LEAP Engineering Forum

(Compiled by Engr Imran S.D.O QESCO)

1. From where do we supply DC to Exciter of the Generator?

Generator Excitation Control Systems and Methods

Excitation Systems
Excitation systems can be defined as the system that provides field current to the rotor
winding of a generator. Well-designed excitation systems provide reliability of
operation, stability and fast transient response.

The four common excitation methods include:

 Shunt or Self Excited

 Excitation Boost System (EBS)
 Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
 Auxiliary Winding (AUX).

Each method has its individual advantages. All methods use an Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR) to supply DC output to the exciter stator. The exciter rotor AC output is rectified to a
DC input for the main generator rotor. More advanced systems use an additional input to the
AVR. This article will explore the construction, function and application for each method and
includes diagrams and illustrations for each.

Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

The construction of the AVR vary with the excitation used. All receive input from the stator
of the generator when it rotates. AVRs with the capability of receiving a second input to
reduce or eliminate internal harmonics caused by load feedback signals are used for non-
linear load applications. The two types commonly used are:

 Silicone Controlled Rectifier (SCR) - Senses power level from the stator and
determines its firing for the exciter voltage. Can cause troubles when used with non-
linear loads.
 Field Effect Transistor (FET) - Senses power level from the stator and translates in to
a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signal to the exciter. This style of AVR can be used
for excitation methods. Non-linear loads do not cause feedback resulting excitation
breakdowns.
Shunt or Self-excited

The shunt method is features a simple and cost effective design to provide input power to the AVR.
This method requires no additional components or wiring. When problems arise troubleshooting is
simplified with less components and wiring to validate.

As the generator is rotated, the stator supplies input voltage to the AVR. In addition the AVR has
sensors that monitor the output of the stator.

The AVR supplies power the exciter and is rectified to DC current. The current is induced onto the
stator for load output.

The biggest drawback to this system is the AVR is impacted by the load the generator is powering.
When the load increases the voltage begins to decrease and the AVR must provide more current to the
exciter to support the demand. This pushes the AVR to its limits. If the AVR is pushed
beyond it's limits the excitation field collapses. The output voltage is reduced to a small amount.

If a short circuit occurs in the supply to the AVR, the generator will not have an excitation source.’
This causes a loss of generator power output.

Generators with shunt or self-excited methods can be used on linear loads (constant load).
Applications that have non-linear loads (varying load) are not recommend for generators with this
excitation method. Harmonics associated with non-linear loads can cause excitation field breakdowns.
 Excitation Boost System (EBS)

The EBS system is comprised of the same basic components supplying inputs to and
receiving outputs from the AVR. The additional components in this system are:

 Excitation Boost Control (EBC) Module

 Excitation Boost Generator (EBG).

The EBG is mounted on the driven end of the alternator. Physical appearance is the same
as a permanent magnet. The EBG supplies power to the controller as the generator shaft
rotates.

The EBC control module is connected in parallel to the AVR and the exciter. The EBC
receives signal from the AVR. When needed the controller supplies varying levels of
excitation current to the exciter at levels that depend on the needs of the system.

The additional power feed to the excitation system supports load requirements. This allows the generator to
start and recover the excitation voltage.

This excitation system is not recommended for continuous power applications. It is intended for emergency
or back- up power applications. When the generator starts the EBS system is disengaged until operating speed
is reached. The EBG is still generating power but the controller does not route it.

System allows for dynamic response, is less expensive and meets requirements for providing 300% short circuit
current. Non-linear loads such as motor starting, are improved when compared to the Shunt or Self Excited
method.
Permanent Magnetic Generator (PMG)

Generators equipped with permanent magnets are among the most well-known separately
excited methods. A permanent magnet is mounted on the driven end of the generator shaft.

PMG supplies isolated power to the AVR when the generator shaft rotates. The AVR utilizes
the extra power when supplying non-linear loads such as; starting of motors.

