Vehicle Dynamics TheoryAJM PDF

Vehicle Dynamics Theory
Introduction
Andrew Muir October 2005
About the Speaker
Andrew Muir
Senior Analyst (Multi – Body Dynamics)
MSC.Software Australia
5 years of suspension design
MSC.Software Australia
General Motors Holden Australia
BE(Mechatronics)/BCs
Projects in vehicle dynamics and
ADAMS
Vehicles I have Worked On
?
Rough Outline
Vehicle Dynamics theory.
Full Vehicle cornering dynamics.
Steering performance.
Ride analysis.
Suspension Design Theory.
Full vehicle performance to suspension target setting.
Kinematic and Compliant performance.
Steer Axis analysis.
Power steering design.
Suspension analysis in MSC.ADAMS/Car.
Building suspensions in MSC.ADAMS/Car.
Analysis Types.
Reviewing Results.
Interpreting Results.
Correlating the model to measured results.
Full Vehicle Analysis in MSC.ADAMS/Car.
Building full Vehicle Assemblies in MSC.ADAMS/Car.
Analysis Types.
Reviewing Results.
Interpreting Results.
Correlating the model to measured results.
Tips and tricks for Full Vehicle Design.
Tips and tricks for Suspension and Steering Design.
Tips and tricks for Accurate Model Building.
Full Vehicle Cornering Dynamics
Ride, Handling and Steering
Ride
Vehicles behaviour over bumps and rough surfaces
Passenger Comfort
Primarily Vertical
Handling
Vehicles behaviour when cornering and changing
direction
Primarily lateral and yaw
Steering
Directional control interface to driver
What should the Vehicle Dynamics
Be?
There is no one answer
The perfect vehicle
The vehicle our
customers want
Every vehicle is a
compromise
The nature of the
compromise depends on
what is most important
What should our vehicle do?
Sports Car We must quantify subjective
Linear requirements
Hi-G
Precise Customer definition is
Responsive subjective
Controlled
Fast Design specification is objective
Feedback Must bridge the gap between.
“Rewarding”
Truck Must understand the
Stable requirements
Comfortable Must know how to compromise
Load Capacity
Durable
City Car
“Easy” to park
Good acceleration from
standing
Small Turning circle
Good ride
Development Process
Subjective benchmarking
Set subjective targets
Objective benchmarking
Set preliminary objective target
Identify relationships and links
Identify architecture
Refine targets
Develop system
Confirm Targets
Understeer/Oversteer
Plough (Push) and Spin
Sometimes called under and oversteer
Defined only at limit of grip, high lateral g
Plough (push) is front loosing grip first
Spin is rear loosing grip first
Understeer and Oversteer
Many definitions
All lead to the same thing
Understeer is stabilising, oversteer is not
Understeer/Oversteer Definitions
Understeer
On a constant radius turn steering angle must be
increased to maintain path as speed increases.
Neutral Steer
On a constant radius turn steering angle must
remain constant to maintain path as speed
increases.
Oversteer
On a constant radius turn steering angle must be
decreased to maintain path as speed increases.
Effects can be shown mathematically
2 DoF Model
“2 DoF” vehicle model
The vehicle’s motion is defined by
two variables
The lateral velocity (V) and the yaw
velocity (r).
The forward velocity (U) is Y
path
treated as a parameter and the
motion of the vehicle is
described by: y, V
x, U φ
X, Y = Fixed (inertial) reference axes.

x, y = Body axes (fixed in vehicle).
U = Forward velocity (in x direction). G
r
V = Lateral velocity (in y direction).
r = Yaw velocity (angular velocity). X
f = Heading angle relative to X axis.
Figure 1: Vehicle Kinematics
2 DoF Model
The path of the vehicle is given by
φ = φ0 + ∫ r dt
X = X 0 + ∫ (U cos φ − V sin φ)dt
Y = Y0 + ∫ (V cos φ + U sin φ)dt
The inertial parameters are

