkaline battery is used in heavy duty commercial vehicle.
2. Ignition switch
It is a switch which is used to ON or OFF ignition system. One end of the ignition switch is
connected to the battery and the other with the primary winding through a ballast resistor.
3. Ballast Resistor
It is connected in series with the primary winding. It is present in between the ignition switch
and ignition coil. The function of ballast resistor is to prevent the overheating of primary
winding of ignition coil. How it does this? The Ballast Resistor is made of iron wire and iron
wire has a property that its electrical resistance increases rapidly with small increase in
temperature. If the current from the primary winding flows continuously, the temperature of
the ballast resistor increases and this increases the electrical resistance and reduces flow of
electric current through the primary winding. The reduction of current by ballast resistor
prevents the overheating of the primary winding.
4. Ignition Coil
It is used to produce high voltage sufficient to generate spark across the electrodes of spark
plug. It acts a step transformer and converts a 6 or 12 V of a battery into very high voltage of
about 15000 to 30000 V.It Consist of a soft iron core surrounded by two insulated coil,
named as primary winding and secondary winding. The primary winding consists of 200-300
turns of 20 gauge wires capable of producing resistance of 1.15 ohm. The secondary winding
consists of 21000 turns of 38-40 gauge enameled wire and it is sufficiently insulated to
withstand high voltage.
One end of the primary winding is connected to the battery terminal through ballast resistor
and ignition switch. And other end is connected with the contact breaker as well as secondary
winding. In the case of secondary winding, its one end id connected to the central high
tension terminal of the distributor. And other end is connected with the primary winding.

5. Contact breaker

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It is a mechanical device which is used for making and breaking of the primary circuit of the
ignition coil.
It has two metal points made up of tungsten and place against each other. These metal points
have circular flat face of about 3mm diameter. Among the two metal points, one is fixed and
other is moveable. The fixed contact point is being earthed by mounting it on the base of the
contact breaker assembly. The movable contact point is attached to the spring loaded pivoted
arm which is electrically insulated.
The pivoted arm generally has a heel or rounded part (cam follower) made up of some plastic
material and attached in the middle of the arm. The heel is rest on the cam driven by the
engine. Every time when the cam passes under heel, the contact points are forced apart and
the circuit is broken. The pivoted arm is spring loaded and in the case when the points are not
separated by the cams, it is held together by the spring force and closes the primary circuit.
When the points are closed, the current flows through the primary circuit and it stops if open.
6. Capacitor
The capacitor used in the ignition system is similar to the electrical capacitor. The capacitor is
an electrical device in which two metal plates are separated from each other through
insulating materials (air).
It is connected in parallel with the contact breaker. It prevents the contact points of the
contact breaker from being damage. If there is no condenser or capacitor used in the primary
circuit, the high primary voltage caused by the collapse of the magnetic field around the
primary winding would cause an arc across the breaker points. The arc produced would burn
and destroy the points and would also prevent the rapid drop in primary current and magnetic
field which is necessary for the generation of high secondary voltage.
7. Distributor
It is a device used in the Battery Ignition System to distribute the ignition pulses (surges) to
the individual spark plug in a correct sequence and at the correct instant in time.
There are two types of distributor
1. Brush type: In the brush type distributor, it contains carbon brush carried by the rotor arm
slides over the metallic segments embedded in the distributor cap.
2. Gap type: In this type of distributor the rotor arm pass very close to the segments of the
distributor cap but do not touch it.
It also contains some other auxiliary units too. In lower part of the housing, it has a speed
sensitive device or governor whose main function is to advance the spark with increase in the
engine speed. Contact breaker assembly is present above this, which can be rotated to adjust
the timing of the spark.
In the upper part of the housing, high tension distributor is located. It also carries the vacuum
ignition governor which serves to retard the spark as the load on the engine increases. Each
metallic segments of the distributor is connected to each spark plug.

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As the rotor rotates, the contact point opens; this allows the high tension current to pass to the
spark plug through the segments to which the spark plug is connected. The sequence in which
the spark plug is connected to the distributor cap depends upon the firing order of the engine.
8. Spark Plug
The spark plug is used to generate sparks to ignite the air-fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber. Each spark plug is connected to the distributor of the ignition system.
Working Of Battery Ignition System
 In the Battery ignition system as the ignition switch is ON, the current from the battery
starts to flow through the primary circuit through ballast register, primary winding and
contact breaker.
 The current flowing through the primary winding induces magnetic field around it. The
more will be the current, the stronger will its magnetic field.
 As the contact breaker opens, the current through the primary winding collapse and this
immediate collapse in the current induces a voltage of about 300V in the primary
winding. This voltage induced in the winding charges the capacitor to the much greater
voltage than the battery. As the capacitor charged, the current through the primary
winding stops and the current starts to flow to the battery form the capacitor. This
reverses the direction of current and magnetic field in the primary winding. Due to the
collapsing and reversing of the current and magnetic field, a very high voltage of about
15000 to 30000 V induced in the secondary winding.
 The high voltage current induced in the secondary winding is transferred to the
distributor through a high tension cable.
 The distributor has a rotor that rotates inside the distributor cap. The distributor cap has
metallic segments embedded into it. As the rotor rotates, it presses and opens the contact
breaker point. This allows the high tension current to transfer to the spark plugs through
the metallic segments.
 As the high tension current reaches the spark Plug, it produces spark in the engine
cylinder for the combustion of the air-fuel mixture.
Advantages
1. It provides good spark at low engine speed.
2. Low maintenance cost.
Disadvantages
1. In battery ignition system, battery is necessary for the ignition. It becomes difficult to
start the engine when the battery is discharged.
2. Occupies large space
3. Efficiency of the system decreases as the engine speed increases.