A clean, isolated, uninterrupted 3-phase waveform is produced when the generator shaft is
turning.

Some of the benefits of using generators equipped with the PMG excitation method are:

 Excitation field does not collapse allowing for sustained short circuit faults to clear.
 Changing load does not impact excitation field.
 Voltage is created on initial startup and does not depend on remaining magnetism in
the field.
 During motor start up excitation field does not collapse because of lack of AVR supply.

The PMG System adds weight and size to the generator end. It is the most commonly used
excitation method for applications that use motors that start up and shutdown and other non-
linear loads.
Auxiliary Winding (AUX)

The auxiliary winding method has been in use for years. The uses range from marine to
industrial applications and are more practical in larger installations.

This method has a separate excitation field, however it does not use a component attached
to the driven end of the shaft of the generator. These methods use shaft rotation and a
permanent magnet or generator to supply the additional excitation.

An additional single phase winding is installed into the stator. As the generator shaft rotates
the stator main windings supply voltage to the AVR as in all above mentioned methods.

The additional single phase windings supply voltage to the AVR. This creates the extra
excitation voltage needed when supplying non-linear loads.

For linear load applications shunt, EBS, PMG and AUX excitation methods can be used.
Shunt excitation is the most cost effective method.

For non-linear load applications, EBS, PMG and AUX excitation methods can be used. PMG
excitation is the most common and widely used.
2. Why is oil used in a transformer?

The Transformer is the soul of modern power systems. Here are three functions of oil in
transformers:

1. Coolant:
During up/down of voltage, the temperature of the windings in the transformer increases. Oil
acts like a coolant to reduce the temperature,

2. Insulator:
It acts like an insulator between the windings.
It increases the resistance between those and avoids short circuit till the BDV value of it which is
quite high .

3. Protection:
A Buchholz relay operates by the level of oil inside the transformer. The temperature indicator of
oil describes the internal condition of transformer, to show any short circuit status. This way oil
prevents severe losses and damage to transformer.

Thank you.

PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMER OIL

The transformer serves as the backbone of an electrical power system. This
article speaks about the properties of the mineral oil in the transformer.

TRANSFORMER OIL
One of the reliability factors of an electric transformer is the transformer oil. The
insulations for the transformer windings are provided by the insulating oil filled in the tank of
the transformer. The heat dissipation in the transformer is absorbed by the transformer oil so
that it is served as a coolant. Hence frequent testing of moisture content in the oil is very
necessary for the reliability of the power system. Paraffin or Naphtha based oils are widely
used as the insulating oil in a transformer.

PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMER OIL

 Dielectric breakdown voltage- The insulating property of an electrically insulative

material can be determined by its dielectric strength (dielectric break down voltage). It
is basically the voltage value that can lead to the loss of the ability to withstand
electrical stress. The minimum value of dielectric breakdown voltage of a typical
transformer oil is 28 kV (RMS).
 Moisture content- It basically pollutes the transformer oil by reducing its insulation
level. It is generally measured in parts per million (ppm). Generally accepted moisture
content of mineral oil is 35 ppm.
 Flash point- It is basically the minimum temperature that a material can ignite a fire.
The flash point of the transformer oil is 140 degrees Celcius or more.

It is very essential to maintain a level of oil in the transformer tank. When the oil level gets
decreased during operation, air from the atmosphere is likely to enter the tank. These air
molecules may contain moisture. A silica gel breather is used remove the moisture content from
these air molecules. The reliability of the transformer also depends upon its high thermal
conductivity and chemical stability.

Q.3 Buchholz relay

Two ball-shaped floats and two glass-enclosed reed switches are visible inside this cutaway view of a
Buchholz relay

In the field of electric power distribution and transmission, a Buchholz relay is a safety
device mounted on some oil-filled power transformers and reactors, equipped with an
external overhead oil reservoir called a "conservator". The Buchholz relay is used as a
protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure inside the equipment. A generic
designation for this type of device is "gas detector relay".

