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 International Journal of
Music Education http://ijm.sagepub.com/

Orchestrating life skills: The effect of increased school-based music classes on

children's social competence and self-esteem
Nikki S. Rickard, Peter Appelman, Richard James, Fintan Murphy, Anneliese Gill and Caroline
Bambrick
International Journal of Music Education published online 23 April 2012
DOI: 10.1177/0255761411434824

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434824
2012
IJM0010.1177/0255761411434824Rickard et al.International Journal of Music Education

Article

International Journal of

Orchestrating life skills: The Music Education

1­–18
© The Author(s) 2012
effect of increased school-based Reprints and permission: sagepub.
co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
music classes on children’s social DOI: 10.1177/0255761411434824
ijm.sagepub.com
competence and self-esteem

Nikki S. Rickard
School of Psychology, Psychiatry & Psychological Medicine, Monash University, Australia

Peter Appelman
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Australia

Richard James
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Australia

Fintan Murphy
School of Music, Monash University, Australia

Anneliese Gill
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Australia

Caroline Bambrick
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Australia

Abstract
Music training has been found to produce a range of cognitive benefits for young children, although
well-controlled evaluation of the effects on psychosocial functioning has been limited. In this study
participants were recruited from two grade levels (prep/grade 1, N = 210; grade 3, N = 149),
and were allocated to a music education condition, or a control condition which continued to
receive their usual curriculum. In the treatment condition, Kodaly music classes were introduced
into the younger cohort’s curriculum, while the older cohort received additional instrumental

Corresponding author:
Nikki S. Rickard, Monash University, School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Melbourne, 3800, Australia.
Email: nikki.rickard@monash.edu

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2 International Journal of Music Education

classes which were predominantly strings-based. Results indicated that school-based music
classes prevented a decline in global self-esteem measures experienced by the control group
in both the younger and older cohorts, and in general and academic self-esteem for the older
cohort. Preliminary data also suggest that a similarly engaging, arts-based activity (juggling) may
confer similar benefits for older children’s self-esteem. While difficulties inherent in performing
experimental research within schools prevent strong conclusions, the data imply that increasing
the frequency and quality of arts-based activities can be beneficial for the self-esteem of primary
school-aged children.

Keywords
group-based, Kodaly, music education, psychosocial functioning, school-based, string pedagogy

Learning to play a musical instrument requires the development of a range of skills such as
disciplined practice, visual-motor ability, sustained attention and concentration, memory,
motivation, coordination, emotional sensitivity and team work (Hietolahti-Ansten &
Kalliopuska, 1990; Hurwitz, Wolff, Bortnick, & Kokas, 1975; Orsmond & Miller, 1999;
Rauscher & Zupan, 2000; Schellenberg, 2001; Shore & Strasser, 2006; Warner, 1999). Music
training may also ‘enrich’ the brain, as evidenced by studies which show that children who
have actively engaged in music training display enhanced cortical volume in a range of audi-
tory, somatosensory, motor and visual spatial brain regions (Gaser & Schlaug, 2003) as well
as a thicker corpus callosum (Schlaug, Jäncke, Huang, Staiger, & Steinmetz, 1995). Musically
trained participants also demonstrate more efficient processing by auditory neurons (Pantev et
al., 1998) and enhanced cortical representation of somatosensory areas relating to their instru-
ment, each of which is more pronounced in musicians who began their training at an early age
(Elbert, Pantev, Wienbruch, Rockstroh, & Taub, 1995; Schlaug et al., 1995). Given the signifi-
cant range of abilities and experiences associated with music training, it is not surprising that
the benefits of music training might extend to non-musical domains such as intelligence,
memory, learning, and self-esteem.
The majority of research investigating the collateral benefits of music training has focused on
gains in intelligence and academic performance. Music training can enhance mathematical per-
formance (Cheek & Smith, 1999; Gardiner, Fox, Knowles, & Jeffrey, 1996; Graziano, Peterson,
& Shaw, 1999), literacy skills (Butzlaff, 2000; Hurwitz et al., 1975; Standley & Hughes, 1997),
spatial-temporal performance (Graziano et al., 1999; Rauscher & Zupan, 2000), general intelli-
gence (Costa-Giomi, 1999; Schellenberg, 2004) and verbal memory (Chan, Ho, & Cheung, 1998;
Ho, Cheung, & Chan, 2003; Rickard, Vasquez, Murphy, Toukhasati, & Gill, 2010). However, the
impact of music training on the psychosocial aspects of human function, such as self-esteem and
social skills, has received less empirical attention despite a long history of research interest in the
potential benefits of music on self-esteem (see reviews in Costa-Giomi, 2004 and Gill & Rickard,
2012). Nonetheless, the inherent characteristics of music are ideally suited to the facilitation of
these abilities. For instance, music: is generally perceived as non-threatening (Humpal, 1991;
Trusty & Oliva, 1994); promotes psychological development (Duffy & Fuller, 2001; Luftig, 1994;
Salaman, Stefabo, & Kim, 2002); has a natural appeal to children (Humpal, 1991; Shore &
Strasser, 2006; Trusty & Oliva, 1994); and provides opportunities for children to feel good about
themselves and build a sense of community in the group (Humpal, 1991; Shore & Strasser, 2006;
Warner, 1999).