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4. Since the breaker contact points are continuously subjected to mechanical as well
electrical wear which results in short maintenance intervals.
Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Ignition System Maintenance and Inspection
An aircraft’s ignition system is the result of careful design and thorough testing. The ignition
system usually provides good, dependable service, provided it is maintained and inspected
properly. However, difficulties can occur with normal wear, which affects ignition system
performance, especially with magneto systems. Breakdown and deterioration of insulating
materials, breaker point wear, corrosion, bearing and oil seal wear, and electrical connection
problems are all possible defects that can be associated with magneto-ignition systems. The
ignition timing requires precise adjustment and painstaking care so that the following four
conditions occur at the same instant:
1. The piston in the No. 1 cylinder must be in a position a prescribed number of degrees
before top dead center on the compression stroke.
2. The rotating magnet of the magneto must be in the E-gap position.
3. The breaker points must be just opening on the No. 1 cam lobe.
4. The distributor finger must be aligned with the electrode serving the No. 1 cylinder.

If one of these conditions is out of synchronization with any of the others, the ignition system
is out of time. If the spark is out of time, it is not delivered to the cylinder at the correct time
and engine performance decreases.

When ignition in the cylinder occurs before the optimum crankshaft position is reached, the
timing is said to be early. If ignition occurs too early, the piston rising in the cylinder is
opposed by the full force of combustion. This condition results in a loss of engine power,
overheating, and possible detonation and preignition.

If ignition occurs at a time after the optimum crankshaft position is reached, the ignition
timing is said to be late. If it occurs too late, not enough time is allowed to consume the fuel-
air charge, and combustion is incomplete. As a result, the engine loses power and requires a
greater throttle opening to carry a given propeller load.

Moisture forming on different parts of the ignition system causes more common
irregularities. Moisture can enter ignition system units through cracks or loose covers, or it
can result from condensation. Breathing, a situation that occurs during the readjustment of the
system from low to high atmospheric pressure, can result in drawing in moisture-laden air.
Ordinarily, the heat of the engine is sufficient to evaporate this moisture, but occasionally the
moist air condenses as the engine cools. The result is an appreciable moisture accumulation
which causes the insulation materials to lose electrical resistance. A slight amount of
moisture contamination may cause reduction in magneto output by short-circuiting to ground
a part of the high-voltage current intended for the spark plug. If the moisture accumulation is
appreciable, the entire magneto output may be dissipated to ground by way of flashover and
carbon tracking. Moisture accumulation during flight is extremely rare because the high
operating temperature of the system is effective in preventing condensation. Difficulties from
moisture accumulation are probably more evident during starting and ground operation.

Spark plugs are often diagnosed as being faulty when the real malfunction exists in a
different system. Malfunctioning of the carburetor, poor fuel distribution, too much valve
overlap, leaking primer system, or poor idle speed and mixture settings show symptoms that

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are the same as those for faulty ignition. Unfortunately, many of these conditions can be
temporarily improved by a spark plug change, but the trouble recurs in a short time because
the real cause of the malfunction has not been eliminated. A thorough understanding of the
various engine systems, along with meticulous inspection and good maintenance methods,
can substantially reduce such errors.

SERVICING PROCEDURE OF SPARK PLUG

PURPOSE
Scheduled servicing intervals are determined
intervals will vary according to the operating
types. The principal determining factor in the
width of the spark –gap that is, the distance
produced.
by the individual aircraft operator. These
conditions, engine models, and spark plug
removal and servicing of spark plug is the
between the electrodes where the spark is

SERVICING PROCEDURE
1. Removal
a. Shielded terminal connectors are removed by loosening the elbow nut with the proper
size crowfoot or open end wrench. (Care must be taken to avoid damage to the elbow and
sleeve or the barrel insulator.
b. Remove the spark plug from the cylinder by using the proper size of deep-socket
wrench.(recommended 6point wrench)
c. Removed spark plug should be placed in a tray with numbered holes so that the engine
cylinder from which the spark plug has been removed can be identified.
d. Spark plug should not be dropped on hard surface because cracks may occur in ceramic
insulation which is not apparent on visual inspection. Any plug which has been dropped
should be rejected or returned
2. PRELIMINARY INSPECTION
a. Immediately after removal, the spark plug should be given a careful visual examination.
All unserviceable plugs should be discarded.(spark plugs with cracked insulators, badly
eroded electrodes, damaged shells or threads should be rejected)
3. DEGREASING
a. All oil and grease should be removed from both interior and exterior of the plug
according to the approved degreasing method.(Either vapour degreasing)
4. DRYING
a. After degreasing spark plugs should be dried inside and outside either by compressed
air or a drying oven.
5. CLEANING
a. Spark plug should be cleaned for lead and carbon deposits form on the ceramic core, the
electrodes, and inside of the spark plug shell by abrasive blasting machine designed for
cleaning spark plug.
b. Immediately after cleaning by the wet-blast method the plugs must be oven dried to
prevent rusting and to ensure satisfactory electrical test.
6. REGAPPING
a. The tools and methods used to set spark plug gaps will vary with shape, type, and
arrangement of electrodes.
b. The gap in any spark plug is measured by round wire gages.
c. To measure minimum and maximum widths for the gap, a spark plug gap gage will
have two wires.(0.011’-0.015’)

