Aircraft Design Project 2 Heavyweight Cargo

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Aircraft Design project-2( Heavyweight Cargo)
Aircraft Systems and Instruments (Anna University)
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AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – II

(AE8713)
(HEAVY WEIGHT CARGO AIRCRAFT)
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
RAJ KUMAR.G REG NO: 110518101021
MADHU SOODAN.V REG NO: 110518101015
RAVI CHANDRAN.S REG NO: 110518101022
SASDAPATHI.M REG NO: 110518101025
In partial fulfillment for the requirement of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
GOJAN SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
DECEMBER 2021

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BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that the AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - II report titled “DESIGN
OF HEAVY WEIGHT CARGO AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work
of RAJKUMAR G (110518101021), MADHUSOODAN V
(110518101015), RAVICHANDRAN S (110518101022), SASDAPATHI
M (110518101025), who carried out the work under my supervision. Certified
further that to the best of my knowledge the work reported here is not a part
of any other project work.
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr. L Suresh Raj, M.E., Mr. Y Nokesh Babu, M.E.,
(Head of Department) (Internal Guide)
Department of Department of
Aeronautical engineering, Aeronautical engineering,
Gojan school of Business Gojan School of Business
And Technology, And Technology,
Chennai- 600 052. Chennai- 600 052.
The Aircraft Design Project-2 Viva Voice Examination held

on________________.
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our deepest gratitude to our Chairman Dr. G. Natarajan,

Ph.D., and Chairperson Mrs. Brindha Natarajan, B.Com, for their
valuable guidance and blessings.
We are deeply indebted to our beloved Principal Dr. C. Selvakumar,

Ph.D., Gojan School of Business and Technology, for providing us an
excellent environment to carry out our course successfully.
We also express our thanks to our Head of the Department Ms. L. Suresh
Raj, M.E., Assistant Professor, who has been a constant source of
inspiration and guidance in the course of the project.
We record our sincere thanks to our Supervisor Mr. Y. Nokesh Babu,

M.E., Assistant Professor, for being instrumental in the completion of our
project with his exemplary guidance.
We thank all the Staff Members of our department for their valuable support
and assistance at various stages of our project development.
Finally, we take this opportunity to extend our deep sense of gratitude and
appreciation to our family and friends for all that they meant to us during
the crucial times of the completion of our project.

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G. RAJ KUMAR
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Gojan School of Business and Technology
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project II entitled “HEAVY

WEIGHT CARGO AIRCRAFT” submitted by us to Anna University in
DECEMBER 2021 for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Aeronautical Engineering is the original and independent team work carried
out by me under the guidance of Mr. NOKESH BABU.Y, M.E., Assistant
professor, and that it has not been formed basis fully or partially for the award
of any degree, diploma or other similar titles earlier and no part of above
project work has been published or sent for the publication at the time of
submission.
Date:
Place: Signature

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V. MADHU SOODAN
Department of Aeronautical
DECLARATION

submission.
Date :
Place: Signature

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S. RAVI CHANDRAN
DECLARATION

submission.
Date :
Place: Signature

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M. SASDAPATHI
DECLARATION

submission.
Date:
Place: Signature

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ABSTRACT
The aim of this Aircraft Design project II is to design a heavy weight cargo aircraft
by comparing the data and specifications of present cargo aircrafts and to calculate
performance characteristics. We have used all the parameters of our aircraft which
was found out in ADP-I. Minimum drag and maximum thrust is also taken into
consideration. Then the necessary graphs have to be plotted for further performance
calculation. Required diagrams are also drawn.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO
LIST OF TABLES 12
LIST OF FIGURES 13
LIST OF SYMBOLS 14
1 INTRODUCTION 16
1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN 16
1.2 RESULTS FROM ADP-I 17
1.3 OUTLINE OF ADP-I 18
2 V-N DIAGRAM 19
2.1 v-n diagram 19
2.2 GUSTS envelops 22
2.3 final v-n diagram 23
3 LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS 25
3.1 wing design
3.2 schrenk’s curve
3.3 lift load intensity
3.4 structural load
3.5 B.M and SF diagram
3.6 wing spar and stringer
3.7 moments of inertia
4 WING SHEAR FLOW CALCULATION 32
4.1 shear flow
4.2 wing stringer diagram
4.3 shear flow calculation
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5 LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE 35