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Rickard et al. 3

There is a wealth of anecdotal evidence from music educators and therapists attesting to the
value of music in enhancing pro-social behaviour and self-esteem. As an expressive form of
art, music invites discovery and play. Music education also demands participation and group
collaboration and, as such, is seen to be an effective medium for promoting social cohesion
(Humpal, 1991; Peretz, 2005) and for facilitating the development of social skills (Blandford
& Duarte, 2004; Humpal, 1991). Music classes are thought to promote trust (Camilleri, 2002)
and to help children develop empathy (Levine, 1997) and respect and understanding of others
(Kim, 2004; Palmer, 2001). Playing music together can help children learn to cooperate effec-
tively with each other (Palmer, 2001), inspiring them to develop ways to solve problems and
to generate ideas collaboratively (Sawyer, 1999).
Skills that assist with the development of social competence have also been reported to benefit
from music instruction. Both listening skills (Kim, 2004; Sawyer, 1999) and the ability to concen-
trate (Camilleri, 2002) are thought to improve with music training. Music education may also help
children in the development of self-control (Kim, 2004; McClung, 2000) which is necessary for
curbing impulsive and potentially disruptive behaviour in the classroom. Finally, playing music
with others aids in the development of self-awareness and self-confidence (Cleave & Dust, 1989),
which may be important factors in initiating relationships with peers and developing self-esteem.
While observations such as these provide a valuable indication of the potential for music
training to foster social competence and self-esteem, there is a lack of empirical-based research
supporting the benefits outlined, especially for social skills. In fact only one study appears to have
experimentally examined the relationship between music instruction and social functioning.
Schellenberg (2004) measured adaptive and maladaptive behaviour using the parent rating scale of
the Behavioural Assessment System for Children (BASC) and observed no improvements in either
measure of behaviour for the groups receiving voice or keyboard lessons. In contrast, improve-
ments in adaptive behaviour were reported for those students receiving drama lessons. While
apparently inconsistent with previous non-experimental research, caution is advised in interpreting
these findings for several reasons. First, the duration of the programme was relatively short
term (36 weeks of lessons), and therefore may not reflect benefits that can arise following more
persistent training and practice. Second, participation was restricted to children who possessed a
full-sized keyboard with at least four octaves, and therefore the sample was likely to be narrower
than the general student population, and potentially more socioeconomically advantaged.
Research on the effects of music training on self-esteem is also quite sparse. Studies focusing
on the longer term effects (for instance, greater than one year) of music training have generally
found a significant impact on global self-esteem. Luftig (1994) evaluated a four-year arts pro-
gramme (which included music, drama and arts) whilst Costa-Giomi (1999, 2004) measured the
effects of formal piano lessons over a three-year period. Both researchers measured primary school
children’s self-esteem at baseline and 12-month intervals for the duration of their respective pro-
grammes. Costa-Giomi (2004) reported a significant increase in global self-esteem, in particular
between years one and two, when compared with control groups. Luftig also found that students in
his study experienced a significant increase in social self-esteem. These findings are consistent
with correlational studies, for instance with Hietolahti-Ansten and Kalliopuska’s (1990) finding
that young adolescents (mean age of 12) with an average of six years music training demonstrated
higher global self-esteem than students who were not active in music.
Several studies have shown that shorter duration periods of music training are typically less
effective, although there is some limited evidence that children with specialised needs may benefit
from very brief training programmes (Duffy & Fuller, 2001; Humpal, 1991). In contrast, the short-
term effects of music training on self-esteem in the normal student population have been found to

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4 International Journal of Music Education

be negligible. Zimmerman (2002) compared two groups of primary school children (4th and
5th graders) who participated in the school band over a period of nine months and reported no
significant changes in self-concept from baseline to post-test. Similarly Legette (1994) found no
significant differences in self-esteem between groups of grade 1, 2 and 4 students who participated
in a specialised electronic keyboard programme over a period of four to eight months and those
who did not. This suggests that, whilst there is some modest support for an effect of music training
on self-esteem, potential benefits may require at least 12 months of music instruction to be
realised. Furthermore, drawing strong conclusions from any of these studies is complicated by the
fact that they are limited by methodological problems such as neglecting to use appropriate control
groups (Zimmerman, 2002), failing to implement an additional control condition of an equally
engaging non-musical activity (Costa-Giomi, 2004), drawing participants from pre-existing popu-
lations (Hietolahti-Ansten & Kalliopuska, 1990) and using restricted age or socioeconomic groups
which limits generalizability.
The urgent need for experimental research on the range of benefits of music education for
children is highlighted in the recent National Review of School Music Education (Pascoe et al.,
2005). Music training, however, is not easily accessed, particularly by families in geographi-
cally or socially disadvantaged areas. The National Review of School Music Education recog-
nised this limit and recommends access to music education be encouraged by increasing the
frequency and quality of music education within Australian schools. Nevertheless, research on
the benefits of music training which is embedded within the school curriculum and class groups
is lacking. Given that the majority of previous research into the benefits of music has focused
on private (one-to-one) rather than school- or classroom-based (group) music lessons, the aim
of the current study was to experimentally investigate whether more accessible classroom
music education could also generate such benefits for children’s self-esteem and social skills.