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d. Smaller dimension gage must pass through and larger dimension gage must be too large
to pass through the gap.
e. If the gap is too large it is closed by means of a special gap setting tool.
7. INSPECTION AND TESTING
a. Visual inspection is done with a magnifying glass. Good lighting must be provided.
b. The following item are examined: threads, electrodes, shell hexagons, ceramic
insulation, and the connector seat.
c. Spark plugs are tested by applying high voltage, equivalent to normal ignition voltage.
While plug is under pressure.
d. Spark plug which fails to function properly during the pressure test should be baked in
an oven for about 4hrs at 225ºF.
8. GASKET SERVICING
a. When spark plugs are installed either new or recondition gasket should be used.
b. Used gaskets should be annealed by heating to a cherry red and immediately quenched
in light motor oil.
c. After quenching oil to be removed with a solvent.
d. Then immerse it in a solution of 50%water and 50% nitric acid to remove oxides.
e. After the acid bath gasket should be rinsed in running water and air dried.
9. PLUG ROTATION
a. Excessive electrode erosion is caused by magneto constant polarity firing and
capacitance after firing.
b. To equalize this wear, keep the plugs in engine sets, placing them in the tray identified
by cylinder locations. After the plugs have been serviced, rotate them as instructed.

10. INSTALLATIONS
a. Before installing, proper type of the plug to be selected.
b. Long and short reach should not be interchanged.
c. Before installing plug and cylinder threads are to be cleaned
d. Anti seize compound to be applied on the threads
e. Install the plug along with gasket and tighten with hand
f. At last tighten them with wrench

Superchargers :-

Superchargers are pressure boosting devices(compressors) which increase the pressure of

the air before letting it get into cylinder of the internal combustion engine. The process of
increasing the pressure OR forcing more air to get into engine is called as supercharging.
The power generated by engine is a function of the mean effective pressure. average
pressure in the cylinder. Power is directly proportional to the average pressure.
Power ∝ Mean effective pressure (MEP). Pressure goes on increasing during
compression stroke & goes on decreasing during exhaust stroke.

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working of a supercharger
Superchargers are powered mechanically by the belt or chain that goes to the crankshaft. They
force more air into the engine so that more fuel can be burned, which in turn creates more
energy. Superchargers increase air intake by compressing the air above atmospheric pressure. A
supercharger draws its power directly from the crankshaft. Most of them use an accessory belt, which
is wrapped around a pulley that is connected to a drive gear. Once the drive gear rotates, it rotates the
compressor gear. The compressors job is to draw in more air and squeeze it into a smaller space. This
is then discharged into the intake manifold.The drive gear has to be bigger than the compressor gear
in a supercharger. This is because the supercharger must spin faster than the engine itself to pressurize
the air. Some superchargers can spin at speeds of up to 65,000 rpm, far above any normal engine.Like
a turbocharger, the compressed air created by the supercharger becomes hot and loses its density. This
means that it can’t expand as much during the explosion period, which reduces power produced. An
intercooler is responsible for cooling the hot air before it enters the intake manifold. Cool air or water
is sent through a series of pipes that cool the compressed air as it is passed over them. This reduces
the density and makes for more power.

Advantages of supercharging :-

 Higher power output.

 Reduced smoke from exhaust gases. The extra air pushed into cylinder, helps the
air to complete combust leading to lesser smoke generation.
 Quicker acceleration of vehicle. Supercharger starts working as soon as the engine
starts running. This way the engine gets a boost even at the beginning leading to
quicker acceleration.
 Cheaper than turbocharger.

Limitations :-

 Draws power from engine. Though the overall mechanical efficiency is increased
but it consumes power from the engine. The same job is done by a turbocharger
without consuming extra power
 Increased heat generation. The engine should have proper heat dissipation systems
as well as it should be able to withstand thermal stresses

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 Induces stress. The engine must hold up against the high pressure & bigger
explosions generated in the cylinder. If the engine is not designed considering
these stresses, it may damage the piston head.

COMPRESSION TESTING OF AIRCRAFT ENGINE CYLINDERS

The purpose of testing the cylinder compression is to determine the internal condition of the
combustion chamber by ascertaining any appreciable leakage is occurring.

TYPES OF COMPRESSION TESTERS

1. Direct compression tester

2. Differential- pressure tester

DIRECT COMPRESSION TESTER

Record all readings and compare to specifications. It indicates the actual pressure in the cylinder.

1. DRY COMPRESSION CHECK

2. WET COMPRESSION CHECK

Procedure:

1. Warm up the engine and shut it down.

2. Remove the spark plug as soon as possible.

3. Rotate the engine with a starter to expel any excess oil or loose carbons.

4. Install tester in one of the cylinder.

5. Using engine starter, rotate the engine three revolutions and note the reading. (External power
source e.g. battery can be used to run engine starter.

