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• Sinusoidal signals
Sinusoidal signals are modelled as
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This is a periodic signal whose period is T0 = 2π / ω0 = 1 / f0
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Spectra of sinusoidal signal
The line spectrum associates a certain frequency to a particular
amplitude and phase.
The one-sided line spectrum of a sinusoidal signal is:
The amplitude and phase spectrum have an impulse at f0. The essential
parameters of the signal can be seen from the spectrum: frequency,
amplitude, and phase.
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Linear combination of sinusoidal signals
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The complex representation of sinusoidal signal
Usually, the signals are real-valued. However, the concept of
complex signals is a useful tool in telecommunication. Most of
the cases can be handled by using real signals, however, the
complex signals are widely used in spectral analysis.
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Two-sided spectrum
One-sided spectrum could be used for real signals. In the
following, two-sided spectrum is used because it allows to
handle also complex signals.
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The phasor diagram for the two-sided spectrum of sinusoidal
consists of two vectors whose phase and direction of rotation are
reversed. The resultant vector is a real signal.
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Periodic Signals
The signal v(t) is periodic if
The length of the periodic signals is infinite, therefore, the signals in the
practical system can not be strictly periodical. However, many finite-
length signals in the practical systems correspond very accurately to the
pure periodic signals.
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Phasor representation
A complex exponential function can be given as phasor which
rotates around origin:
Real signal corresponds to the real part of the phasor:
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Power and average of the periodic signals
– The average of a signal is:
For periodic signals, it is usually assumed that the power is finite, 0< P < ∞.
Example:
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Fourier-series
A periodic signal can be written by using the exponential Fourier
series
where
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Sinc-function (sinus cardinalis - cardinal sine)
The sinc-function is often needed in the spectral analysis:
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Example: Rectangular pulse train
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Example: Rectangular pulse train (cont.)
Below figures are amplitude and phase spectra in the case where τ / T0
= 1/4. The function sinc fτ can be recognized from the envelope of the
amplitude spectrum. The amplitude of the DC component is c0= Aτ /
T0.
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Gibbs phenomenon
If the periodic signal has a stepwise discontinuity (like in
rectangular pulse train), the Fourier series does not converge at
the points of discontinuity. The partial sum converges to the mid-
point of the discontinuity. On each side of discontinuity,
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Gibbs phenomenon has implications for the shapes of the filters
used with real signals. An ideal filter that is shaped like a
rectangular pulse will result in discontinuities in the spectrum that
will lead to distortions in the time signal. Real applications use
window shapes such as Hamming or Hanning windows. Also, the
signals in the practical systems are always bandlimited and,
thus, do not contain discontinuities. Therefore, Gibbs
phenomenon is not usually a problem in spectral analysis.
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Parseval's theorem
Parseval's theorem relates the average power P of a periodic
signal to its Fourier coefficients as follows:
This means that the average power is the sum of the powers of
the spectral components.
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Nonperiodic signals
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Fourier transform and continuous spectra
Consider signals whose energy:
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The spectrum has the following properties:
– V(f) is a complex function. V(f) is the amplitude spectrum and
argV(f) is the phase spectrum.
– The value of V at f = 0 equals the net area of v(t):
The time function v(t) is obtained from V(f) by using the inverse Fourier
transform:
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Example: Rectangular pulse
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Rayleigh's energy theorem
Rayleigh's energy theorem is similar to Parseval's theorem (* is the
complex conjugate)
Example:
The total energy of the rectangular pulse AΠ(t / τ) is E = A2τ.
The energy in the frequency band |f | < 1/τ is
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Left plot: rectangular pulse.
Middle plot: Fourier transform of the rectangular pulse (sinc
waveform).
Right plot: squared Fourier transform (signal spectrum) and the energy
distribution per frequency bands.
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Convolution
The convolution between two signal v(t) and w(t) is denoted by v∗w(t)
and it is determined by
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• Convolution and Fourier transform
Convolution in time domain is equivalent to the multiplication in
frequency domain
• Calculation of convolution
Example:
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Result:
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Impulses
Up to now: a clear distinction between line spectra (that represent
periodic signals) and continuous spectra (that represent non-
periodic signals).
The unit impulse or the Dirac delta function δ(t) is defined as:
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Graphical representation of the impulse: Aδ(t−td)
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The impulse has the properties:
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The spectra of the sinusoidal signals contains two impulses:
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• Impulses in the time domain
The following transform pairs can be derived:
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– Sign-function is defined by
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