Method
Participants
Participants were drawn from 10 primary schools in a regional shire in Victoria, Australia,
clustered within 20km of the regional centre. All schools expressed an interest in participating in
the full music programme although allocation to the new music training programme required an
agreement from the school that they possessed or could contribute towards the purchase of neces-
sary resources (such as instruments) for the programme. Allocation to the treatment groups was
therefore not random, although the music programme and control group schools were similar at
baseline on all demographics examined, including socioeconomic status and previous music les-
sons (see Table 1). The gender breakdown differed for each analysis as a result of missing data,
but in each instance, chi-square tests confirmed males and females were equally distributed across
the treatment groups.
Two cohorts of participants were recruited from each school: a younger cohort (prep/grade 1 at
baseline) and an older cohort (grade 3 at baseline). Parental permission was originally obtained for
210 younger children (117 females, 93 males) and 149 older children (75 females, 74 males) to
participate. Children were allocated to treatment or control groups based on the school they were
attending. Movement of students from schools, absences during testing days and non-compliance
on behalf of either students or teachers completing assessments resulted in considerable attrition
across the duration of the study (three years). Nevertheless, missing data were fairly evenly distrib-
uted across the treatment and control conditions. The main analyses were performed on only those

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Rickard et al. 5

Table 1.  Demographic profile of music programme and control group samples

Music programme Control

Number of schools 5 4
Mean students per school testing group 14 10
Previous informal use of instruments1 61% 54%
Previous formal music lessons1 15% 16%
Socioeconomic status units (school) 0.46 (SD 0.06) 0.48 (SD 0.09)
Distance from regional centre 39.4km 42.9km
Distance from local centre 8.4km 7.9km
1 Older cohort only (negligible in younger cohort).

data sets which were complete across the three years, and the final sample sizes, as well as baseline
(pre-test) data, for self-esteem and social skills measures are reported in Table 2 (see also the
Results section).

Materials
A personal details form recording age, gender and participation in informal and formal music training
was completed for each student. Self-esteem was assessed by two age-appropriate versions of the
Culture-Free Self Esteem Inventory, third edition (CSFEI-3; Battle, 2002) whilst social skills were
measured with the social skills rating system (SSRS; Gresham & Elliot, 1990). The CSFEI-3 is a self-
report inventory used to determine the self-esteem levels of children and adolescents between 6–18
years, 11 months in a culturally fair manner. It can be individually or group administered requiring
simple yes/no verbal or written responses. The primary response form (6–8yrs) assesses global self-
esteem and consists of 29 statements such as: ‘Boys and girls like to play with me’ and ‘My family
thinks I am important’. The intermediate response form (9–12 yrs) consists of 64 statements which
assess self-esteem in four areas: academic, general, parental/home and social. Statements such as: ‘I
usually take a long time to do my schoolwork’ measure individuals’ perceptions of their ability to
perform academic tasks; ‘Most boys and girls are better at doing things than I am’, measure individu-
als’ overall perception of self worth; ‘I often feel left out of things at home’ measure individuals’
perceptions of how they fit in at home; and ‘Other kids think I have pretty good ideas’ measure indi-
viduals’ perceptions of anxiety and self-worth. In addition to the sub-scale measures, the CSFEI-3
intermediate form also yields a global self-esteem quotient (total score) ranging from very low self-
esteem to very high self-esteem. Both forms also yield a defensiveness score (lie scale; Battle, 2002).
The CFSEI-3 has been shown to be highly reliable with average internal consistency coefficients
ranging from 0.81–0.93 and time sampling coefficients ranging from 0.72–0.98. It also correlates
strongly with other measures of self-esteem and self-concept (Battle, 2002).
The SSRS assesses student social behaviours with three different behaviour rating forms
(teacher, parent and student versions) that may be used separately or in combination to obtain a
measure of social skills, problem behaviours and academic competence; the teacher form was
used in the current study for its greater reliability. The teacher form elementary level (SSRS-
teacher) was designed to assess primary school children ranging from grades K to 6 and consists
of 57 items across the three scales; 30 items for social skills (e.g., ‘Controls temper in conflict
situations with peers’), 18 items for problem behaviours (e.g., ‘Fights with others’), and nine
items for academic competence (e.g., ‘In reading, how does this child compare with other

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6 International Journal of Music Education

Table 2.  Comparison of music programme and control groups on age and dependent measures at
baseline (pre-test)

Cohort and measure Music programme Control Significance of Difference

YOUNGER COHORT Mean SD n Mean SD n  

Self-esteem analyses  
  Baseline age 5.92 0.53 66 6.06 0.62 30 t(94) = 1.11, p = .67
  Baseline SE score 97.52 13.03 44 110.52 8.08 21 t(58) = 4.86, p < .001**
Social skills analyses  
  Baseline age 5.97 100 6.13 0.57 58 t(156) = 1.73, p = .09
  Baseline SS scores 0.54  
  SS 99.34 13.83 62 104.00 12.16 35 t(92) = 1.61, p = .11
  AC 94.13 11.93 60 101.63 13.96 32 t(90) = 2.7, p = .008**
  PB 98.74 12.02 62 97.66 10.59 35 t(92) = 0.56, p = .58

OLDER COHORT Mean SD n Mean SD n  

  Self-esteem analyses  
  Baseline age 8.65 0.69 56 8.69 0.71 43 t(97) = 0.30, p = .77
  Baseline SE scores  
  GSe 99.08 14.96 48 100.41 15.15 34 t(98) = 0.12, p = .91
  ASe 10.06 2.37 49 11.24 2.17 37 t(98) = 2.39, p = .019**
  GenSE 9.51 3.40 49 9.88 3.32 34 t(98) = 0.04, p = .97
  PSe 10.08 2.79 50 10.16 3.10 37 t(98) = 0.53, p = .60
  SSe 9.52 2.90 50 9.78 2.54 36 t(98) = 0.48, p = .64
Social skills analyses  
  Baseline age 8.53 0.68 53 8.73 0.58 39 t(65) = 1.38, p = .17
  Baseline SS scores  
  SS 104.83 15.68 35 109.41 16.81 32 t(65) = 1.15, p = .25
  AC 91.31 11.17 35 99.44 11.09 32 t(65) = 2.98, p = .004**
  PB 99.94 13.47 35 99.66 17.01 32 t(65) = 0.77, p = .94