G = Vehicle centre of mass (centroid).
m = Vehicle mass.
IG = Centroidal moment of inertia.
Acceleration of 2 DoF Model
The velocity of the centre of mass (VG) is
described in terms of the body (rotating) axes
as v G = U ˆi+V ˆj
Where i and j are the unit vectors in x and y
respectively
VG is described relative to axes rotating with
angular velocity r = r k̂
The acceleration of the centre of mass is
aG =
dv G  dv G 
=
dt  dt  xyz
( ) (ˆ ˆ )
 + r × v G = U i + V j + r k × U i + V j = (U - rV ) i + (V + rU ) j
&ˆ &ˆ ˆ & ˆ & ˆ
U is a parameter and hence U& = 0 and so

aG = ( -rV ) ˆi + (V& + rU ) ˆj
Forces on 2 DoF Model
Notation
fy, fl
fy, rl means “force in the y
direction on the rear left hand mfl x
y
side” fx, fl fy, fl
mfr means “moment on the
front right hand side”
fy, ll mfr
fx, fr
mrl G fy, fr
fx, rl
fx, rr mrr
fy, rr
Forces on 2 DoF Model
Resultant Forces From Newton’s “laws
y
of motion” and
Fy x previous equation for
G
AG
Mz
Fx
Fx = sum of fx forces
= m(U& − Vr )
Fy = sum of fy forces
= m(V& + Ur )
Mz = sum of moments
about G = I G r&
Lateral Velocity Response
2
0 Lateral Velocity
Lateral Velocity, V [m/s]
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10 Car 1: aCf < bCr
-12 Car 2: aCf = bCr
-14
Car 3: aCf > bCr
-16
-18
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Forward Velocity, U [km/h]
Yaw Velocity Response
1.8
1.6 Yaw Velocity
Yaw Velocity, r [rad/s]
1.4
1.2 Car 1: aCf < bCr
1.0
Car 2: aCf = bCr
0.8
Car 3: aCf > bCr
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Radius of Curvature Response
55
50 Radius of Curvature
Radius of Curvature, ρ [m ]
45
40
35
30
25
Car 1: aCf < bCr
20
15 Car 2: aCf = bCr
10 Car 3: aCf > bCr

5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Ackerman Steering (Bicycle)
Wheelbase (L)
Ackerman
Angle
Turn Radius (R)
Ackerman
Angle
Ackerman Steering (Bicycle)
Ideal steer angle required with no slip
Function of Wheelbase and Turn Radius
δack = asin(L/R) = L/R [rad] for small angles
Defines the reference for Under/Oversteer
Neutral steer requires no steering change for
constant radius
Ackerman steer angle is wheelbase and radius
dependant only
Understeer requires more steering from driver
because vehicle is turning less than reference
Oversteer requires less steering because
vehicle is turning more than reference
Ackerman Gradient
For constant speed This is called
L Ackerman gradient
δ ack =
R Reference for
U2 Understeer at
Ay =
R constant speed
U2
∴R = Under steer gradient
Ay
Degs/G of steering
Ay L angle added compared
∴δ ack =
U2 to Ackerman Gradient
dδ ack L
= 2
dAy U
Cornering Compliance
Takes into account entire suspension
behaviour
Analogous to Cf and Cr from simplified
Once we set targets we can map out our
suspension parameters
Under steer gradient (K) is additional
steer above Ackerman gradient (deg/g)
Cornering compliance is the total slip
angle per g at each end of vehicle (Df,Dr)
K = Df - Dr
Cornering Compliance
F f = Ay gm f Converting Cf and Cr from
F f = Ay g Lb m earlier example
Ff
αf = Understeer criteria
Cf
aCf < bCr
Ay g m b
K=+
αf = L
g al m
Cf Df > Dr Df =
Cr
dα f g Lb m bl gabm
= = Df ∴ Df × =
Ay Cf bl l ⋅ bCr
g bl m
dα r g m a
Dr =
= = Dr
L
Cr
Ay Cr al gabm
∴ Dr × =
al l ⋅ aC f
Measuring Understeer
From steering wheel day 100
× 100 = SS =
SR (ul2 + K )
angle and lateral
dθ
acceleration
Units given here are 1 l
∴K = − 2
[rad/m/s2] day u
SR ×
dθ
From body sideslip and
lateral acceleration dβ
β=Body sideslip Dr =
dAy
Df = K+Dr
Vehicle Direction Change
1. Vehicle is on a straight path
2. Driver inputs steer angle
3. Slip angle generates force on
front wheel
4. Force at front generates
unbalanced yaw moment
5. Yaw acceleration starts Slip Angle
6. Lateral acceleration starts
7. Yaw creates slip angle on rear
tyre
8. Rear tyre force is generated
9. As rear force builds yaw moment
is reduced Slip Angle
10. Unbalanced lateral force still
exists
11. Lateral acceleration causes
vehicle to take curved path Slip Angle
12. Curved path reduced front slip
angle reducing front force
13. Forces become equal and yaw
moment decreases to zero
14. Steady yaw velocity and steady Slip Angle
lateral acceleration achieved
15. Vehicle travels on curved path
Curved Path
Tyre Behaviour
Tyre Stiffness
Tyre “carcass” acts