5.1 shear force diagram
5.2 bending moment diagram
5.3 bending stress calculation
5.4 shear flow calculation
5.5 shear flow diagram
6 LANDING GEAR DESIGN 40
6.1 requirements
6.2 shock absorber design
6.3 pneumatic tyre characteristics
6.4 calculation of stroke length
7 MISCELLANEOUS MEMBERS 43
7.1 wing fuel tanks
7.2 rib location
7.3 fixed secondary services
7.4 horizontal stabilizer
7.5 vertical stabilizer
7.6 auxiliary surfaces
8 HINGED CONTROL SURFACES 45
8.1 pivoted control surface
8.2 high lift systems
8.3 attachment of lifting surfaces
9 CONCLUSION 49
REFERENCES 50
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LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Load factors for different aircrafts
2.2 Calculation of nmax
2.3 Gust velocity at different speeds
2.4 Load factor with gust loads
3.1 Schrencks curve table
3.2 Calculation of load intensity
3.3 Calculation of shear force and bending moment
3.4 Properties of angled section
3.5 Calculation of moment of inertia
4.1 Shear flow calculations for the wing section
5.1 Shear force and benging moment for fuselage
5.2 Shear flow for fuselage
6.1 Stroke calculation
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 V-n diagram
3.1 Wing cross section
3.2 Bending moment and Shear Force graph
4.1 Wing stringer diagram
4.2 Shear flow around the airfoil
5.1 Shear force diagram for fuselage
5.2 Bending moment diagram for fuselage
5.3 Shear flow around the fuselage
6.1 C.G location of the aircraft
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LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN DESIGN PROCEDURE:

a Velocity of Sound, m/s
at Slope of tail curve
aw Slope of wing curve
Aileron Area of aileron, m2
Aflap Area of flap, m2
A.R Aspect Ratio
b Wing span, m
Cmean Mean chord, m
CL Lift Coefficient
CL req Required Lift Coefficient
CL av Available Lift Coefficient
CL max Maximum Lift Coefficient
CL cruise Cruise Lift Coefficient
CD Drag Coefficient
CDp Drag Coefficient of individual components
CDo wing Drag Coefficient of the Wing
CDo others Drag Coefficient of all other components except wing
CDt Total Drag Coefficient
Cm c.g. Pitching Moment Coefficient
Cm a.c. Pitching Moment Coefficient about the Aero Dynamic Centre
Cm fus,nac Pitching Moment Coefficient about fuselage, nacelle

Cn full rudder Yawing Moment Coefficient
Cr Root Chord m
Ct Tip Chord m
D Drag N
dfus Fuselage Diameter, m
dCm /dCL Slope of the curve
F Thrust Produced, N
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FS/L Thrust Produced at Sea Level,N