Note: GSe = global self-esteem; ASe = academic self-esteem; GenSe = general self-esteem; PSe = parental self-esteem; SSe
= social self-esteem; SS = social skills; AC = academic competence; PB = problem behaviour; * p < .05; **p < .01.

students?’). Each of these scales measures various sub-domains of the associated behaviour. The
social skills scale encompasses an assessment of cooperation, assertion and self-control.
Externalizing problems, hyperactivity and internalizing problems comprise the problem behav-
iours scale whilst academic competence samples relevant behaviour such as student motivation,
parental encouragement and performance in mathematics and reading (Gresham & Elliot, 1990).
Items on the social skills and problem behaviours scales are rated according to perceived fre-
quency within the classroom with each item measured on a four-point scale ranging from 0 (never)
to 3 (very often). Social skills items are also rated according to perceived importance for success
within the classroom with each item measured on a four-point scale ranging from 0 (not impor-
tant) to 3 (critical). Academic competence items are rated according to how the student compares
with others in the same class with each item measured on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (lowest
10%) to 5 (highest 10%); (Gresham & Elliot, 1990). The SSRS has been shown to have good

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Rickard et al. 7

internal consistency and test–retest reliability. Overall teacher forms are the most reliable with
strong internal consistency coefficients (social skills 0.94; problem behaviours, 0.88; academic
competence, 0.95) and test–retest correlations ranging from 0.84–0.93 (Gresham & Elliot, 1990).
The SSRS has also been shown to have good construct validity (especially with the teacher and
parent forms) with other measures of social skills and problem behaviours (Gresham & Elliot,
1990).

Procedure
Class teachers were invited to complete the SSRS for all participating students and the CFSEI-3
for the younger cohort. All consenting teachers received instruction on how to administer the
questionnaires from the researchers prior to each testing session. Due to the potentially sensitive
nature of some of the statements, the final decision to administer the CFSEI-3 primary form was
left to the discretion of the class teacher. Both questionnaires were completed for the younger
and older cohort at baseline (prior to intervention, or ‘pre-test’), and at approximately one year
and two years post music intervention. In addition, a sub-group of the older cohort was again
administered the CFSEI-3 at 2.5 yrs to determine the effects of an engaging and novel non-music
intervention, juggling, introduced into one control school in the second year of the programme.
All procedures for this study were approved by Monash University’s Human Research Ethics
Committee.
Students completed the remaining questionnaires within one of their classes during morning
break and lunch-time (avoiding the risk of fatigue in afternoon sessions). As this research formed
part of a larger study (see Rickard et al., 2010), the CFSEI-3 intermediate form was administered
as part of a test battery (approximately 90 minutes duration) conducted in the following order:
demographics, children’s memory scale (CMS; Cohen, 1997) verbal learning and immediate
recall, short break, Benton’s visual retention test (BVRT; Sivan, 1992) form C and D, CFSEI-3,
short break, CMS delayed recall and delayed recognition, CMS digit span forward. At baseline
(due to the young age of the participants) each statement was read aloud by the test administrator
with sufficient time and instruction provided for the participants to respond appropriately. For all
subsequent testing sessions the participants read each statement independently and completed all
items in a non-speeded manner. Research assistants were present in the classroom to assist
children to complete the questionnaires.

Music programme intervention

Five schools received the music intervention which consisted of age-specific music programmes
for the two age cohorts examined. Whilst these programmes were administered as part of the nor-
mal school curriculum (and required whole class participation) they did not replace the pre-
existing, general school music programme and classes. Rather, they resulted in a net increase in the
frequency of children’s exposure to music training. Children in the younger group received three
30-minute Kodaly music classes per week. The Kodaly method provides children with a sequential
music curriculum based on established principles of early childhood development. Designed for
children from kindergarten level to primary school, it places particular emphasis on singing, with
children encouraged to learn the nursery rhymes and traditional folk songs of their homeland.
Musical proficiency is developed through the use of the ‘moveable-do solfège’ system, the sound-
ing of rhythm syllables and the use of Curwen hand signs (for a thorough explanation of these
concepts, see Choksy, 1974).

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8 International Journal of Music Education

The older children participated in weekly (one-hour) group string instrumental classes taken by
two qualified teachers, one leader and one assistant. The instruments were provided by the schools
and each student was allocated to either violin, viola or cello. The mixed string groups ranged in
size from 10–24 students with a typical class incorporating tuning, singing, rhythm training,
basic music literacy skills, teacher demonstration and some small group and solo performances.
The repertoire consisted of simple beginner level folk tunes with up to four parts. After an initial
instrument familiarization period, students were permitted to take their instruments home to prac-
tice (although parental and teacher observations indicated that home practice was rare).
The four control schools did not receive these specialised music programmes but continued
with their regular school music programme. However, additional group music (e.g., percussion
ensemble) and vocal classes were offered to both control and experimental schools to ensure that
all schools had the opportunity to benefit in some manner from this educational initiative.
In the second year, a structured juggling programme was introduced in one of the control
schools to provide a preliminary assessment of whether the benefits from the music intervention
were specific to the music programme or whether they could be due to the introduction of a
novel arts based activity. These one-hour weekly classes were taken by experienced circus
skill instructors and were also programmed into the school curriculum. A typical class included
spinning, catching, throwing and passing plates, cascade scarves, 2–3 ball juggling, club and
diabolo activities and poi patterns.