Application:-
Buchholz relays have been applied on oil-filled power and distribution transformers
at least since the 1940s. The relay is connected to the oil piping between the conservator and
oil tank of a transformer. The piping between the main tank and conservator is arranged so
that any gas evolved in the main tank tends to flow upward toward the conservator and gas
detector relay
Schematic diagram of a large oil-filled power transformer. The conservator tank, green, at right,
is marked 3 and the Buchholz relay is marked 5
Operation
Depending on the model, the relay has multiple methods to detect a failing
transformer. On a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload, gas produced
by decomposition
of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the relay and forces the oil level down. A float
switch in the relay is used to initiate an alarm signal. Depending on design, a second float
may also serve to detect slow oil leaks.
If an electrical arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows rapidly into the
conservator. This flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the path of the
moving oil. This switch normally will operate a circuit breaker to isolate the apparatus
before the fault causes additional damage. Buchholz relays have a test port to allow the
accumulated gas to be withdrawn for testing. Flammable gas found in the relay indicates
some internal fault such as overheating or arcing, whereas air found in the relay may only
indicate low oil level or a leak.
Through a connected gas sampling device the control can also be made from the
ground. Depending on the requirements, the Buchholz relay has a flange or threaded
connection. The classic Buchholz relay has to comply with the requirements of the DIN
EN 50216-2 standard. Depending on the requirements, it is equipped with up to four (2 per
float) switches or change- over switches, which can either send a light signal or switch off
the transformer.
The relay was first developed by Max Buchholz (1875–1956) in 1921
Q.4 Why and where is silica gel used in a transformer?
Silica gel is used as a visual indicator of moisture in the transformer oil. When moisture in air
comes in contact with the silica gel it will change colour.

It is used outside the transformer in a breather container which is connected to an opening

above the oil of the transformer via pipes.

At the bottom of the breather there is an oil reservoir which acts as a one way valve. When there is
pressure from the transformer oil side air will flow through the breather and bubble through the
reservoir. No air can reverse through the breather as long as there is oil in the bottom reservoir.

This photograph shows 2 silica breathers attached to a transformer. The breather on the left shows no
oil in the breather reservoir and the silica gel is being discoloured from the bottom up. This
indicates moisture coming from the outside world and not the transformer.

The silica gel on the right shows no discolouration so we can assume no moisture in the
transformer oil.

In this instance the colour change of the silica is from blue when dry and reddish brown when it
 has absorbed moisture.

There are many other colour changing combinations through silica and other materials
used in transformer breathers.

 Why is silica gel used in breather transformers?

Silica gel is used in breather for absorb all the moisture content in the surrounding air

of it while transformer breathing .

The oil expansion and contraction occurs depending upon whether conditions and
loads on transformer (which results in temperature) .

If temperature of transformer decrease then contraction of oil will occur which

result in suction of air through the breather.

If there were no silica gel in breather then the moisture contents will go inside
during suction and quality of mineral oil of transformer will decrease and overall
performance of transformer will get affected in short lifetime of transformer
decrease.

That's why we need some material which can absorb the moisture from breathing
air of transformer and one option of use of silica gel
  What are some clever uses for silica gel?

There are tons of uses for them for example I live in a very humid environment that tears up guitar
strings faster than a can tear up a Reeces Pieces frosted cake. I love that cake.

I could put a few packets in the case and walla it keeps mold away from the strings and prolongs
it's life.

Leather shoes, wallets anything else stick a packet where you store it. How about if you drop a cell
phone or electronic in water and want to remove the water. Yep these little packets will help
absorb the unwanted moisture.

Store photos, baseball cards, important documents and you can use silica gel to preserve
them. Next let's go to the kitchen and see how they can be used.

Do you have bottles of herbs well they can be used to preserve them. They can be used
with brown sugar so it doesn't clump up but remain a powder. They can be used to
preserve potatoes, onions and other veggies so they don't sprout.