Fav Thrust Available, N
H Altitude, Km
it Orientation of the tail plane on the fuselage, deg
iw Orientation of wing on the fuselage deg
k (1 / p × e × A.R)
Lail Aileron Length, m
Lflap Flap Length, m
L Overall Length of the Fuselage, m
Le Distance between Centerline of Fuselage and Centerline of the
Engine, m
lt Distance between the Fuselage c.g and the tail c.g, m
M Mach Number
MCR Critical Mach Number
MCRD Drag Divergence Mach Number
Mcruise Cruise Mach Number
No Neutral Point
R Range of the aircraft, km
R/C Rate of Climb, m/min
Re Reynolds Number
S Wing Area, m2
St Horizontal Tail Area, m2
Sv Vertical tail area, m2
Sp Area of individual components contributing to Drag, m2
SFChr Specific Fuel Consumption N/N
T Temperature, K
To Sea Level Temperature, K
t/c Thickness to Chord Ratio
V Velocity of the aircraft, m/s
Vt Tail Volume Ratio
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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope or the V-n
diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane can withstand at any
particular flight velocity. But, in normal practice the airplane might experience loads that are
much higher than the design loads. Some of the factors that lead to structural overload of an
airplane are high gust velocities, sudden movement of the controls, fatigue loads and in some
cases, bird strikes or lightning strikes. So, to add some inherent ability to withstand these rare
but large loads, a safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural design. The two major
members that need to be considered for the structural design of an airplane are the wings and
the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concerned, the most significant load is the bending
load. So, the primary load bearing component in the wing structure is the spar (the front and
the rear spars) whose cross section is an I- section. Apart from the spar to take the bending
loads, suitable stringers need to be provided to take the shear loads acting on the wing. Unlike
the wing , which is subjected mainly to unsymmetrical bending load, the fuselage is much
simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical cross section as well as symmetrical
loading .The main load in the case of fuselage is only shear because the load acting on the
wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both
the wing and the fuselage begin with shear force and the bending moment diagrams for the
respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each in each of them is
checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective member
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1.2 RESULTS FROM ADP-1
General Characteristics: -
Dimensions: -
Aspect Ratio: 8.5
Wing Span: 94.84 m
Wing Area: 1058.355 m2
Length: 84 m
Airfoil: NACA 0006
Weight: -
Total Weight: = 1248780.1 N
Fuel Weight: 374.634 KN
Performance: -
Velocity: 800 km/hr
Range: 4000 Km
Wing Loading: 125 Kg/m2
Power plant: -
Engine: GECF6-80E1
Weight: 49.95KN
SFC: 9.8 mg/N-s
Thrust: 293KN (1 engines used)
1.3 PHASES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
The complete design process goes through three distinct phases that are carried out in a
sequence. They are
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Conceptual Design
Preliminary Design
Detailed Design
1.4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The design process starts with a set of specification for a new aircraft or much less
frequently as the response to the desire to implement some pioneering, innovative ideas and
technology. The first step towards achieving that goal constitute the conceptual design
phase. Here latitude, overall shape, size, weight and performance of the new design are
determined.
The product of the conceptual design phase is a layout on the paper or on a computer screen
of aircraft configuration. The conceptual design phase determines fundamental aspects like
shape of the wing, location of the wings, shape and location of the horizontal and vertical
tail, engine size and placement etc., the major drives during the conceptual design process
are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight performance.
1.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the configuration layout. If
major changes were demanded during this phase, the conceptual design process has been
actually flawed. During this phase substantial wind tunnel testing are carried out and major
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations of the fluid flow over the new aircraft
configuration are done.
The end of the preliminary design phase brings a major concept to commit the manufacture
of airplane or not. The important of this decision points for the modern aircraft manufacture
cannot be understood, considering the tremendous cost involved in design and manufacture
of new airplane
1.6 DETAILED DESIGN
The detailed design phase is literally the nut and bolt phase of an aircraft design. The
aerodynamics, propulsion, structural performance and flight control have all been finished in
preliminary design phase. At this stage, flight simulation for the aircraft are developed.
1.7 OUTLINE OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN PEOJECT–II
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The structural design of the aircraft is done in Aircraft Design Project–II

involves:
1. V-n Diagram for design study

2. Gust and Maneuvurability loads
3. Critical loading performance
4. Schrenk‟s curve
5. Centre of gravity
6. Structural layouts
7. Three view diagrams
8. Conclusion
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CHAPTER–2
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT WING
2.1 V-N DIAGRAM:
The v-n Diagram limits the various external loads that any airplane can
withstand at any particular velocity. i.e the graph plotted between the load factor versus velocity
is known as v-n diagram. Generally the airplane experiences much higher loads than the design
values. Hence a safety factor is used in the structural design.
Cruising Velocity, Vcr = 222.22 m/s
Stalling Velocity, VS = 68.35 m/s
Dive Velocity, VD = 322.22 m/s
Vs+ = (2*125*9.81/0.4135*0.4972)^1/2
Vs+ = 109.21 m/s
Vs- = (2*125*9.81/0.4135*0.75*0.4972)^1/2
Vs- = 126.11 m/s
2.2 CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE AND FINAL V-N GRAPH

CALCULATION:
Load factor is the ratio of the lift on an aircraft to the weight of the aircraft. The load factor is
expressed in multiples of g where one g represents conditions in straight and level flight. In
straight and level flight the lift is equal to the weight so the ratio of lift to weight is one, and the
load factor is one g. Load factors greater than one, and less than one, are achieved by
maneuvering of the aircraft by the pilot, and by atmospheric gusts.
Excessive load factor must be avoided because of the possibility of exceeding the structural
strength of the aircraft. The maximum load factors for different classes of airplane are typically:
In airline airplanes, from -1g to +2.5g
In light airplanes, from -1.5g to +3.8g

In aerobatic airplanes, from -3g to +6g
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When the load factor is +1g, all occupants of the aircraft feel that their weight is normal. When
the load factor is greater than +1g all occupants feel heavier than usual. For example, in a +2g
maneuver all occupants feel that their weight is twice normal. When the load factor is zero, or
very small, all occupants feel weightless. When the load factor is negative, all occupants feel
they are upside down.
TYPE LOAD FACTOR N MAX MIN