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6. Compare the readings with each other. Any cylinder having approximately 15 psi lower than the
other should be suspected defective.

WET COMPRESSION CHECK

1. A wet compression check should be done on defective cylinder to find

out the problematic area.

2. Squeeze oil or throw oil into the cylinder having low pressure reading

3. With the compression tester gauge re check the pressure.

4. If the compression gauge reading goes up while oiling the cylinder

indicating problem in piston rings or wall of the cylinder.

5. If the readings remain same then valve or cylinder head gasket having the problem.

DIFFERENTIAL- PRESSURE TESTER

To check the compression of a/c engine by measuring the leakage through the cylinder that is caused
by worn or damaged components.

PRINCIPLE

The regulator air pressure is applied to one side of the orifice with the air valve closed and no leakage
on the other side of the orifice, and then both the pr. gauge will read the same. When the air valve is
opened the leakage through the cylinder increases. The cylinder pr. gauge will record a proportionally
low reading.

PROCEDURE

1. Warm up the engine and shut it down.

2. Remove the spark plug as soon as possible.

3. With the air valve closed apply an external source of clean air approx. 100-120 psi

4. Install an adapter in the spark plug bushing and connect the compression tester to one of the
cylinder.

5. Adjust the pressure regulator gauge to 80 psi; at this the cylinder pr gauge should also register
80psi.

6. Now turn the crankshaft by hand in the direction of rotation until the piston is coming up on its
compression stroke.

7. Open air valve and pressurize the cylinder to approx. 20 psi

8. Continue rotating the engine against the pressure until the piston reaches the TDC.

9. Open the air valve completely. Check the regulated pr and adjust, if necessary to 80 psi.

10. Observe the pressure indication on cylinder pr gauge

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11. Compare the cylinder pr. Gauge with regulator pr. Gauge

12. The difference between the cylinder pr. and pr. of regulator pressure gauge is the amount of
leakage through the cylinder

13. If the leakage is more than 25% go for the wet test.

PROBLEMATIC AREA (when leakage occurs)

1. Air is leaking through crank case breather (leakage around the piston rings or hole in the piston)

2. Air leaking from the valve because of the carbon piece (can be hear air exiting from the exhaust
stacks)

TROUBLE SHOOTING

Trouble shooting is the step by step procedure used to determine thecause of a given fault and then
select the best and quickest solution.

SIX STEP TROUBLE SHOOTING PROCEDURE

1. SYSTEM RECOGNITION:

The first step in trouble shooting – involves having knowledge of engine condition that is not normal
and knowing to what extent the fault is affecting the engines performance.

2. SYMTEM ELABORATION:

It is the next logical step, once a fault or malfunction has been detected. Test equipment helps the
technician to evaluate the performance of the engine and its components. The technicians should use
these aids to assess the effects of the symptoms and to provide additional information to further define
the symptoms.

3. LIST OF PROBABLE FAULTY FUNCTIONS

When the technician has located all the symptoms of malfunction or fault it is the third step to list the
possible causes. To aid this process, manufacturer manual list the ‘probable cause’ for the symptom
and corrective action.

4. LOCALIZING THE FAULT

Localizing the fault means, to determine which functional system of the engine is creating problem.
This trouble may be traced by trouble shooting charts.

5. ISOLATING THE FAULT TO A COMPONENT

Once the malfunction is isolated to one system, additional testing is done to isolate the fault to a
specific component. The technicians use test equipments to measure the correct output for various
components.

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6. FAILURE ANALYSIS

Once the fault or malfunction traced to a specific component, attempt to be made to determine the
cause of failure. Without analyzing the reason, substituting a new component into the system will
damage the new component. If the component is the probable cause for all the abnormal symptoms
noticed earlier steps, then it can be assumed that the component is at fault.

UNIT 2

PROPELLER

Thrust is the force that move the aircraft through the air.Thrust is generated by the propulsion system
of the aircraft. There are different types of propulsion systems develop thrust in different ways,
although it usually generated through some application of Newton's Third Law. Propeller is one of the
propulsion system. The purpose of the propeller is to move the aircraft through the air. The propeller
consist of two or more blades connected together by a hub. The hub serves to attach the blades to the
engine shaft.

The blades are made in the shape of an airfoil like wing of an aircraft. When the engine
rotates the propeller blades, the blades produce lift. This lift is called thrust and moves
the aircraft forward. most aircraft have propellers that pull the aircraft through the air.
These are called tractor propellers. Some aircraft have propellers that push the aircraft.
These are called pusherpropellers.

Propeller Description

     Leading Edge of the airfoil is the cutting edge that slices into the air. As the
leading edge cuts the air, air flows over the blade face and the camber side.

     Blade Face is the surface of the propeller blade that corresponds to the lower
surface of an airfoil or flat side, we called Blade Face.
 

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     Blade Back / Thrust Face is the curved surface of the airfoil.
 

 
     Blade Shank (Root) is the section of the blade nearest the hub.
     Blade Tip is the outer end of the blade fartest from the hub.
     Plane of Rotation is an imaginary plane perpendicular to the shaft. It is the
plane that contains the circle in which the blades rotate.
 