Results
Self-esteem – younger cohort
In addition to missing data, two cases were omitted due to high defensiveness scores on the CFSEI-
3, and one case was omitted due to being an outlier on age. In the remaining data set, the music
group (mean age = 5.82 years, SD = 0.54) was found to be significantly younger at the baseline test
time than the control group (mean age = 6.25, SD = 0.68, t(57.8) = 3.35, p = .001. The dataset was
cleaned to yield two groups that were better matched on age by pseudo-randomly omitting 17 par-
ticipants from the music group and five participants from the control group. The resulting groups
were of equivalent mean age at baseline (see Table 2). While samples were of unequal size, the
assumptions of homogeneity of variances (Levene’s test) and normally distributed self-esteem
scores were met.
The groups differed at baseline with regard to self-esteem scores, with the control group
showing higher mean self-esteem (see Table 2). Participants in the music group showed a
substantial increase in global self-esteem scores from baseline to the first retest, while control
participants showed a substantial decrease (see Figure 1A). The groups, however, yielded very
similar self-esteem scores at the second retest. A mixed-model analysis of variance (ANOVA)
with schools nested within treatments was not significant, F(2,120) = 2.49, p = .087, ŋp2 =
.040. Nevertheless, analyses performed on the baseline to first retest data only (which enhanced
sample size as cases missing second retest data were not excluded) revealed the time × group
interaction from baseline to first year test was significant, F(1,65) = 4.90, p = .030, ŋp2 = .070.
Repeated measures post-hoc tests revealed that this was a result of a significant decrease in
self-esteem from baseline to first year test in the control group (t[20] = 4.97, p < .001) that was
not observed in the music group (t[46] = 1.39, p = .173). No such interaction was observed
from first to second retest.

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Rickard et al. 9

A Global self-esteem
Younger cohort Older cohort
115
115 Music

Global self-esteem score

Music Control
Self-esteem score

110 110
Control Juggling
105 105
100 100

95 95

90 90
e

ar

ar

e
in

ar

ar
ye

ye

in
el

ye

ye
el
as

+1

+2

as

+1

+2
B

B
Time of testing Time of testing

B
Self-esteem sub-scales – Older cohort only

Academic self-esteem General self-esteem

Academic self-esteem score

13 Music 13 Music
General Self-esteem score

Control Control
Juggling 12 Juggling
12
11
11
10
10
9

9 8
e

e
ar

ar

ar
ar
in

in
ye

ye

ye
ye
el

el
as

as
+1

+1

+2
+2
B

Time of testing Time of testing

Parental self-esteem Social self-esteem

13 13 Music
Parental Self-esteem score

Music
Social self-esteem score

Control Control
12
12 Juggling Juggling
11
11
10
10
9

9 8
e

ar

ar
ar

ar
in

in

ye
ye

ye

ye
el

el
as

as

+2
+1

+2

+1
B

Time of testing Time of testing

Figure 1.  Self-esteem score changes across two years for music programme and control groups (a) global
self-esteem scores for younger and older cohorts and (b) self-esteem sub-scale scores for older cohort

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10 International Journal of Music Education

Self-esteem – older cohort

In addition to missing data, one further case was omitted due to a high defensiveness score.
The mean age of the music and control groups was not significantly different (see Table 2). The
assumptions of homogeneity of variances (Levene’s test) and normally distributed self-esteem
scores were met at baseline and year one for the majority of measures. Levene’s test revealed that
the variances for all measures of self-esteem at year two were heterogenous, so caution was taken
interpreting changes in the final year in these data. The groups were equivalent at baseline on each
self-esteem sub-scale score except academic self-esteem, for which the control group showed a
higher mean scores (see Table 2). As with the younger cohort, the control participants experienced
a decline in several sub-scale measures of self-esteem across the first year that was not present for
the music group participants. Separate mixed model ANOVAs with treatment nested within
schools across three time points revealed significant time × group interactions for global self-
esteem, F(2, 146) = 6.34, p = .002, ŋp2 = .083, as well as the general, F(2, 148) = 3.16, p = .045,
ŋp2 = .041, and social CFSEI-3 sub-scales, F(2, 154) = 3.77, p = .025, ŋp2 = .047, and the parental
CFSEI-3 sub-scale interaction approaching significance, F(2, 156) = 2.87, p = .060, ŋp2 = .036.
Post-hoc analyses revealed that the global self-esteem interaction was due to both a significant
interaction from baseline to first year test, F(1,91) = 6.38, p = .013, ŋp2 = .066 and a significant
interaction from first year to second year test, F(1,73) = 11.90, p = .001, ŋp2 = .014. The general
self-esteem interaction was also attributable to interactions from baseline to first year test, F(1,91)
= 5.63, p = .020, ŋp2 = .058, and from first year to second year test, F(1,74) = 5.12, p = .027, ŋp2 =
.065. The primary interaction in both global and general self-esteem scores was therefore attributa-
ble to a decline in self-esteem from baseline to year one in the control group that did not occur in
the music group. In contrast, the increase from first to second year test was steeper for the control
group than the music group. The parental self-esteem interaction was also attributable to changes
at both time periods: baseline to first retest, F(1,91) = 4.21, p = .043, ŋp2 = .044, and from first
to second year test, F(1,78) = 5.39, p = .023, ŋp2 = .065. While the music group’s scores increased
more during the first year, the control group’s self-esteem scores increased more in the second
year. In contrast, the social self-esteem interaction was attributable to changes from first to second
year test only, F(1,77) = 5.24, p = .025, ŋp2 = .064; again this was due to a sharper increase in
self-esteem scores for the control than music group.