Semi- aerobatic n +4 -2
normal n +2.5 -1
acrobatic n +6 -3
Human beings have limited ability to withstand a load factor significantly greater than 1g, both
positive and negative. For our aircraft we take normal load factor ranging from +2.5 to -1.
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2.3 GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES:
For level flight at unit load factor the value of V corresponding to CLmax would be stalling
speed of airplane.
When the airplane is in level flight the load factor is unity before striking the gust. The change in
load factor delta n must be considered with the unit load factor to obtain the total gust load
factor. Aviation specification recommend gust effectiveness K between 0.6 -1.2
Δn = K*(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3* 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)
Where,
K = Gust effectiveness = 1.0
aw = Slope of the wing curve = 56.62
W = 132294.4818 Kg
S = 1058.355 m2
ρcr = 0.4135 Kg/m3
2.4 CALCULATION:
The gust V-n diagram is given by the following formula,
nlim = 1 ± K*(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3* 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)
where, Ue = equivalent gust velocity (m/s)
Ve = equivalent air speed (m/s)
Gust alleviation factor, KG = 0.88ʯg / (5.3 + ʯg) for cargo aircrafts
Mass ratio, ʯg = 2*(w/s) / density*g*Cl*c
µg = 7.57
Lift curve slope, = 3.96
Mean Chord, C = 11.39 m
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Thus, Kg= 0.518
At high angle of attack, point B, ub = 10.39 ms -1
At level flight, point C, uc = 7.89ms -1
At dive condition, point D, ud = 3.94 ms -1 And,
VB = VS√nc
VB = 227.34 ms-1
The incremental Gust Load Factor is given as,
Δn = K*(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3* 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)
Ude for VB gust lines = 75.34

Ude for VC gust lines = 58.34
Ude for VD gust lines = 29.17
Point B = 2.7+2.7
B= 5.4
Point C = 2.5+8.01
C= 10.51
Point D΄ = 2.6+6.02
D= 8.62
Point E = -1.52-6.02
E= -7.54
Point F = -1.52-8.01
F= -9.53
Point G = -1.52-2.7
G= --4.22
Wing loading also affects gust response, the degree to which the aircraft is affected by turbulence
and variations in air density. A small wing has less area on which a gust can act, both of which
serve to smooth the ride.
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2.4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN: THEORY APPROACH
The structural design of any aircraft includes the following calculation
1. The V-n diagram and Gust maneuver calculation.
2. Wing design:
The wing design and calculation of the lift distribution.
Calculating the load intensity of the wing along the span.
Design of spars and stringers.
Drawing the bending moment and shear flow diagram.
Calculating the shear flow for the wing.
3. Fuselage design:
Fuselage bending moment calculations.
Stringers calculation.
Calculating the shear flow of the wing.
Drawing the bending moment and shear flow diagram.
4. Landing gear design.
`5. Design of miscellaneous member.
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CHAPTER – 3
DETAILED DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT WING
3.1 SCHRENK’S CURVE
According to classical wing theory, the span wise lift or load distribution is proportional to the
circulation at each span station. A vortex lifting-line calculation will yield the span wise lift
distribution for an elliptical plan form wing, the lift and load distribution are of elliptical shape as
shown in Fig-1.
For a non-elliptical wing, a good semi empirical method for span wise load estimate is known as
Schrenk‟s approximation method. This method assumes that the load distribution on an
untwisted wing or tail has a shape that is the average of the actual plan from shape and an elliptic
shape of the same span and area. The total area under the lift load curve must sum to the required
total lift.
Fig 1: Wing load distribution
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FROM ADP-1
Tip chord (Ct) =7m

Root chord (Cr) = 14 m
Span (b) = 94.84 m
Plan from area = pi*a*b/4
Where,
a= b/2= 47.42 m
b= root of(Ct2 + Cr2) = 15.652m
Table 5-Schrenk’s Curve Data
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SCHRENK’S CURVE
Historical data:
Wing area = 1058.355 m2
Max. Weight = 1248780.1 N
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Aspect ratio = 8.5

Cwing, Wing mean chord
Schrenk‟s curve calculation is given by Y=(y1+y2)/2
Where,
Y1 is linear variation of lift along semi span also named as L1
Y2 is elliptic lift distribution along wing span also named as L2
Wing tip = 0.5 ρclmaxv2cr
Wing root = 0.5 ρclmaxv2ct
3.2 LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION CURVE
The known values of the Aircraft,