like a spring against
lateral force
Stiffness depends on
Tyre sidewall height
Tyre construction
Inflation Pressure
Walking Man Analogy
A man is trying to walk in a
straight line
Walking with one foot in
front of the other
A sideways force is applied
As he lifts one foot he is
pushed sideways while F
balancing on the other foot
As he puts his foot down it
is now moved sideways.
His feet are still pointing
forward but he is moving at
an angle
The difference between his
heading and his path is Slip Angle
“Slip Angle”
Tyre Slip Angle
Contact Centre Line

Tyre contact point acts like a lateral spring
Lateral force deflects wheel
As tyre rotates new rubber comes into contact
Like each succesive foot step
Tyre patch “twists” because there is no deflection at the front
Maximum at the rear.
As tyre tread leaves “Contact Patch” it returns to undeformed
position
Rubber acts like a spring, greater deflection means greater force
Force Vs Slip Angle
Linear Linear
Force in entire contact patch
below static friction
Contact patch is not sliding Friction
Acting like a linear spring
Stiffness depends on tyre
Transition Transition
Force on rearmost sections of
contact patch exceeds static
friction
Rear elements start to slide
Mix of static and dynamic
friction
Friction
Entire contact patch is sliding
Dynamic coefficient of friction
Lower than static
Force drops off
Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle
Tyre Lateral Force vs Slip Angle
7000
6000
5000 Tyre Normal Force
7000N
6000N
Lateral Force (N)
4000 5000N
4000N
3000N
2000N
3000
1000N
Maximum Force
2000
1000
0
0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000
Slip angle (deg)
Tyre Load Sensitivity
As the load on the tyre increases the “effectiveness”
of the tyre decreases
For normal friction
Coefficient of friction is force / normal force
For tyre
Normalised force coefficient Lateral Force / Normal Force
Tyre is a linear spring
Increased normal force needs increased lateral force for
same normalised coefficient
Greater deflection is required to meet higher lateral force
Greater slip angle is needed for same coefficient
Because transition is friction dominated the higher
load cases forces to peak at higher slip angles
The final peak in normalised force is lower
Increasing load decreases “Grip” and “Stiffness”
Normalised Lateral Force Vs Slip
Angle
Lateral Force / Normal Force vs Slip Angle
Tyre Normal Force

0.8
Lateral Force / Vertical Force (N/N)
7000N
6000N
5000N
0.6 4000N
3000N
2000N
1000N
Maximum Force
0.4
0.2
0
0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000
Slip angle (deg)
Lateral Force Vs Normal Force
Tyre Lateral Force vs Normal Force
7000
6000
5000
Slip Angle
1.000
Lateral Force (N)
4000 2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
3000 6.000
7.000
2000
1000
0
1000.000 2000.000 3000.000 4000.000 5000.000 6000.000 7000.000
Vertical Force (N)
Pneumatic Trail
Force is greater towards rear of contact patch