They can be used to preserve the life of razors or tools that tend to rust.

To remove moisture from windows and car windows, To preserve metal ornaments like Christmas
stuff.

Fishing flies, put a few in a gym packet to keep away the smell. When you travel throw a few in
with you swimsuit to help dry it out.

How about jewelry and keeping silver from tarnishing. Of course ammo cases and guns they can be
used.

Really anything where moisture isn’t good they can be used. Here is a good video with more
ideas and more tips on using these packets.

What is the use of silica gel? Why is it toxic to humans?

It is used as moisture Page on absorb-er.It is packed with medicines,used to keep with electronic equipment in
wet conditions etc. .Silica gel's high specific surface
area (around 800 m2/g) allows it to adsorb water readily, making it useful as a desiccant (drying agent).
Silica gel is often described as "absorbing" moisture, which may be appropriate when the gel's microscopic
structure is ignored, as in silica gel packs or other products. However, material silica gel removes moisture by
adsorption onto the surface of its numerous pores rather than by absorption into the bulk of the gel.
It is not toxic as per wikipedia.But cause irritation in digestive tract, lungs etc.
  Why does pharma companies use silica gel?
Silica gel in water tends to absorb metal ions and helps in the isolation and purification of water
used in pharmaceutical preparations. Also silica gel absorbs up to 40% of its weight and does
not swell in size. If can be used as a catalyst in water-consuming reactions. It can also be
used in the extraction of Decolonization of antibiotics.

 What is the use of silica gel in a power transformer?

I haven’t heard of it being a part of the transformer, but it may have been included in the packaging
for the same reason it’s included with lots and lots of other things, which is to absorb moisture. The
core and windings of the transformer are likely to be cold from storage, transit, whatever, but is
likely to be put in a warm environment before the package is opened. As you may know, warm
air holds more moisture that cold air. So any damp in the air gets absorbed by the silica gel
instead of condensing on the cold transformer. Equally, because the air is being kept very dry,
any moisture which might have found it’s way into the transformer during manufacture will be
drawn out and absorbed.

I hope this is a useful answer. If you know of silica gel being used as an actual part of a
transformer, I’d be very interested to know about it

What is the difference between a differential and a cumulative compound motor?

In cumulative compound motors, series field aids the shunt field, so flux per pole increases
as the armature current increase and hence speed decreases.

A cumulative compound motor has a fairly constant speed and good starting
torque. Such motors are used where series characteristics are required and the load is likely
to be removed totally. These motors are used in driving machines which are subject to the
sudden application of heavy loads; they are used in rolling mills, punching and shearing machines,
mine-hoists etc.

Whereas in a differential compound motor, series field opposes the shunt field, so flux per pole
decreases as the armature current increase and hence speed increases.

In a differential compound motor, the motor speed will increase with an increase in the
load, which leads to an unstable operation. Therefore, a differential compound motor is rarely used
for any practical application
  Difference between differential and cumulative compound generator

Differential compound generator :-

In case of a differential compound generator series field flux and main field flux opposes each other. If
flux produced due to both winding is adding in nature, then it is called DC generator.
Such generators have various applications. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally
used for lighting, power supply purpose and for heavy power services because of their constant
voltage property.

Cumulative compound generator:-

Compound generator consists of both series and shunt field winding where major portion is
shunt field and minor is series field.
the cumulative compounded generators may be over compounded, flat compounded and under
compounded. We can get desired terminal voltage by compensating the drop due to armature
reaction and ohmic drop in the in the line.
Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used for many applications and are mainly
made over compounded.
Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.
In cumulative compound wound dc motor the series field assists the shunt field . Compound
generator consists of both series and shunt field winding where major portion is shunt field
and minor is series field.
Q.5 What is switch yard?