Juggling
One school also participated in a preliminary evaluation of a juggling programme in the third year.
This sample (n = 19) consisted of eight females and 11 males, and at this time point age ranged
from 8 to 10.08 years (mean = 8.69, SD = 0.58).
Unfortunately the considerably smaller sample sizes, different age at onset of the programme
and shorter duration of the juggling programme prevent inclusion of these data into the main
analyses. However, the descriptive data (see Figure 1) reveal that the juggling programme
appeared to yield similar trends for the older children’s self-esteem as did the music programme.
This pattern was evident for global self-esteem and all sub-scales.

Social skills – younger and older cohorts

Cases with missing data were omitted prior to analyses from both the younger and older cohort
datasets. There was no significant difference in mean age score across the music and control groups

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Rickard et al. 11

(see Table 2). The assumptions of homogeneity of variances (Levene’s test) and normally
distributed social scores were met for each cohort. Social skills and problem behaviour scores
for the groups were equivalent at baseline, although the control group exhibited a higher mean
academic competence score in each cohort (see Table 2). Social skills, problem behaviours and
academic competence in the younger cohort were fairly constant across the duration of the study,
and were similar across groups (see Figure 2A). Mixed model ANOVAs with treatment nested
within schools revealed no significant time × group effects across the three time points, or across
any two time points. Similarly there appeared to be little effect of the music programme on social
skills in the older cohort (see Figure 2B). A mixed model ANOVA with treatment nested within
schools across the three time points revealed some change in problem behaviours and academic
competent-relevant social skills across time, but no time × group interaction. When analyses
were performed for two years only, the time × group interaction approached significance for
academic competence from baseline to first retest only, F(1,84) = 2.91, p = .092, ŋp2 = .034.

Discussion
The aim of the current study was to provide an experimental evaluation of the psychosocial
benefits of increasing class-based music education in primary school children. Age-appropriate
music programmes were introduced into a younger and older cohort of students in a cluster of
primary schools in a rural region. Self-esteem and social skills were measured longitudinally in
these students, as well as in control students who continued to receive their usual curriculum.
The primary finding in this study was that the music programme yielded a number of benefits for
both younger and older children’s self-esteem, although the effect sizes were generally modest
and dissipated in the second year. A preliminary examination of an alternative arts-based pro-
gramme (juggling) revealed similar benefits for self-esteem, although conclusions on this point
are limited due to differences between comparison groups. In contrast, no benefits of the music
programme were observed on children’s social skills.
The effects of the music programme on self-esteem were observed for global self-esteem,
as well as for general and social self-esteem sub-scales in the older cohort. The significant
benefit appeared to reflect a protection against a decline in self-esteem which occurred in the
absence of the programme during the first year. An age-related decline in self-esteem among
control students is consistent with previous findings of declining self-concept in the early
years of primary school (e.g., Burnett, 1996; Eshel & Klein, 1981; Marsh, 1989; Marsh,
Barnes, Cairns, & Tidman, 1984; Soares & Soares, 1997). It is notable that the control students
exhibited considerably higher global self-esteem scores at baseline, which may mean that the
interaction is an artifact of these above average scores. However, the fact that the beneficial
effect of music occurred across the two different cohorts would suggest it was not an artifact,
as does perusal of the individual school data, which typically showed a decline across this
interval in most schools across all measures.
The current finding of increased global self-esteem among students in the music programme
is consistent with previous research (Costa-Giomi, 2004; Hietolahti-Ansten & Kalliopuska,
1990; Luftig, 1994). Costa-Giomi demonstrated that private formal piano lessons over a three-
year period benefited global self-esteem, while Hietolahti-Ansten and Kalliopuska’s correla-
tional study found higher global self-esteem among students with extensive musical training
than those who were not musically trained. However, no previous research has experimentally
investigated the effects of school-based music education on self-esteem. The current findings

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12 International Journal of Music Education

A Younger cohort B Older cohort

115 Music 120
Control

Social Skills score

110
Social skills score

110

105
100
100
90 Music
95
Control
90 80
e

e
r

r
a

a
in

in
ye

ye

ye

ye
el

el
as

as
+1

+2

+1

+2
B

B
Time of testing Time of testing

Younger cohort Older cohort

110 Music 110 Music
Academic competence score

Academic competence score

Control Control
105 105

100
100
95
95
90
90 85

85 80
e
e

r
a

a
in
in

ye

ye

ye

ye
el
el

as
as

+1

+2

+1

+2
B
B

Time of testing Time of testing

Younger cohort Older cohort

110 140 Music
Music
Problem behaviour score

Problem behaviour score

Control Control
105 120

100 100

95 80

90 60
e

e
r

r
a

a
in

in
ye

ye

ye

ye
el

el
as

as
+1

+2

+1

+2
B

Time of testing Time of testing

Figure 2.  Social skill sub-scale scores changes across two years for music programme and control groups
in (a) younger cohort and (b) older cohort

provide the first evidence to our knowledge that the benefits of music training on self-esteem
reported previously extend to school-based music classes. This finding is valuable given that the
expenses associated with private lessons and purchase of instruments make private tuition