Centre of Force is behind contact patch
Pneumatic Trail vs Slip Angle
Pneumatic Trail vs Slip Angle
Linear
Almost linear trail
Slowly decreasing as slip angle increases
Transition
As rear of the contact patch reduces for the centre of
force moves forward
Reducing trail
Friction
Entire contact patch is sliding so centre of force is no
longer behind contact patch
At large slip angle it may even move forward of wheel
centre
Load
As wheel load increases the contact patch grows as
does trail
Trail vs Slip
Pnumatic Trail vs Slip Angle
40
35
30
Tyre Normal Force
25
7000N
Pnumatic Trail (m)
6000N
20 5000N
4000N
3000N
15 2000N
1000N
10
0
0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 9.000 10.000
-5
Slip angle (deg)
Aligning Torque
Aligning torque is the resultant torque from
Lateral Force x Trail
Aligning Torque vs Slip Angle
Lateral force builds quicker than trial decreases
Increasing Aligning torque
As lateral force starts transition phase trail
reduction increases
Aligning torque peaks
Eventually lateral force peaks and trail decreases
Aligning torque decreases
Aligning torque felt in steering
Decreasing steering torque warns of high slip
Aligning Torque Vs Slip
Aligning Torque vs Slip Angle
110.000
90.000
Tyre Normal Force
70.000
7000N
Aligning Torque (Nm)
6000N
5000N
4000N
50.000
3000N
2000N
1000N
30.000
10.000
0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 9.000 10.000
-10.000
Slip angle (deg)
Relaxation Length
Slip angle results from “laying down” new
rubber
Deflections increase towards the rear of the
contact patch
Does not happen instantaneously
The distance travelled before full force is
reached is the Relaxation length
Varies for different tyres
Stiffer tyre is generally shorter length
Length means that as speed increases time
taken to reach full force is decreased
Effect of Relaxation Length
Effect of Camber
Contact patch becomes

curved with camber
Rolling of tyre tries to
straighten curve
Force is generated which
resists
Called “Camber Thrust”
Overturning Moment
As tyre patch deflects
laterally
Normal force centre
and wheel centre
offset
Moment is produced
In Addition to the
effect of lateral force
acting at the tyre
radius
Weight Transfer Effects
Increased normal force decreases the
cornering effectiveness of a tyre (1)
Decreasing the load increases the
effectiveness (2)
The gain from (2) is less than the loss
from (1)
Transferring weight from one tyre to the
other decreases the overall effectiveness
Effect of Weight Transfer on Slip
Angle
3000
2500
Tyre Normal
2000 7000N
6000N
Lateral Force (N)
5000N
4000N
1500 3000N
2000N
1000N
4kN Fz (0.37g)
1000 6kN & 2kN Fz (0.37g)
500
0
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400
Slip angle (deg)
Effect of Weight Transfer on Grip
7000
6000
Tyre Normal
5000
7000N
6000N
Lateral Force (N)
4000 5000N
4000N
3000N
2000N
3000 1000N
4kN Fz (0.98g)
6kN & 2kN Fz (0.92g)
2000
1000
0
0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000
Slip angle (deg)
Weight Transfer
When cornering the lateral acceleration
causes “Lateral load transfer”
Acceleration and braking causes
“Longitudinal load transfer”
Lateral load transfer must be resisted by both
the front and the rear
By setting the proportion we can control the
effectiveness at one end or the other
Lateral Load Transfer Distribution is the most
common way of controlling “Limit Balance”
Longitudinal Force
For lateral force we
use slip angle
For longitudinal force
we use longitudinal
slip ratio
ωactual − ω free
Relationship of κ=
longitudinal force to
slip is of the same ω free
nature as lateral force
to slip
Many definitions of
longitudinal slip
Longitudinal Slip
Rotation Rotation
Torque Torque
Braking Torque Driving Torque