 
 Blade Angle is formed between the face of an element and the plane of rotation.
The blade angle throughout the length of the blade is not the same. The reason for
placing the blade element sections at different angles is because the various sections of
the blade travel at different speed. Each element must be designed as part of the blade
to operate at its own best angle of attack to create thrust when revolving at its best
design speed
 

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Blade Element are the airfoil sections joined side by side to form the blade airfoil.
These elements are placed at different angles in rotation of the plane of rotation.
      The reason for placing the blade element sections at different angles is because the
various sections of the blade travel at different speeds. The inner part of the blade
section travels slower than the outer part near the tip of the blade. If all the elements
along a blade is at the same blade angle, the relative wind will not strike the elements at
the same angle of attack. This is because of the different in velocity of the blade element
due to distance from the center of rotation.

      The blade has a small twist (due to different angle in each section) in it for a very
important reason. When the propeller is spinning round, each section of the blade travel
at different speed, The twist in the peopeller blade means that each section advance
forward at the same rate so stopping the propeller from bending.
      Thrust is produced by the propeller attached to the engine driveshaft. While the
propeller is rotating in flight, each section of the blade has a motion that combines the
forward motion of the aircraft with circular movement of the propeller. The slower the
speed, the steeper the angle of attack must be to generate lift. Therefore, the shape of
the propeller's airfoil (cross section) must chang from the center to the tips. The
changing shape of the airfoil (cross section) across the blade results in the twisting shape
of the propeller.
 

 
     Relative Wind is the air that strikes and pass over the airfoil as the airfoil is
driven through the air.

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     Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord of the element and the relative
wind. The best efficiency of the propeller is obtained at an angle of attack around 2 to 4
degrees.
     Blade Path is the path of the direction of the blade element moves.
 

 
     Pitch refers to the distance a spiral threaded object moves forward in one
revolution. As a wood screw moves forward when turned in wood, same with the
propeller move forward when turn in the air.
     Geometric Pitch is the theoritical distance a propeller would advance in one
revolution.
 

 
     Effective Pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances in one revolution in
the air. The effective pitch is always shorter than geometric pitch due to the air is a fluid
and always slip.
 
Forces and stresses acting on a propeller in flight
The forces acting on a propeller in flight are :
     1. Thrust is the air force on the propeller which is parallel to the directionof advance
and induce bending stress in the propeller.
     2. Centrifugal force is caused by rotation of the propeller and tends to throw the
blade out from the center.
     3. Torsion or Twisting forces in the blade itself, caused by the resultant of air
forces which tend to twist the blades toward a lower blade angle.

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The stress acting on a propeller in flight are :

     1. Bending stresses are induced by the trust forces. These stresses tend to bend
the blade forward as the airplane is moved through the air by the propeller.
     2. Tensile stresses are caused by centrifugal force.
     3. Torsion stresses are produced in rotating propeller blades by two twisting
moments. one of these stresses is caused by the air reaction on the blades and is called
the aerodynamic twisting moment. The another stress is caused by centrifugal force
and is called the centrifugal twisting moment.

Type of propellers
 
      In designing propellers, the maximum performance of the airplane for all condition of
operation from takeoff, climb, cruising, and high speed. The propellers may be classified
under eight general types as follows:
      1. Fixed pitch: The propeller is made in one piece. Only one pitch setting is
possible and is usually two blades propeller and is often made of wood or metal. 
      Wooden Propellers : Wooden propellers were used almost exclusively on
personal and business aircraft prior to World War II .A wood propeller is not cut from a
solid block but is built up of a number of seperate layers of carefully selected .any types
of wood have been used in making propellers, but the most satisfactory are yellow birch,
sugar mable, black cherry, and black walnut. The use of lamination of wood will reduce
the tendency for propeller to warp. For standard one-piece wood propellers, from five to
nine seperate wood laminations about 3/4 in. thick are used.

      Metal Propellers : During 1940 , solid steel propellers were made for military
use. Modern propellers are fabricated from high-strength , heat-treated,aluminum alloy
by forging a single bar of aluminum alloy to the required shape. Metal propellers is now
extensively used in the construction of propellers for all type of aircraft. The general

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appearance of the metal propeller is similar to the wood propeller, except that the
sections are generally thinner.

      2. Ground adjustable pitch: The pitch setting can be adjusted only with
tools on the ground before the engine is running. This type of propellers usually has a
split hub. The blade angle is specified by the aircraft specifications. The adjustable - pitch
feature permits compensation for the location of the flying field at various altitudes and
also for variations in the characteristics of airplanes using the same engine. Setting the
blade angles by loosened the clamps and the blade is rotated to the desired angle and
then tighten the clamps.
 