Switch yard : An area where maintenance and distributions of electrical power is done via grids and
substations.After stepping up the voltage through Auxiliary transformer(UAT),
it is directly fed to yards consisting of power transormer,lightning arrestor,isolator,earth
switch,circuit breaker and then to bus bar which further takes it to distrubution zone consisting of
same equipements specified above in reverse order with additional CVT (capacitive voltage
transformer ) which is then distributed to different grids and substation.

Definition:

The primary role of the switchyard is to convey and distribute energy from the generating
station at incoming voltage and to provide switching equipment through switchgears. We
described earlier in our past article about the different kinds of switchgears. Switchyard is the
place in the power network where transmission lines and distribution feeders or generating units
are attached via circuit breakers and other switchgears via bus bars and transformers. Switchyard
serves as an interface between the electrical system of the power plant and the electrical grid.

Types of Switchyard:

AIS (Air Insulated Switchyard): This is the most prevalent form of switchyard ; the
switchyard is accessible to the environment outside. The air isolates the high voltage lines,
which is why they occupy more space than the GIS.

GIS (Gas Insulated Switchyard): This sort of switchyard is usually discovered inside a closed
room with adequate isolation where the accessible space is very small. High voltage wires are
insulated inside the duct.

Q.6What isthedifferencebetweenaswitchyardanda substation?

The names are somewhat inter-changable. That said a switchyard is normally next to a power
station. The yard usually only contains breakers or switches (hence the name). The yard usually
provides multiple paths out to supply transmission power from the generating station to the
grid.

A substation normally refers to a yard where the primary purpose is to step the transmission
voltage down to distribution level and then feed power out to end users. Since the substation also
has breakers and switches in addition to the requisite transformers, some might refer to it as a
switchyard also.

In the US a switch yard is a place where there are a number of parallel railroad tracks with
switched connections between them to change cars from one train to another, or to make up a train
from an assortment of available cars.

A substation is a place where high voltage comes in from a source and is reduced in voltage and
then sent out to one or more grids. This voltage will be higher than what the consumer will be using
but lower than what comes into the substation. If you ignore the fact that one has to do with
transportation and the other to electricity they are similar.
A substation reduces the voltage level from incoming transmission lines using power
transformers to lower voltages. It then distributes that voltage to an arrangement of

outgoing distribution feeders.

A switching station connects transmission lines to an arrangement of power circuit breakers and
switches such that all lines form a node in the transmission system grid. The arrangement of
breakers and switches allows for system protection of the lines and internal bus connections. The
arrangement of breakers allows for testing and maintenance without interrupting the voltage
on a transmission line by taking an outage.

Why are stones layed in switchyard?

Reasons for using stones/gravels in switchyard-

1. To decrease step potential: to understand the concept of step potential look at these
animated pictures.
a) let us take a 3-phase line.
b) Suppose a fault occurs (line breaks and touches to the ground), a high potential develops
across the line (shown as red circle).

c) This potential starts decreasing on increasing distance hence this potential difference called a
potential gradient (potential gradient exists for 10–15m).

d) Whenever a human place his first foot on higher potential and other foot on lower potential
then a potential difference will lead to the flow of current through the human body and leads to
shock (intensity of shock depends upon the voltage level of the potential gradient).
Step potential can be decreased by using stones in the switchyard. Stones provide enough
resistance to decrease the chances of shock (stones act as an insulator).

If in case you stuck in a faulty area, then a frog like a jump will save you, since it does not create
any potential difference in the human body.

2. Touch potential: When an operator touches electrical equipment during short circuit
condition. a fault current will flow through the human body

Stones increases the level of resistance and hence that reduces touch potential.

3. Due to the leakage of oil, the oil spillage will catch fire. Since stones absorb heat that easily
vaporizes the oil and reduces the chances of fire.

4. To eliminate the growth of weeds and plants.

5. To provide protection from rats, snakes, etc.

6. During the rainy season, avoid the accumulation of water

What is the function of a switch yard?

Switchyard main function is to transmit and distribute the power supply from generating station at
incoming voltage and switch the power supply through swichgears including circuit breaker,
busbar, isolator, relays etc….