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Rickard et al. 13

inaccessible to many, particularly low socioeconomic status groups. Thus school-based music
lessons may be a more accessible alternative to private tuition that provides similar benefits to
self-esteem.
Numerous elements inherent in the school-based music classes may have contributed to
improved self-esteem. Students were required to engage socially and function as a cohesive
group, each of which is thought to foster a sense of belonging and self-confidence (Cleave &
Dust, 1989) and may have contributed to the observed increases in social self-esteem. Music
tasks were structured so that students were equally competent before a more complex piece was
introduced, which potentially facilitated self-perceptions of competence and ability to achieve
goals. All children in the younger cohort were given the opportunity by the Kodaly teacher to
direct the activities of the group. This opportunity was likely to have validated the significance
of the individual in the group, boosting self-worth, and also increased feelings of competence in
being entrusted this responsibility. In addition, the programmes enabled students to receive posi-
tive feedback on their performance from their peers, teachers and family.
At least some of these characteristics inherent in the music intervention may be generalised to
other arts-based programmes, which accounts for the similar benefits to self-esteem found in the
juggling group. However, it is still likely that there are other benefits that are specific to music
training. Previous research indicates that benefits specific to music education may be more appar-
ent in the cognitive domain than the psychosocial domain. For instance, children allocated to the
music programme in the current study’s older cohort also demonstrated improvements in verbal
memory that were not apparent in the juggling group (see Rickard et al., 2010). In addition, a study
by Schellenberg (2001) that randomly allocated 144 6-year-old children to 36 weeks of Kodaly
voice lessons, keyboard lessons, drama lessons or no lessons revealed widespread intellectual ben-
efits for both the music groups that were absent in the drama group.
In contrast to self-esteem, no benefits to social skills were apparent amongst the intervention
students. This finding was unexpected. As music requires participation and group collaboration, it
is generally thought that music promotes social cohesion (Humpal, 1991; Peretz, 2005) and
enhances the development of social skills (Blandford & Duarte, 2004). One possible explanation
for the lack of improvement in the current study is that the social skills of participants were above
average at baseline, whereas benefits of music training may be apparent only in children with
poorer social skills. Nevertheless, the present finding is consistent with that of Schellenberg (2004),
who assessed the impact of weekly lessons in Kodaly voice or keyboard training in 6-year-old
children over a nine month period. Both programmes failed to increase socially adaptive behaviour
or reduce maladaptive behaviour. More empirical research is needed to determine whether music
training can benefit social skills.
Several limitations in the current study should be acknowledged. Students were non-
randomly allocated to the control or intervention group, although groups were similar at base-
line on all demographics. In addition, although variations across schools were controlled
through the use of nested analyses, a fully experimental design could not be used. Despite
these limitations, the finding that age-appropriate music training benefited global self-esteem
in both age cohorts is very promising and supplements the broader argument for arts-based
education across the curriculum. It is important to note, however, that the observed benefits
occurred only in the first year of the two-year programme. This suggests that variations to the
programme may need to be introduced in order to maintain benefits to students’ self-esteem
over the course of primary school. Nevertheless, this finding is consistent with those of previ-
ous research which also demonstrated stronger improvements in self-esteem after the first year
of piano lessons than subsequent years (Costa-Giomi, 2004). In conclusion, the current

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14 International Journal of Music Education

findings provide the first known evidence that long-term age-appropriate school-based music
education improves self-esteem in primary school children. Specifically, it appears that music
training protected against a decline in self-esteem experienced by those students that were not
involved in additional music classes. The observed benefits to self-esteem may generalise to
other arts-based programmes, as preliminary data indicated that juggling lessons yielded simi-
lar benefits.
Clearly efforts shown to support development of children’s social skills and self-esteem are
highly sought in the education context. Low self-esteem is associated with a range of mental health
problems for children and adolescents (Elmer, 2001; Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, & de Vries, 2004),
including mental illness (suicidal tendencies, depression, eating disorders, and anxiety) and social
problems (antisocial behaviour, difficulty in sustaining and forming close relationships, violence
and substance abuse) (Dubois & Tevendale, 1999; Elmer, 2001; Mann et al., 2004). Given the poor
expected outcomes for children with demonstrated deficiencies in self-worth, it is vital that chil-
dren are provided with environments conducive to developing better self-esteem. Recognizing
this, educators are increasingly seeking to provide children with the means to realise their psycho-
social competence as well as their academic potential (Department of Education and Training,
2002; McClung, 2000). In addition to its intrinsic musical benefits, music training might offer the
necessary environmental conditions for schools to foster this development. The current study is
among the first to provide empirical support for the value of increasing structured arts-based activi-
ties within the school curriculum.

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the Australian Research Council who supported this research via an ARC
Linkage grant (#LP0669864), and the Victorian Department of Education and Early Childhood Development
for permission to perform this research in state schools. We would also like to thank the staff and students
involved in the music education programme, in particular Ms Marilyn Keogh and Ms Linda Browne.

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Nikki Rickard, BBSc(Hons), PhD, is an Associate Professor, specializing in research evaluations of

positive interventions on cognitive and emotional well-being, particularly in school settings. She has
authored over 50 peer-reviewed publications in international journals and recently completed a large
Australian Research Council funded project investigating the psychosocial benefits of intensive music
education for schoolchildren. She is currently Co-Director of the Emotion and Well-Being Unit at
Monash University, Secretary of the Australian Music & Psychology Society (AMPS) and Co-Editor-in-
Chief of the new Springer Open Access journal Psychology of Well-Being: Theory, Research &
Practice launched in 2011.

Peter Appleman, Dip Holistic Therapy, GradDip (Science), PGrad (Psych), has experience working in counselling
and stress management, and is currently working in the field of environment and sustainability.