Longitudinal Force Vs Slip
Full Vehicle Performance
“G-G” Diagram
“G-G” Diagram
A method for characterizing the overall
vehicle capability
Can also characterize the overall driver
capability
Can also characterize the overall test
capability
“G-G” Perfect Grip
Vehicle grip is equal
to maximum tyre grip
Perfect grip in
longitudinal and
lateral direction
Not representative of
real situation
Must refine the
definition
“G-G” Perfect Tyre
Tyre contact patch
must react all force
Maximum grip level is
fixed
Direction of force
does not matter
Develop “Friction
Circle”
Perfect circle limited
by tyre to road
friction
“G-G” Realistic Tyre and Vehicle
Vehicle suspension and
tyre design limit grip
Longitudinal and lateral
may be different
“Friction Ellipse” is used
May vary with speed
Aerodynamics
Higher steer angles at
lower speed
May be greater than 1g or
“G-G” Limited Power
Except at very low
speed forward
acceleration is not
limited by grip
Power limited
acceleration
Flat top on friction
elipse
May vary with speed
Lower gear gives
better acceleration
“G-G” Comparison
Perfect Grip
Ignores the contact patch
reacting all force
Perfect Tyre
Ignores tyre design and
suspension effects
Realistic Tyre
Ignores limited power
Power Limited
Simple representation but
good accuracy
“G-G” ADAMS Data
Actual Data
May not fill entire
“circle”
Depends on the test
being performed
May go outside circle
Much slower or much
higher speed may give
different results
Can be used to
evaluate driver as well
as vehicle
Steering performance
Steering Performance
The steering is the primary interface
between the driver and the vehicle
Driver controls vehicle with angle
displacement and torque
Vehicle “Communicates” to driver
through torque
Descriptions can be very subjective
Targets must be objective
On-Centre Performance
Low lateral acceleration
Low longitudinal acceleration
Slow steering inputs
Steering “feel”
Torque vs Steering Wheel Angle
Torque vs Lateral Acceleration
Lateral Acceleration vs SWA
Non-Cornering behaviour
On-Centre Performance
Linearity is very important
Nature of non-linearity also key
Torque “Build up”
Returnability important
Balance will dictate customer perception
Key Factors
Friction
Power Steering
Steering Geometry
Cornering Performance
Higher Lateral Acceleration
Linearity still important
Maximum force is important
Nature of “Breakaway”
Less important than on-centre
Most customers don’t notice
Parking Efforts
Maximum steering wheel torque
Ideally
0 Nm
Customer would no effort to park
“Feel” not required
Actual with power steering
2-5 Nm plateau
Manual steering
Increases with steering angle
Ride Analysis
Ride Analysis
The vehicle is treated like a series of
springs and dampers
Each set has a natural frequency and a
damping ratio
Goal is to set the frequency and
damping so the passengers get the
appropriate level of isolation from road
inputs
Suspension Design Theory
Full Vehicle Performance to Suspension Target Setting
Df and Dr from suspension
characteristics
Df and Dr are total slip at each end of the
vehicle
Determine slip affects of each suspension
parameter
Determine gradient with lateral acceleration
Can be actual steer effects
Actual slip angle effects
Camber effects on tyre
Positive camber produces force against slip
angle force. F = CamberAngle *Camber stiffness
Slip angle must increase to regain lateral force
Kinematics and Compliance Performance
Kinematics and Compliance Performance
Kinematics and compliance metrics

Relate suspension behavior to inputs
Are the link between component
performance and vehicle performance
Kinematics
Geometrical behavior of suspension
Influenced by compliance in system
Compliance
Stiffness of wheel centre
Influenced by geometry of the system
Ride Metrics
Steer
Camber
Fore-Aft Deflection
Side View Swing Arm Angle (SVSA-A)
Side View Swing Arm Length (SVSA-L)
Lateral Deflection
Front View Swing Arm Angle (FVSA-A)
Front View Swing Arm Length (FVSA-L)
Wheel Rate
Ride Rate
Roll Metrics
Steer
Camber
Roll Centre Location
Total Roll Rate
Suspension Roll Rate
Force Metrics
Lateral Force
Cornering Force
For-Aft Force
Acts at wheel centre
Acceleration
Impact
Hub bearing prevents transfer of moment
Moment Metrics
Aligning Torque
Pneumatic trail of tyre
Lateral force acts at a moment arm
Overturning Moment
Lateral force acts at contact patch
Caber creates asymmetric contact patch
Braking Torque
Brake force reacted at contact patch
Brake allows transfer of torque
Areas of Interest
Steer Camber Stiffness