In electrical substations why do we use stones instead of sand or grass?

 Reasons for using Stones in Substation :

 Power Transformers installed in the substations will have oil as cooling and insulating
medium. Oil leakage takes place during operation or when changing the oil in the
transformer. This oil spillage which can catch fire is dangerous to the switchyard
operation. So Stones is provided to protect from fire when oil spillage takes place.
 Improves substation working condition
 To aviode entry of animals like Rats, snakes, Lizards etc..
  As water beneath the substation may provide condutivity for electricity ,so pebbles
are provided to break the surface of water since water surface has high conductivity ,so
that flow of electricity is not continous.
 In plain grounds when grass grows it will form moisture and it will cause damage
to transmission lines and it will also form current leakage.Stones eliminate the growth
of small weeds and plants or grass inside the Substation.
 To absorbed the heat radiated by radiator during cooling of oil.
 To reduce the vibration in transformer which has been caused due to
magnetostriction in core.
 Stones also prevents the accumulation of water and the formation of puddles inside the
substation.
 To increase the tower footing resistance.
 During Short circuit current Step and Touch potential increases. So to reduce the step
potential and touch potential when operators work on switch yard,
Stones in the substation is provided
(Step potential : It is the potential developed between the two feet on the ground of a man or
animal when short circuit occurs. This results in flow of current in the body leads to electrical
shock.

Touch potential: It is the potential that is developed between the ground and the body of the
equipment when a person touches the body during fault condition. When operating personnel
touch an electrical equipment during short circuit condition, fault current flows through the
human body. This is defined as touch potential.)

 What is a belted cable?

In a 3 phase cable, the three cores are grouped together and then
belted with the paper belt. The gaps between the conductors and the paper insulation are filled
with fibrous material such as the jute. This makes the cable to have a circular cross-sectional
shape. The cores are not circular in shape. The core are insulated from each other by use of
impregnated paper. The three cores are grouped together and belted with the help of a paper belt.
The gaps are filled with fibrous material like jute. This gives circular cross-sectional shape to the
cable. The belt is covered with lead sheath which protects cable from moisture and also gives
mechanical strength. The lead sheath is finally covered by jute like fibrous compounded material.
The electrical field in single core cable is radial while it is tangential in case of three core cables.
Hence the insulation is subjected to tangential electrical stresses rather than radial one. The paper
has good radial strength but not tangential strength. Similarly paper resistance along the radius is
much larger than resistance along tangential path. The same is true for dielectric strength also.
The fibrous material is also subjected to the tangential electrical stresses, for which, the material is
weak. Hence under high voltage cases, the cumulative effect of tangential electrical stresses is to
from space inside the cable due to leakage currents.
Such air spaces formed inside the insulation is called void formation. This void formation is
dangerous because under high voltage, spaces are ionized which deteriorates the
insulation which may lead to the breakdown of the insulation. Hence the belted cables are not
used for the high voltage levels. Another disadvantage of the belted cable is
large diameter of paper belt. Due to this, wrinkles are formed and gaps may be developed if
the cable is bended. To overcome all theses difficulties, the screened type cables are used. In
future, you looking for the best backbone cabling in Dallas then visit at Lonestarcable.

What is forking a yard?

Well, forking a garden means using a garden fork to 'dig' up the garden. Basically, fluffy up or
loosening the soil by lifting up forkfuls of the soil and shaking it through the fork tines. You
would then remove any weeds or pick out whatever you didn't want.

Forking a yard may mean using a garden fork to poke holes in the lawn in the belief that it is
causing aeration of the lawn. It is however, false aeration as instead of aiding compacted soil
by allowing water and air into the ground; it is just compacting if vertically, as the tines dug in.
A core aerator that removes cores of soil and deposits them back on top of the lawn will help the
health of the lawn and the soil. Forking a yard in the hope that it will aerate it, is of limited
benefit.

Q.8 What is a lightning arrester?