 
      3. Two-position : A propeller which can have its pitch changed from one
position to one other angle by the pilot while in flight.
      4. Controllable pitch: The pilot can change the pitch of the propeller in flight
or while operating the engine by mean of a pitch changing mechanism that may be
operated by hydraulically.
      5. Constant speed : The constant speed propeller utilizes a hydraulically or
electrically operated pitch changing mechanism which is controlled by governor. The
setting of the governor is adjusted by the pilot with the rpm lever in the cockpit. During
operation, the constant speed propeller will automatically changs its blade angle to
maintain a constant engine speed. If engine power is increase, the blade angle is
increased to make the propeller absorb the additional power while the rpm remain
constant. At the other position, if the engine power is decreased, the blade angle will
decrease to make the blades take less bite of air to keep engine rpm remain constant.
The pilot select the engine speed required for any particular type of operation.
      6. Full Feathering : A constant speed propeller which has the ability to turn
edge to the wind and thereby eliminate drag and windmilling in the event of engine
failure. The term Feathering refers to the operation of rotating the blades of the propeller
to the wind position for the purpose of stopping the rotation of the propeller to reduce
drag. Therefore , a Feathered blade is in an approximate in-line-of-flight position ,
streamlined with the line of flight (turned the blades to a very high pitch). Feathering is
necessary when the engine fails or when it is desirable to shutoff an engine in flight.
 

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      7. Reversing : A constant speed propeller which has the ability to assume a
negative blade angle and produce a reversing thrust. When propellers are reversed, their
blades are rotated below their positive angle , that is, through flat pitch, until a negative
blade angle is obtained in order to produce a thrust acting in the opposite direction to
the forward thrust . Reverse propeller thrust is used where a large aircraft is landed, in
reducing the length of landing run.
      8. Beta Control : A propeller which allows the manual repositioning of the
propeller blade angle beyond the normal low pitch stop. Used most often in taxiing,
where thrust is manually controlled by adjusting blade angle with the power lever.

Propeller Balancing

Propeller unbalance, which is a source of vibration in an aircraft, may be either static or dynamic.
Propeller static imbalance occurs when the center of gravity (CG) of the propeller does not coincide
with the axis of rotation. Dynamic unbalance results when the CG of similar propeller elements, such
as blades or counterweights, does not follow in the same plane of rotation. Since the length of the
propeller assembly along the engine crankshaft is short in comparison to its diameter, and since the
blades are secured to the hub so they lie in the same plane perpendicular to the running axis, the
dynamic unbalance resulting from improper mass distribution is negligible, provided the track
tolerance requirements are met. Another type of propeller unbalance, aerodynamic unbalance,
results when the thrust (or pull) of the blades is unequal. This type of unbalance can be largely
eliminated by checking blade contour and blade angle setting.

i)Static Balancing

The knife-edge test stand has two hardened steel edges mounted to allow the free rotation of an
assembled propeller between them. [Figure 7-38] The knife-edge test stand must be located in a
room or area that is free from any air motion, and preferably removed from any source of heavy
vibration. The standard method of checking propeller assembly balance involves the following
sequence of operations:

1. Insert a bushing in the engine shaft hole of the propeller.

2. Insert a mandrel or arbor through the bushing.

3. Place the propeller assembly so that the ends of the arbor are supported upon the balance stand
knife edges. The propeller must be free to rotate. If the propeller is properly balanced statically, it
remains at any position in which it is placed.

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Check two-bladed propeller assemblies for balance: first with the blades in a vertical position and
then with the blades in a horizontal position. Repeat the vertical position check with the blade
positions reversed; that is, with the blade that was checked in the downward position placed in the
upward position. Check a three-bladed propeller assembly with each blade placed in a downward
vertical position. [Figure 7-39] During a propeller static balance check, all blades must be at the same
blade angle. Before conducting the balance check, inspect to see that each blade has been set at the
same blade angle.

Unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer, an acceptable balance check requires that the
propeller assembly have no tendency to rotate in any of the positions previously described. If the
propeller balances perfectly in all described positions, it should also balance perfectly in all
intermediate positions. When necessary, check for balance in intermediate positions to verify the
check in the originally described positions. [Figure 7-40]

When a propeller assembly is checked for static balance and there is a definite tendency of the
assembly to rotate, certain corrections to remove the unbalance are allowed.

1. The addition of permanent fixed weights at acceptable locations when the total weight of the
propeller assembly or parts is under the allowable limit.

2. The removal of weight at acceptable locations when the total weight of the propeller assembly or
parts is equal to the allowable limit. The location for removal or addition of weight for propeller
unbalance correction has been determined by the propeller manufacturer. The method and point of
application of unbalance corrections must be checked to see that they are according to applicable
drawings.

ii)Dynamic Balancing

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Propellers can also be dynamically balanced (spin balanced) with an analyzer kit to reduce the
vibration levels of the propeller and spinner assembly. Some aircraft have the system hardwired in
the aircraft and on other aircraft the sensors and cables need to be installed before the balancing
run. Balancing the propulsion assembly can provide substantial reductions in transmitted vibration
and noise to the cabin and also reduces excessive damage to other aircraft and engine components.
The dynamic imbalance could be caused by mass imbalance or any aerodynamic imbalance. Dynamic
balancing only improves the vibration caused by mass unbalance of the externally rotating
components of the propulsion system. Balancing does not reduce the vibration level if the engine or
aircraft is in poor mechanical condition. Defective, worn, or loose parts will make balancing
impossible. Several manufacturers make dynamic propeller balancing equipment, and their
equipment operation could differ. The typical dynamic balancing system consists of a vibration
sensor that is attached to the engine close to the propeller, and an analyzer unit that calculates the
weight and location of balancing weights.

