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1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 µm 1 µm
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz
s(t) = At sin(2 π f t t + ϕ t)
∞ ∞
1
g (t ) = c + ∑ an sin( 2πnft ) + ∑ bn cos( 2πnft )
2 n =1 n =1
1 1
0 0
t t
ideal periodic signal real composition
(based on harmonics)
t[s] ϕ
I= M cos ϕ
ϕ f [Hz]
z
y z
y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator
q Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
λ/4 on car roofs or λ/2 as Hertzian dipole
è shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
λ/4 λ/2
simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)
Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
y y z
directed
x z x antenna
z
z
x
sectorized
x antenna
λ/2 λ/2
λ/4 λ/2 λ/4 λ/2
+ +
ground plane
Transmission range
q communication possible
q low error rate
Detection range
q detection of the signal
possible
q no communication sender
possible
Interference range transmission
q signal may not be distance
detected detection
q signal adds to the
interference
background noise
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time
è interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
è distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
t
short term fading
q space (si) k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
q time (t)
q frequency (f) c
q code (c) t c
t
Goal: multiple use s1
f
of a shared medium s2
f
c
Important: guard spaces needed!
t
s3
f
Advantages:
q only one carrier in the
medium at any time
q throughput high even k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
for many users
c
Disadvantages: f
q precise
synchronization
necessary
Advantages:
q better protection against
tapping k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
q protection against frequency
selective interference c
q higher data rates compared to f
code multiplex
but: precise coordination
required
Digital modulation
q digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
q ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
q differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
q shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
q smaller antennas (e.g., λ/4)
q Frequency Division Multiplexing
q medium characteristics
Basic schemes
q Amplitude Modulation (AM)
q Frequency Modulation (FM)
q Phase Modulation (PM)
analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
baseband digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver
radio
carrier
1 0 1
q Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
q needs larger bandwidth
t
MSK
signal t
No phase shifts!
Q
0010
0001 Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
0011 Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase f ,
0000
f but different amplitude a. 0000 and 1000 have
a I different phase, but same amplitude.
1000 è used in standard 9600 bit/s modems
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream
q High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
q Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
q QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
q Example: 64QAM
q good reception: resolve the entire Q
64QAM constellation
q poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion
10
q 6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
I
significant determine QPSK
q HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit
00
000010 010101
Side effects:
q coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
q tap-proof
Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping
dP/df dP/df
user signal
i) ii) broadband interference
narrowband interference
f f
sender
dP/df dP/df dP/df
iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver
channel
quality
1 2 5 6
narrowband channels
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal
channel
quality
2
2 spread spectrum channels
2
2
2
1
spread frequency
spectrum
Disadvantages resulting
signal
q precise power control necessary
01101011001010
spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator
chipping radio
sequence carrier
transmitter
correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision
radio chipping
carrier sequence
receiver
tb
user data
0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1
td t
f
f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1
narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator
frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
transmitter
narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator
hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
receiver
f3 f3 f3
f2 f2
f1 f1 f1 f2 f3 f7
f3 f3
f2 f2 f2
3 cell cluster f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f1 f1 f4
f3 f3 f3 f3 f7 f1
f2 f3
f6 f5 f2
7 cell cluster
f2 f2 f2
f1 f f1 f f1 f
3 h 3 h 3
h1 2 h1 2 3 cell cluster
g2 h3 g2 h3 g2
g1 g1 g1
g3 g3 g3 with 3 sector antennas