In power systems, lightning arrestors are used to provide protection against surges and lightning
strikes.

They are composed of materials like ZnO or SiC. These materials have a unique property of
becoming conductive when a very high electric potential is applied across them.
Under normal conditions they don't allow current to pass through.

Lightning arrestors are connected to the equipment to be protected as well as to the ground.
Under normal conditions of operation they don't allow any conduction but during surges and
lightning strikes they allow the surge current to pass through them to the ground. Once the voltage
across them drops, their conductive nature ends too.

The first equipment that an incoming feeder encounters in a power station is a lightning arrestors.
Same is true for an outgoing feeder

 What is the difference between lightning arrester and surge arrester?

That lightning arrestor is connected to a conductor which runs along the walls and goes
into the earth. Surge arrestor gives the protection against surge currents or voltages in a
circuit. Surges can be produced because of short circuit, lightning, sparking etc.

A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment from over-voltage transients caused
by external (lightning) or internal (switching) events ....................... The same kind of
induction happens in overhead and above ground conductors which experience the passing
energy of an atmospheric EMP caused by the lightning flash.
A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems and telecommunications systems to
protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning.
The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a
lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the
arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.

What is the residual discharge voltage of lightning arrester?

It is the voltage coming across the LA when a surge voltage travels and reaches the LA on its way
to the CBs, transformers, bus bars, machines etc. This ensures that what ever be the magnitude of
the surge voltage only this discharge voltage + 10% (to account for terminal drops) will be
impressed on the above
equipments.The equipments are then insulated for a voltage related to this, with a factor of safety
incorporated- known as BIL (Basic Impulse Insulation Level ).
What are the different types of lightning arrester?
Assuming that by lightning (or, more generally, surge) arrester you mean the non-linear resistance
used to limit and protect against overvoltages that could appear in the system (and not the metallic
lightning rod used to attract lightning, which is a common mistake), then there are different ways
to classify them.

You can classify them according to the material used for the fabrication of the arresters. Metal-
oxide surge arresters are the most used nowadays, particularly ZnO. Before zinc- oxide, silicon
carbide (SiC) arresters were used.
You can also classify them according to the voltage levels in low, medium and high voltage
arresters. LV and MV arresters will indeed be more oriented towards the lightning
protection, while HV arresters will also protect against switching surges.

Another typical classification is in terms of energy handling capability, in which they are labeled in
classes from 1 to 5. Energy handling capability can then go from around 4 kJ/kVr for class 1 (Vr =
rated voltage of the arrester, though it can also be specified in terms of the MCOV of the arrester)
to 16 kJ/kVr for class 5. Values and ranges may vary between different manufacturers.

What is the principle of a Lightning Arrester?

When a travelling wave reaches the arrestor, its sparks over at a certain prefixed voltage as shown in
the figure below. The arrestor provides a conducting path to the waves of relatively low impedance
between the line and the ground. The surge impedance of the line restricts the amplitude of
current flowing to ground.

The lightning arrester provides a path of low impedance only when the travelling surge reaches the
surge diverter, neither before it nor after it. The insulation of the equipment can be protected if the
shape of the voltage and current at the diverter terminal is similar to the shape shown below.

An ideal lightning arrester should have the following characteristics;

1. It should not draw any current during normal operating condition, i.e., it sparks-
over voltage must be above the normal or abnormal power frequency that may occur
in the system.
2. Any transient abnormal voltage above the breakdown value must cause it to break
down as quickly as possible so that it may provide a conducting path to ground.
3. When the breakdown has taken place, it should be capable of carrying the resulting
discharge current without getting damaged itself and without the voltage across it
exceeding the breakdown value.
4. The power frequency current following the breakdown must be interrupted as soon as
the transient voltage has fallen below the breakdown value.
There are many types of lightning arrester which are used to protect the power system. The choices
of the lightning arrester depend on the factor like, voltage and frequency of the line, cost, weather
condition and reliability

What is the purpose of choke in tube light?