Tip chord (Ct) =7m
Root chord (Cr) = 14 m
Span (b) = 94.84 m
Wing area(s) = 1058.355 m2
Coefficient of lift(CL) = 0.4972
Density = 0.4135 kg/m3
Velocity = 800 km/hr
Max velocity = 850 km/hr
Substituting the known values in equations,
Lift at wing root, Lroot = 0.5 ρCLmaxv2Croot
Lroot = 71067.48N
Lift at wing tip, Ltip = 0.5 ρCLmaxv2Ctip
Ltip = 35533.74N
Y1 = Lroot – (Lroot- Ltip)/(b/2)*x
Y1 = 71067.48-749.34x
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Table-6: Linear Lift Distribution
S.NO WING SEMI SPAN Y1

1 0 71067.48
2 8 65072.76
3 12 62075.42
4 24 53083.32
5 36 44091.25
6 88 5125.56
7 94 629.52
LIFT DISTRIBUTION VS WING SEMI SPAN
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3.3 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM
The shear force at the section of the beam is the forced that along sum of all force including
the reaction acting normal to the axis of the beam either to left or right of the beam. The
loads acting in the aircraft are converted into point load
NET LOAD DISTRIBUTION
S.NO COMPONENT NET LOAD(N)
1 LINEAR LIFT 53300.48
2 SELF WEIGHT 1248780.1
3 POWER PLANT 49950
4 FUEL WEIGHT 417170.25
Shear Force Calculation:

Σv = 0
VA = 53300.48+1248780.1+49950+417170.25
VA = 1769200.83
MA = 2527508.76Nm
Y = (71067.48x-749.34x2)+(2527508.76x-749.34x2)/2
Y = 2598578.24x-1124.01x2
Wing semi span and Shear Force Values

S.NO WING SEMI SPAN SHEAR FORCE(N)
1 7.5 19426111.24
2 12.5 32306601.44
3 36.5 93350643.44
4 44 112161359.2
5 56 141995486.1
6 74.5 18735554.4
7 94.5 235527953.4
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SHEAR FORCE VS WING SEMI SPAN
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CHAPTER – 4
DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE
4 .1 FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide Envelope to support the payload,
crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the power plant. Furthermore, it must react against the
in-flight manoeuvre, pressurization and gust loads; also the landing gear and possibly any power
plant loads. Finally, it must be able to transmit control and trimming loads from the stability and
control surfaces throughout the rest of the structure.
4.1.1 Fuselage layout concepts

There are two main categories of layout concept in common use:
Mass boom and longeron layout
Semi-monocoque layout
4.1.2 Mass Boom & Longeron Layout

This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept. It is used when the
overall structural loading is relatively low or when there are extensive cut-outs in the shell. The
concept comprises four or more continuous heavy booms (longerons) reacting against any direct
stresses caused by applied vertical and lateral bending loads. Frames or solid section bulkheads
are used at positions where there are distinct direction changes and possibly elsewhere along the
lengths of the longeron members. The outer shell helps to support the longerons against the
applied compression loads and also helps in the shear carrying. Floors are needed. Where there
are substantial cut-outs and the skin is stabilized against buckling by the use of frames and
bulkheads
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4.1.3 Semi Monocoque Layout

This is the most common layout, especially for transport types of aircraft, with a relatively small
number and size of cut-outs in use. The skin carries most of the loading with the skin thickness
determined by pressurization, shear loading &fatigue considerations. Longitudinal stringers
provide skin stabilization and also contribute to the overall load carrying capacity. Increased
stringer cross-section sizes and skin thick necessary often used around edges of cut-outs. Less
integral machining is possible than on an equivalent wing structure, Frames are used to stabilize
the resultant skin-stringer elements and also to transmit shear lo ads into the structure. They may
also help to react against any pressurization loads present. They are usually manufactured as
pressings with reinforced edges their spacing (pitch) is usually determined by damage tolerance
considerations, i.e. crack-stopping requirements. The frames are usually in direct contact with the
skin; stringers pass through them and are seated into place as shown in Fig-2
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4.2 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS

The cross-sectional area of each stringer and the vertical distances given in the Fig-3 are
measured from the mid-line of the section wall at the corresponding stringer position. The
fuselage is subjected to a bending moment applied in the vertical plane of symmetry. We will
now be determining the direct stress distribution at each stringer. The section is first idealized.
As an approximation we shall assume that the skin between adjacent stringers is flat so that we
may use the following equations to determine the boom areas.
FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS
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CHAPTER – 5
DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES
5.1 AILERON
The primary function of the aileron is the lateral (roll) control of an aircraft which is shown in
Fig-4 ; However, it also affects the directional control. Due to this aileron and rudder are usually
designed concurrently. Aileron is structurally a part of wing located on the trailing edge of the
wing. Both ailerons are identical and have same geometry. The generated rolling moment is the
function of aileron size, aileron deflection, and its distance from the aircraft fuselage centre. Any
change in aileron geometry will change the roll rate.
5.1.1 Factors affecting aileron design:

1. The required hinge moment
2. Aileron effectiveness
3. Aerodynamics and mass balancing
4. Flap geometry
5. Aircraft structure
6. Cost
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5.2 AILERON DESIGN CONSTRAINS

a) Aileron Reversal
A number of aircraft when flying near their maximum speed are subjected to an important aero-
elasticity phenomenon as shown in Fig-5. No real structure is ideally rigid, it has both static and
dynamic stability. Aileron reversal is not acceptable within flight envelop; hence they must be
considered during design process. Number of solutions are there for such problems they are,
1. Making the wing stiffer
2. Limit the range of aileron deflections at high speed
3. Reduce aileron chord
4. Using spoiler for roll control
b) Adverse Yaw
When an aircraft is banked to execute a turn, it is desired that aircraft yaws and roll
simultaneously. However, the aileron deflection simultaneously alters the induced drag of right
and left wing differently. The phenomena of adverse yaw impose constraint on the aileron
design. To avoid such undesirable yawing motion (adverse yaw), there are three solutions they
are,
1. Differential ailerons
2. Employ fries aileron
3. Employ spoilers
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c) Flaps
the wing trailing edge in aircraft is a home for two control surfaces, 1. Aileron and 2. Flaps. As
aileron and flaps are next to each other along wing trailing edge, they impose a span limit on one
another. The balance between aileron span and flap span is a function of the priority of roll
control over the take-off / landing performance. To improve the roll control power, the ailerons
are to be placed on the outboard and the flaps on the inboard part of the wing sections. The
application of high list applies another constraint on the aileron design which must be dealt
within the aircraft design process. If small inboard aileron is provided for gentle maneuvers, the
effective span of flaps is reduced.
5.2 ELEVATOR
The primary function of the elevator is the pitch control of an aircraft; However, it also affects
the longitudinal control. Elevator is structurally a part of wing located on the trailing edge of the
wing. Both ailerons are identical and have same geometry.
5.3 MANEUVERING LOADS

Aircraft load estimation combines aerodynamics, structurers and weight. Load estimation
remains a critical area because an error will result in structural failure when real loads are
encountered during flight. Loads acting on the aircraft can be classified according,
1. Air Loads
Gust
Control deflection
Buffet
2. Landing Loads
Vertical load factor
Spin up
Barking
3. Inertial Loads
Acceleration
Rotation
Vibration Flutter
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4. Powerplant Loads
Thrust
Torque
Vibration
Duct pressure
5. Other Loads
Crash
Pressurization
5.3.1 Load source:

There are generally two cases of load source they are,
1. Maneuverability cases
2. Environmental cases
a. Maneuverability Cases
The load which act on aircraft due to pilot’s actions like pull up, pull down etc
b. Environmental Cases
The loads imposed by the environment on the aircraft where it operates like turbulence, kinetic
heating etc
5.3.2 Load Factor:

Any force applied to the aircraft to deflect its flight from straight line produce a stress on the
structure, this force is termed as load factor. It is the ratio of total air loading on the aircraft to the
gross weight of the aircraft.
n = L/W
CALCULATION OF LIMITED LOAD
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5.3.3 Maneuvering Loads:

The greatest air loads on aircraft usually come from the generation of lift during highg
maneuver. Aircraft load factor (n) express the maneuvering of an aircraft as a multiple of the
standard acceleration due to gravity.
a. Maneuvering Load on Aileron
In level flight, the centripetal force required to turn the total lift of the wing is „n‟ times the
weight of the aircraft
Turn Rate (psi ) = g x (n2)0.5/V
(psi) = 9.84 •/ s
b. Maneuvering Load on Elevator
Operation of the control surface produce air load, the greatest impact is in the elevator hence the
limit load factor should not exceed 2 to 2.5 in the elevator.
c. Maneuvering Load on Rudder
In flight yaw control is provided by the rudder and the directional stability by the vertical
stabilizer. The rudder deflections, necessary to achieve these yawing moments and the resulting
sideslip angles places significant aerodynamic load on the rudder and vertical stabilizer.
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CHAPTER – 6
DESIGN OF WING ROOT ATTACHMENT
6.1 WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

The specified structural roles of the wings (or main plane) are:
To transmit: wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam as shown in fig
Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to main beam.
Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil control surface & flaps to the main beam.
To react against:
Landing loads at attachment point
Loads from pylons / stores
Wing drag and thrust loads
To provide:
Fuel tank age space
Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero – elastic requirements.
To fulfil these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise
Span wise members(ribs)
A covering skins
Stringers
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6.2 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING STRUCTRAL MEMBERS:

The structural functions of each of this type of members may be considered independently as:
6.2.1 Spars
Forms the main span wise beam
Transmit bending and Torsional loads
Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.
6.2.2 In particular
Webs – resist shear and Torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
Flanges – resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.
6.2.3 Skin
To form impermeable aerodynamic surface
Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
React axial bending loads (with stringers).
6.2.4 Stringers
Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
React axial bending loads
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6.2.5 Ribs
Maintain the aerodynamic shape
Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any discontinuities
as shown in fig
Increase the column bulking strength of the stringers through end restraint
Increase the skin panel bulking strength
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CHAPTER – 7
LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION
7.1 RECTRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

To decrease drag in flight some undercarriage react into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels
flush against the surface or concealed behind doors; this is called retractable gear. Our aircraft is
designed to use retractable landing gear as shown in Fig-7.
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7.1.1 POSITIONING OF UNDER CARRIAGE:

Tricycle gear describes an aircraft undercarriage, or landing gear, arranged in a tricycle fashion.
The tricycle arrangement has one wheel in the front, called the nose wheels, and two or more
main wheel slightly aft of the centre of the gravity. Because of the ease operating tricycle gear
aircraft on the ground, the configuration is the most widely used on the aircraft.
Tricycle gear aircraft are easier to land because the altitude is required to land on the main gear
is the same as the required in the flare, and they are less vulnerable to crosswinds. As a result, the
majority of modern aircraft are fitted with tricycle gear. Almost all the jet powered aircraft have
been fitted with tricycle landing gear, to avoid the blast of hot, high – speed gases causing
damage to the ground surface, in particular runways and taxiways. Taking these factors into
consideration we have incorporated tricycle landing gear pattern.
7.1.2 DIFFRENTIAL BRAKING:

Differential braking depends on asymmetric application of the brakes on the main gear wheels to
turn the aircraft. For this, the aircraft must be equipped with separate controls for the right and
left brake (usually on the rudder pedals). The nose or tail wheel usually not equipped with
brakes. Differential braking requires considerable skill. In aircraft with several methods of
steering that includes differential braking, differential braking may be avoided because of the
wear it puts on the braking mechanisms.
7.1.3 TILLER STEERING:

A tiller in an aircraft is a small wheel or lever, sometimes accessible to one pilot and sometimes
duplicated for the both pilots, that controls the steering of the aircraft while it is on the ground.
The tiller may be designed to work in the combination with other controls such as the rudder or
yoke
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CHAPTER – 8
STRUCTURAL FITTINGS AND CONNECTION STUDY
8.1 BOLTS
General requirements of repair, maintenance and storage are of four main units such as fittings,
bolts, rivets, welds. No doubt that main or primary fitting involves more weight and cost per unit
volume than any other parts of aerospace structure.
8.1.1 AIRCRAFT BOLTS:

Bolts are used to transfer relatively large shear or tension loads from one structure to another.
Hexagon head bolts is Army-Navy bolt made from SAE 2330-3.5% m steel as shown in Fig-8.
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8.2 NUTS
Nut material should be more ductile than bolts material, thus when nut is tightened the thread
will deflect to seat on the bolt thread. It develops the max strength of the bolts.
Bolts threads should not be placed on the shear or Bearing. The length of the bolt shank should
be not more than thread below surface fitting as shown in Fig-9. There are four types of nuts they
are,
Castel Nuts
Shear Nuts
Plain Nuts
Self-locking Nuts
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CHAPTER – 9
THREE VIEW DIAGRAMS OF AIRCRAFT
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CHAPTER – 10
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the series of cargo aircrafts incorporated many unique design of future that were
never seen on an operational aircraft. The design of these aircrafts points the way for the design
of future of very high mach airplanes.
The airplane has gone through many design modifications since its early conceptual designs
expected, among these was a growth in weight. The document to provide information on the
trends in various aircraft characteristics that may influence general long-term airport planning
and design.
These are strong indications that future trends could see the coexistence of very high capacity
aircraft modules of similar capacities for the long range/very long range operations.
Cargo payloads, which include mail, express and freight, are increasing in size and weight as
larger aircraft service with the airlines,
To ensure continued growth in payload and the profitability of cargo operations, improvements
in methods, equipment and terminal facilities will be required in order to reduce cargo handling
costs and aircraft ground time and to provide improved service for the shippers.
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REFERENCE
1. “ANAL SIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES” by E. F. Bruhn.

2. “AIRCRAFT DESIGN: A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH” by Daniel P. Raymer,
AIAA Education Series.
3. “AIRCRAFT LANDING GEAR DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES” by
Norman S. Currey, AIAA Education Series.
4. “AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS” by T. H. G.
MEGSON.
41

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Aircraft Design project-2( Heavyweight Cargo)

Aircraft Systems and Instruments (Anna University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – II

In partial fulfillment for the requirement of the degree of

GOJAN SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY

Downloaded by santhosh sabapathy (santhosh.srs25@gmail.com)

Chennai- 600 052. Chennai- 600 052.

The Aircraft Design Project-2 Viva Voice Examination held

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Downloaded by santhosh sabapathy (santhosh.srs25@gmail.com)

We express our deepest gratitude to our Chairman Dr. G. Natarajan,

We are deeply indebted to our beloved Principal Dr. C. Selvakumar,

We record our sincere thanks to our Supervisor Mr. Y. Nokesh Babu,

Downloaded by santhosh sabapathy (santhosh.srs25@gmail.com)

I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project II entitled “HEAVY

Downloaded by santhosh sabapathy (santhosh.srs25@gmail.com)

I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project II entitled “HEAVY

Downloaded by santhosh sabapathy (santhosh.srs25@gmail.com)

I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project II entitled “HEAVY

Downloaded by santhosh sabapathy (santhosh.srs25@gmail.com)

I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project II entitled “HEAVY

Downloaded by santhosh sabapathy (santhosh.srs25@gmail.com)

Downloaded by santhosh sabapathy (santhosh.srs25@gmail.com)

5 LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE 35

LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN DESIGN PROCEDURE:

Cm fus,nac Pitching Moment Coefficient about fuselage, nacelle

FS/L Thrust Produced at Sea Level,N

1.2 RESULTS FROM ADP-1

1.3 PHASES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN

1.4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

1.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

1.6 DETAILED DESIGN

1.7 OUTLINE OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN PEOJECT–II

The structural design of the aircraft is done in Aircraft Design Project–II

1. V-n Diagram for design study

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT WING

2.1 V-N DIAGRAM:

Cruising Velocity, Vcr = 222.22 m/s

Stalling Velocity, VS = 68.35 m/s

Dive Velocity, VD = 322.22 m/s

Vs+ = 109.21 m/s

Vs- = 126.11 m/s

2.2 CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE AND FINAL V-N GRAPH

In airline airplanes, from -1g to +2.5g

In light airplanes, from -1.5g to +3.8g

TYPE LOAD FACTOR N MAX MIN

2.3 GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES:

Δn = K*(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3* 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)

K = Gust effectiveness = 1.0

aw = Slope of the wing curve = 56.62

ρcr = 0.4135 Kg/m3

nlim = 1 ± K*(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3* 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)

where, Ue = equivalent gust velocity (m/s)

Ve = equivalent air speed (m/s)

Gust alleviation factor, KG = 0.88ʯg / (5.3 + ʯg) for cargo aircrafts

Mass ratio, ʯg = 2*(w/s) / density*g*Cl*c

Lift curve slope, = 3.96

Mean Chord, C = 11.39 m

Thus, Kg= 0.518

At high angle of attack, point B, ub = 10.39 ms -1

Δn = K(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)

nlim = 1 ± K(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)

Mass ratio, ʯg = 2(w/s) / densitygClc

Δn = K(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)