Lateral Force X X X
Aligning Torque X
For-aft Force X X
Braking Force X X
Ride X X X
Roll X X X
Instantaneous Centres
Roll Centre Location
Front View Swing Arm
Length
Angle
Side View Swing Arm
Length
Angle
Determining Df and Dr
Setting the following input notation
P = roll characteristic
Y = lateral force characteristic
N = aligning torque characteristic
Setting the following output notion
E = steer angle
G = camber angle
Using
F = front
R = rear
Roll angle / g lateral acc = Roll Gradient
Steer / g = Roll steer percent x Roll gradient
Camber / g = Roll Camber x Roll Gradient
Camber Slip / g = Camber Slip Stiffness x Roll Camber x Roll Gradient
Lateral Force / g = Mass x Lateral Acc

Steer / g = Mf x Ay x Lateral force steer
Camber Slip / g = Mf x Ay x Lateral Force Camber x Camber Slip Stiffness
Aligning Torque / g = Lateral Force / g x

trail
Roll gradient (Kp) = d(Roll angle)/dAy
Lateral Force per g (Fy) = M x Ay (at each end)
Aligning Torque per g (ALT) = M x Ay x Trail
Tyre Stiffness (Ce)= Cornering Coefficient x M x g
Camber slip stiffness (Cg) = Camber Coefficient / Cornering
Coefficient
Roll steer = Ep
Roll camber = Gp
Lateral Force steer = Ey
Lateral Force Camber = Gy
Aligning Torque Steer = En
Aligining Torque Camber = Gn
D = K p (E p + G pC g ) + Fy (E y + G y C g ) + ALT (En + GnC g ) + Fy Ce

Side Load Compensation
Misalignment of spring
axis and other forces
bends strut
Bending reacted as
force on seals
Increased force means
increased friction
Will decrease the
isolation provided by
soft ride damping
Reorient spring to
counteract
Generate bending in
spring
Side Load Compensation
Steer Axis Analysis
Steer Axis Analysis
Set caster and trail for self centring effect.
Set Scrub radius for braking and drive stability
Set Spindle length for fore-aft steer behaviour
King pin inclination will fill in the blanks
Make adjustments for roll camber and RCH
Set caster offset for lateral force and aligning torque
steer
Set steer arm length and angle for Ackerman and
Ackerman change with steer
Do not go over centre
Steering ration will be desired
Turns lock to lock may also be specified
May have existing rack to use
You will compromise and change every single one
before you are finished
Ackerman Steering (4 Wheels)
Wheelbase (L)
Track (T)
Outside
Angle
Inside
Angle
Turn Radius (R)
Power Steering Design
Hydraulic Power Steering Valve
Ps (Supply Pressure)
Inner Spool
Connected to
Torsion Bar
Metering
Edges
Outer Spool Fixed

Power Assist Pressure vs
Torsion Bar Angle
Power Assist Pressure vs Valve Angle
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
Power Assist Pressure (MPA)
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
Valve Angle (deg)
Power Assist Pressure vs
Torsion Bar Torque
Power Assist Pressure vs Torsion Bar Torque
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
Power Assist Pressure (MPA)
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Torsion Bar Torque (Nm)
Power Assistance Force vs
Torsion Bar Torque
Force vs Torsion Bar Torque
9000
8000
7000
6000
Power Assist Force (N)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Assistance Force Total Force Manual Force

Torsion Bar Torque vs
Total Steering Force
Torsion Bar Torque vs Total Steering Force
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Total Steering Force (N)
Total Steering Force vs
Lateral Acceleration
Steering Force vs Lateral Acceleration
4000
3500
3000
Total Steering Force (N)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Lateral Acceleration (g)
Non-Linear Linear
Torsion Bar Torque vs
Lateral Acceleration
Torsion Bar Torque vs Lateral Acceleration
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
Steering System Understeer
Steering system Understeer vs Lateral Acceleration
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
Understeer Gradient(deg/g)
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Power Steering Details
Steering Column Steering Gear
Compliance Compliance
Torsion Bar
Rack Friction
Upstream Column Downstream
Friction Column Friction
Parking Efforts
“Srub” torque for non-rolling tyre
Function of tyre and vertical load
Steering rack force
Function of steering arm and “Scrub” torque
Manual steering
Always increasing steering wheel torque
Plan view Steering arm shortening
Power steering
Saturated steering wheel torque
Power assist force
Parking Efforts
“Lumpy” Steering
Universal/Hookes joints are not Constant Velocity
Torque Fluctuation within steering column
Torque fluctuation at steering wheel
Alignment of joints can cancel out
Effect of Toe on Straight Line
Stability
When grip changes from one wheel to