Balancing Procedure Face the aircraft directly into the wind (maximum 20 knots) and place chocks at
the wheels. When you have installed the analyzing equipment, run the engine up at low cruise rpm;
the dynamic analyzer calculates the balancing weight required at each blade position. After installing
the balancing weights, run the engine up again to check if the vibration levels have diminished. This
process may have to be repeated several times before satisfactory results are achieved. A dynamic
balancing example procedure is listed here, but always refer to the aircraft and propeller manuals
when performing any balancing procedure. Dynamic balance is accomplished by using an accurate
means of measuring the amount and location of the dynamic imbalance. The number of balance
weights installed must not exceed the limits specified by the propeller manufacturer. Follow the
dynamic balance equipment manufacturer’s instructions for dynamic balance in addition to the
specifications of the propeller. Most equipment use an optical pickup that senses reflective tape for
rpm reading. Also, there is an accelerometer mounted to the engine that senses vibration in inches
per second (ips). Visually inspect the propeller assembly before dynamic balancing. The first runup of
a new or overhauled propeller assembly may leave a small amount of grease on the blades and inner
surface of the spinner dome. Use Stoddard solvent (or equivalent) to completely remove any grease
on the blades or inner surface of the spinner dome. Visually examine each propeller blade assembly
for evidence of grease leakage. Visually examine the inner surface of the spinner dome for evidence
of grease leakage. If there is no evidence of grease leakage, lubricate the propeller in accordance
with the maintenance manual. If grease leakage is evident, determine the location of the leak and
correct before relubricating the propeller and dynamic balancing. Before dynamic balance, record
the number and location of all balance weights. Static balance is accomplished at a propeller
overhaul facility when an overhaul or major repair is performed. Twelve equally spaced locations are
recommended for weight attachment. Install the balancing weights using aircraft quality 10-32 or
AN-3 type screws or bolts. Balance weight screws attached to the spinner bulkhead must protrude
through the self-locking nuts or nut plates a minimum of one thread and a maximum of four threads.
Unless otherwise specified by the engine or airframe manufacturer, Hartzell recommends that the
propeller be dynamically balanced to a reading of 0.2 ips, or less. If reflective tape is used for
dynamic balancing, remove the tape immediately after balancing is completed. Make a record in the
propeller logbook of the number and location of dynamic balance weights, and static balance
weights if they have been reconfigured

Blade cuffs

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A metallic, wooden or plastic structure designed for attachment to the shank end of the blade, with
an outer surface that will transform the round shank into an airfoil section. The cuff is designed
primarily to increase the flow of cooling air to engine nacelle

The cuff is used to change the pitch of the blades (or to create an airfoil when there is none) near the spinner.
The cuff increases the airflow near the engine cooling intakes. The cuff is large, and larger at the blade root
because the linear speed in this area is very small compared to the tip.

Propeller governor

BASIC PROPELLER FUNCTIONS

The controllable pitch propeller is designed to maintain constant engine speed by adjusting propeller
blade angle to vary the load on the engine in response to the changing conditions of flight.

In the most common type of hydraulic propeller, a piston and cylinder are linked to the propeller
blades so that when oil under pressure is pumped to this cylinder, the piston and the blades are forced
to move. Movement of the propeller piston rotates the propeller blades of an uncounterweighted
propeller in the increase pitch direction and the blades of a counterweighted propeller in the decrease
pitch direction. The single acting propeller thus uses oil pressure to change pitch in one direction and
the centrifugal force of propeller counterweights, air charge or the natural twisting movement of the
blades to change the pitch in the other direction.
At the feathering type propellers, a spring load is composed to complete the feathering cycle as
rotation speed and counterweight force diminishes.

METHODS OF SPEED CONTROL

On most governed engines, the governor maintains constant engine rpm by moving the throttle to
control fuel supply to the engine and match power output to the load. In the case of the aircraft engine,
the propeller is the load and power developed is determined by the pilot. The function of the propeller
governor is to adjust the propeller blade angle so the load on the engine will maintain the desired
engine rpm at the horsepower setting selected.
For example, the propeller will absorb full take-off power and give maximum thrust during the take-
off run and will not Overspeed as the airspeed increases because of increased blade angle. The

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advantages in performance, safety and convenience are obvious. The increase in aircraft horsepower
and speed has made a constant speed control necessary in order to derive full advantage from
improved engine and aircraft performance over a wide range of operating conditions. The propeller
control lever determines the governor speed setting. The propeller pitch is controlled by the governor.
Thus if the governor speed setting is increased, the governor decreases the propeller pitch until the
engine speed increases to the new rpm setting. The actual blade angle required for given rpm depends
on the horsepower being developed and the airspeed of the aircraft. However, the governor senses
only RPM.