Richard James, BBSc, PGrad (Psych) is currently working in a community-based organization in Melbourne
Australia that provides both assessment and therapeutic intervention for children and adolescents who have
engaged in problematic or abusive behaviour. He has co-authored one publication: Life Skills: Facilitation
Guides for Educators Working with People with an Intellectual Disability.

Fintan Murphy is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Music, Monash University, Australia. His main
research areas are body use and coordination in string playing and the use of multimedia in instrumental
teaching. Recent publications include the DVDROM’s Violin Bow Technique (Twofold/Alfred, 2008) and
the Violin Alive series (Twofold/Young Musicians, 2001–2009), the CD recording The Soul of the Viola
(Move, 2004) and the Series 7 violin books (consultant editor) for the Australian Music Examinations
Board (Allans, 2001).

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Rickard et al. 17

Anneliese Gill, MMus, Post-Grad. Dip. Psyc, a musician and Fulbright Scholar, spent a number of years as part
of the music-psychology research team in the School of Psychology and Psychiatry at Monash University. She
is involved in researching the benefits of school-based music education and is a guest lecturer on Music
Performance Anxiety.

Caroline Bambrick, BSci (Hons) (Psych), has conducted a wide range of research studies over a number of
years in the School of Psychology and Psychiatry at Monash University, ranging from the effects of sleep
deprivation, interventions for clinical depression and well-being of carers in dementia, in addition to her role
investigating the benefits of school-based music education.

Abstracts
Orchestrer les compétences de vie: l’effet de l’augmentation des cours de
musique dans le milieu scolaire sur les compétences sociales des enfants et
l’estime de soi
Cette étude a examiné l’effet d’augmenter la fréquence et la qualité des activités musicales en
classe sur les compétences de l’estime de soi et sociales des enfants en âge d’écoles primaires
pendant plusieurs années. Les enfants ont été recrutés à partir de deux niveaux scolaires (Prep /
Grade 1, N = 210; Grade 3, N = 149) à partir d’un ensemble de 10 écoles dans une région rurale de
Victoria, en Australie. Les écoles ont été soumises soit à la condition expérimentale, ou à la condi-
tion de contrôle, qui a continué à recevoir leur cursus habituel. Dans la condition expérimentale,
des cours de musique basés sur la méthode Kodaly ont été introduits dans les programmes des plus
jeunes, tandis que les plus âgés ont reçu des classes supplémentaires principalement d’instrument
à cordes. L’effet de l’introduction de ces classes de musique sur les compétences d’estime de soi et
sociales des enfants a été évaluée à travers les 2 ans de recherche, en utilisant la troisième édition
du Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventories (Bataille, 2002) et le Social Skills Rating System (Gresham
& Elliot, 1990), respectivement. Les résultats ont indiqué que les cours de musique en milieu sco-
laire ont empêché une baisse de l’estime de soi globale, qui a été observée chez le groupe de
contrôle, à la fois dans les plus jeunes et les plus âgés, et en estime de soi générale et académique
pour les plus âgés. Aucuns avantages du programme de musique ont été observés sur les compé-
tences sociales des enfants. Il est à remarquer, toutefois, que les données préliminaires suggèrent
qu’une semblable engagement observées dans les activité artistique (jonglerie) peut conférer des
avantages similaires pour l’estime de soi des enfants plus âgés. Alors que les difficultés inhérentes
à effectuer des recherches expérimentales dans les écoles empêchent des conclusions solides, les
données impliquent que l’augmentation de la qualité dans les activités artistique est bénéfique pour
l’estime de soi des enfants.

Orquestando habilidades vitales: el efecto del incremento de clases de música

basadas en la escuela en la competencia social y autoestima de los niños
Este estudio investigó el efecto de aumentar la frecuencia y calidad de actividades musicales de
aula en la autoestima y las habilidades sociales de niños de Primaria durante varios años. Se selec-
cionaron niños de dos niveles distintos (1er curso escuela preparatoria, N = 210; 3º, N = 149) en un
grupo de diez escuelas de una región rural de Victoria, Australia. Se asignaron las escuelas o bien
al grupo experimental o bien al grupo control, el cual continuaba recibiendo su currículo habitual.
En el grupo experimental, se introdujeron clases musicales de Kodaly en el currículo del grupo más

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18 International Journal of Music Education

joven, mientras que el grupo de mayor edad recibía clases instrumentales adicionales basadas prin-
cipalmente en la cuerda. El efecto de introducir estas sesiones escolares en la autoestima y habili-
dades sociales de los niños fue evaluada a lo largo de los dos años de aplicación utilizando el
Inventario de Autoestima Libre de Cultura, tercera edición (Battle, 2002) y el Sistema de
Clasificación de Habilidades Sociales (Gresham & Elliot, 1990), respectivamente. Los resultados
indicaron que las clases de música escolares evitaron una reducción en las mediciones de la autoes-
tima del grupo control, tanto en los grupos de los más jóvenes como en los de más edad, así como
en la autoestima académica y general en el de más edad. No se observaron beneficios respecto al
programa de música en relación con las habilidades sociales de los niños. En gran medida, no
obstante, datos previos sugieren que una actividad igualmente atractiva, basada en el arte (malab-
ares), puede aportar beneficios similares para la autoestima de los niños de mayor edad. Mientras
que las dificultades inherentes en la realización de la fase experimental evitan evitan conclusiones
fuertes, nuestros datos implican que un incremento de las actividades de calidad basadas en arte es
beneficioso para la autoestima de los niños.

Downloaded from ijm.sagepub.com at Monash University on August 27, 2012

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