another a moment is generated
Toe in produces a steer which counters
the moment
Toe stabilises the unbalanced moment
Suspension analysis in
MSC.ADAMS/Car
Analysis Types
Perform K & C tests
Use external files to run multiple tests
Perform compliance in and out of phase
Reproduce loading conditions seen in the full
vehicle
Measure wheel forces during full vehicle tests and
apply statically to suspension
Allows greater detail on operating conditions
Static steer effort
Steer against constant torque
Interpreting Results
Observe metrics as well as effects
Monitor RCH but also jacking, track change
Cross plotting is your friend
Check ADAMS compliance matrix
Also cross plot and differentiate
Use plot measuring tool to take large
gradients
Non-linear behaviour is very important
Observe operating conditions
Correlating to Measured Results
Isolate effects
Design tests which are sensitive to a small number of
parameters
Isolate effects
Design test that depend on different subsets of parameters
Isolate effects
Design test that use things you already know
Tune kinematics first
Measure components as well as you can
Tune compliance “opposed” and “in phase”
Perform test about many operating conditions
Non-linearity will play a big part
Tune linear region first
Full Vehicle analysis in
MSC.ADAMS/Car
Analysis Types
Constant radius cornering DCF driven
Maximum lateral acceleration Drive with measured results
Roll over Replicate real tests
Limit under/over steer Repeat with ideal after
Iso or double lane change 4-Post analysis
Roll over Ride
Correlation
Multiple step steers
Steady state under steer
Transient response
Constant velocity cornering
Steady state under steer
3d Road
Ride and impact
G-G Diagram
Swept sine
On-centre steering
Frequency response
Breaking in turn
Emergency
Interpreting Results
Review the results in light of what you have
learnt
Plot performance against steady state lateral
acceleration
Observe transient and steady state sections
Replicate your test
“measure” in ADAMS as you do on the road
Also measure ideal
Cross plotting is your friend
Use plot configuration files for same tests as
well as different types of tests
Correlating to Measured Results
Tune suspensions first
Use measured inputs
Be very careful with COG height
Isolate, Isolate, Isolate
Perform tests multiple times
Try different operating conditions
Use abstract and ideal test first
Don’t expect perfect correlation
Non-linearity will be important
Tips and Tricks
Full Vehicle Design
Full Vehicle Design
Know your customer
All cars must be stable and safe, but…
Every car is a compromise
The customer will dictate that compromise
Be realistic
Under estimate tyre performance
Over estimate vehicle mass
Make conservative assumptions (towards
oversteer)
Benchmark, Benchmark, Benchmark
Understeer/Oversteer
Limit under and over steer
Weight transfer is most significant
Always desire understeer
Steady state under and over steer
Weight transfer less important
Static weight distribution on tyres
Steer and camber due to K & C
Always want under
Transient under and over steer
Weight transfer from dampers and RCH
Vehicle Direction Change
Front generates lateral force
Imbalance causes yaw acceleration
Increasing from force capability on front will aid in
turn in
Rear must build up force for vehicle to settle
The faster the rear build force the quicker the
settling
Transient turn in can have different weight
transfer to steady state
Dampers
Roll Centre Height
Tyres
Increased weight decreases grip and stiffness
Use this to your advantage watch out when it is not
Linear behaviour determines steady state
understeer
Transition region determines limit
performance
Aligning torque reduces before grip
Use as a warning to the driver
Combined force reduces the overall grip and
lateral stiffness
Ride Analysis
Tips and Tricks
Suspension and Steering Design
Full vehicle to subsystem targets
Balance is important
Optimise the front the back and the system
Do not “overdo” one suspension
parameter
Eg. You cannot solve everything with roll
understeer
Know what is possible
Architecture will limit the design space
Benchmark, either physical or analysis
Do not “cherry pick”
K and C Parameters
Ride Steer
Ideally would like zero, must trade off with desired roll steer
Toe when pitched can be achieved
Ride Camber
Would like zero, roll camber compensation will give Ride
camber must trade off
Side View Swing Arm
Anti features are linked
Recession over bumps must be considered
Front View Swing Arm
Linked to roll centre height
Effects track change
Effects Ride and Roll Camber
K and C Parameters
Roll steer
Can be used to add understeer
Should not be excessive
Very, Very sensitive to build tolerances, may
have to adjust nominal for “Worst of Worst”
Roll Camber
Try to minimise but watch ride camber, adds
understeer but not in a nice way
Macpherson strut will be very poor
Live axle will be perfect
K and C Parameters
Lateral Force steer
Can be used to add understeer at both ends
Linked to aligning torque steer
Will normally depend on one bushing
Can be hard to adjust that bush for other reasons
Lateral Force Camber
Bad way to add understeer
Depends heavily on strut bending
Must not assume rigid strut for detailed results
Macpherson strut is very poor compared to SLA
K and C Parameters
Aligning Torque Steer
Very good way to add understeer at the front
Always an oversteer effect at the rear
Very dependant on steering system stiffness
Not independent of lateral force steer
Roll Centre Height
Do not get too hung up on the concept of RCH
Be concerned with its effects and monitor those
Weight jacking
Track change
Normally if you set roll centre as a firm target
meeting other requirements will be difficult
Suspension and Steering Design
“Lumpy Steering”
Depends on intermediate shaft location
Engine Bay package space fills up fast
Lock in design early before it’s too late.
Make conservative assumptions about
friction
Be careful and creative with effect on
compliance
Tips and Tricks
Accurate Model Building
Start Simple, add Complexity
Early in the design details of vehicle are
not known
Understand the basic architecture first
Add more detail as you gain
understanding
Easy to be caught by unknown
behaviour
Details to add (when appropriate)
Accurate power steering performance
Non-linear power assistance force
Friction (pinion, column, rack)
Non-liner column or shaft stiffness
Accurate joint orientation
Affects aligning torque and lateral force steer
Non-linear effects are noticeable on full vehicle performance
Strut bending
Effects lateral force camber and hence front cornering
compliance
Subframe attachment compliance
Can change lateral force steer if not balanced
Subframe flexibility
Local flexibility can effect suspension metrics
Full Vehicle
When matching measured data try to use
measured inputs
Once correlated test with ideal ADAMS
inputs
Solver Parameters
Dynamics
Hinit
Initial step size, set smaller than actual output to aid in transition from
static
SI2/I3
S12 reduces error in acceleration, will solve problems with high
frequency better
Adaptivity
Relaxes error tolerance as step size gets small, can be used to remove
unwanted high frequency problems
Statics
Maxit
Maximum number of iterations, used with Alimit/Tlimit
Alimit
Maximum angle per iteration, will help to guide ADAMS to solution, but
will require more iterations
Tlimit
Maximum translation.