LIMITS OF GOVERNOR CONTROL

Given rpm can be maintained by the governor providing there is power enough to turn the engine at
the governor speed setting. Whether this engine power or propeller power matters not to the governor,
whether the engine drives the propeller or the propeller drives the engine – the governor operation is
the same.
With the governor set for 2300rpm, propeller pitch is adjusted by the governor to maintain this speed,
regardless of throttle position or airspeed, within the pitch range of the propeller.
Near cruising airspeed, the propeller on most constant speed installations can develop sufficient
torque to drive the engine at cruise rpm even if the engine is completely inoperative. This of course is
the reason it is necessary to feather the propeller of inoperative engine on multi-engine aircraft
because of the high drag of a windmilling propeller turning an inoperative engine.
As the throttle is slowly closed in flight, the propeller pitch will decrease and 2300 rpm will be
maintained until the propeller blades reach their low pitch position. Any further reduction in power or
airspeed will cause a decrease in engine rpm.
Whenever the actual engine rpm drops below the governor speed setting, the propeller is in the low
pitch position and the rpm can be controlled with the throttle.
During an approach, as the airspeed is decreased at low power setting, the propeller will be in it´s
extreme low pitch position and rpm can be controlled with the throttle. Under this condition, rapid
throttle burst will cause a momentary Overspeed above the governor speed setting. The amount of
Overspeed in any installation depends upon the rate of throttle movement, and the increase in
propeller pitch necessary must be increased to maintain the desired rpm. The more rapid the throttle
movement, the higher the speed and the lower the governor setting, the larger the overspeed will be.
The amount of Overspeed is determined by the governor flow rate, i.e., the volume of oil the governor
with port for a given Overspeed, and the force available from the propeller counterweights, to increase
the propeller pitch.
Rapid rate of pitch change is especially noticeable if the throttle is closed at high airspeed as there will
be very little engine speed change.

GOVERNOR operation

The sensing element of the governor is a set of pivoted flyweights mounted on a rotating flyweight
head and linked mechanically to the engine gears, through a hollow drive gear shaft.
The flyweights, actuated by the centrifugal force developed by the speed of the rotation, position a
pilot valve so as to cover or uncover ports in the drive gear shaft and regulate the flow of oil to and

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from the pitch changing mechanism of the propeller. The centrifugal force exerted by the flyweights
is opposed by the force of an adjustable speeder spring. The load exerted by the speeder spring
determines the engine RPM required to develop sufficient centrifugal force in the flyweights to center
the pilot valve. Oil to operate the propeller’s pitch changing mechanism is supplied by a gear-type oil
pump at a pressure value limited by a relief valve.

The schematic governor arrangement is at Fig. 1

Governor operation represents basically three conditions – on speed, overspeed and underspeed.

ON SPEED

In this condition the forces action on the engine-governor-propeller combination are in a state of
balance. The speed adjusting control lever has been set by the pilot to obtain the desired engine RPM.
The propeller blades are at the correct pitch to absorb the power developed by the engine. The
centrifugal force of the rotating flyweights exactly balances the force of the speeder spring with the
flyweights in the vertical position. The pilot valve is positioned in the drive gear shaft, so that the
control ports between the oil pump and the propeller pitch changing servo are covered. Pressure oil
from the gear pump is circulated through open governor relief valve back to the inlet channel of the
pump.

OVERSPEED
This condition occurs when airspeed or horsepower is increased and engine RPM increases above the
rate called for by the setting of the speed adjusting control lever. The rotating flyweights pivot
outward as their increased centrifugal force overcomes force exerted by the speeder spring.

Counterweighted Propeller using Pressure to Decrease Pitch (see Fig. 2)

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The flyweight toes raise the pilot valve plunger, uncovering ports in the driver gear shaft that permit
pressure oil to flow from the propeller pitch changing mechanism. This allows propeller
counterweights to take the propeller blades towards a higher pitch. The load on the engine is increased
and engine speed is reduced.

Uncounterweighted Propeller using Pressure to Increase Pitch (see Fig. 3)

The flyweight toes raise the pilot valve plunger, uncovering ports in the driver gear shaft that permit
pressure oil to flow to the propeller pitch changing mechanism. This moves the propeller blades to a
higher pitch and load on the engine is increase and engine speed is reduced.

This, in turn, lessens centrifugal force exerted by the flyweights in opposition to the force of the
speeder spring. The flyweights return to a vertical position and the pilot valve plunger once more
covers ports in the drive gear shaft, blocking flow of pressure oil to or from the pitch changing
mechanism of the propeller.

UNDERSPEED

An underspeed condition occur when the airspeed or horsepower is decreased and engine RPM falls
below the rate established by the setting of the speed adjusting control lever. The decrease in the
centrifugal force of the rotating flyweights causes them to pivot inward under the force exerted by the
speeder spring.

Counterweighted Propeller using Pressure to Decrease Pitch (see Fig. 2)

The pilot valve plunger is forced down uncovering the ports in the drive gear shaft that allow pressure
oil to flow to the pitch changing mechanism of the propeller. This overcomes the force of the
propeller counterweights and decreases the pitch of the propeller blade.

Uncounterweighted Propeller using Pressure to Increase Pitch (see Fig. 3)

The pilot valve plunger is forced downward, uncovering the ports in the driver gear shaft, thus
allowing oil to flow from the pitch changing mechanism of the propeller to sump. This permits the
centrifugal twisting moment of the blades to decrease propeller pitch.
This reduce the load on the engine, thereby increasing engine speed and the centrifugal force
developed by the rotating flyweights. The flyweight toes lift the pilot valve plunger to cover the
control ports. At this point the forces acting on the engine-governor-propeller combination are again
balanced an the engine is back to the speed called for by the governor setting.

Pressure to decrease pitch Type Pilot Valve

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Fig. 2

Pressure to increase pitch Type Pilot Valve

Fig.3

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