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Vehicle Dynamics Theory

 X, Y = Fixed (inertial) reference axes.

X = X 0 + ∫ (U cos φ − V sin φ)dt

Y = Y0 + ∫ (V cos φ + U sin φ)dt

 The inertial parameters are

 U is a parameter and hence U& = 0 and so

10 Car 3: aCf > bCr

 Tyre “carcass” acts

Contact Centre Line

5000 Tyre Normal Force

Tyre Normal Force

Force is greater towards rear of contact patch

Tyre Normal Force

Tyre Normal Force

 Contact patch becomes

Braking Torque Driving Torque

 Kinematics and compliance metrics

Steer Camber Stiffness

 Lateral Force / g = Mass x Lateral Acc

 Aligning Torque / g = Lateral Force / g x

D = K p (E p + G pC g ) + Fy (E y + G y C g ) + ALT (En + GnC g ) + Fy Ce

Outer Spool Fixed

Assistance Force Total Force Manual Force

 When grip changes from one wheel to

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X, Y = Fixed (inertial) reference axes.

The inertial parameters are

U is a parameter and hence U& = 0 and so

Tyre “carcass” acts

Contact patch becomes

Kinematics and compliance metrics

Lateral Force / g = Mass x Lateral Acc

Aligning Torque / g = Lateral Force / g x

When grip changes from one wheel to