Choke is the Inductor coil/ballast which is used to induce high voltage across it.

Then gas inside the starter gets ionized due to this full voltage and heats the bimetallic strip that
is caused to be bent to connect to the fixed contact.

And then it turn on the tubelight according to their specification voltage and ampere
OR

When power is applied to the light, current flows through the the heaters at the end of the tube(s) to
volatilise some of the mercury in the tube. After a second or two, the contacts in the starter open,
and the current through the choke drops to zero.
When the current in an inductor (like the choke) changes, the voltage across the inductor
changes to try to maintain the current. Where the current abruptly stops, the voltage might spike
to 1000V or so in the case of such a choke. That causes the discharge to start in the tube, and
the light has begun to work

What are the pros and cons of an LED tube light vs. a normal tube light?
Talking about pros of LED,

1. Requires only less current

2. Small in size
3. Higher light output compared to other sources.
4. You can choose the color.
5. Wide range of applications.
6. Longer life.
Cons

1. Need a driver circuit to drive the LED.

2. Costlier than other lamps.
3. Not easy to make.
Cons are less than pros of LED

Now talking about pros of tube light.

1. Doesn't need too complex circuits.

2. Easily available.
3. YES..! Less cost.
OR
LED Tube have following benefits/advantages

1. LED Tube save energy to the tune of 50 - 60% compared to std fluorescent tube
light
2. LED Tube life is around 35 - 40,000 hrs VS std tube light life of just 4000 hrs ( So
10 Times more life compared to std tube light )
3. LED Tube have instant ,Flicker free operation VS std tube light which has
flickering while starting
4. LED Tube does not need starter /ballast(Choke ) as they are integrated ,in std tube
light you need the same
 5. LED Tube light Power factor is > 0.9 compared to 0.5 in std tube light with EM
Ballast
What is the gas filled in tube lights?
Christopher has listed the gases popularly employed in the Tubelight or class of light sources called
Discharge based Lights.

How’s the light produced? Not by heating ( as in filament bulbs), but through Luminous
Discharge phenomena.

When electrical field is applied across this tube, the electrons ( from end filaments/electrodes
coated with low ‘work function’ chemicals) accelerate & gather kinetic energy. When they hit the
mercury particle or Helium or Neon atoms, they transfer this kinetic Energy to the electron in the
atom. The electron gets excited to the next orbit but being in a non-natural orbit, it falls back to its
natural orbit. The excess energy is given out as a photon particle of equivalent energy.

In AR-Hg Tube lights it produces UV light ( which is converted into white light by coating
internal wall with RGB Phosphors) and in Helium & Neon tubes we get red and other colours.

Gas Color

1. Hydrodgen :Blue-violet

2. Helium :Pink-orange

3. Neon :Red

4. Argon Ultra Violet

5. Krypton : Lavender

6. Xenon : Blue

7. Mercury Vapor :Blue Violet

8. Oxygen : Blue-violet

9. Water Vapor : Pink

But these are not so efficient source , & LEDs produced in all Colors are taking over every
application.

LEDchip Indus P Ltd is setting up India’s first 1 billion LEDs packaging plant & expanding to 3
Bln pa. - using modern automatic LEDs processes & 30 years of technology expertise.
 Q.10 Why is the filament of electric bulb made up of tungsten?
Great question - I used to work for a company that used to get through thousands of lamps a
year. One day the Managing Director came down to ask why we weren't just repairing the
lamps with a soldering iron. Solder melts at 183°C, tungsten at 3450°C. That's what makes it
the perfect incandesent metal. It can be white hot and not melt. (Steel melts at half that).

Although most lamps are typically designed to run at a convenient voltage (12V for vehicles,
110/230V for mains use depending where you live) the optimum voltage to run tungsten at is
around 80V. This is the boundary between maximum light output and minimum ‘scaling’, where
the surface of the tungsten deteriorates.

As well as filaments in incandescent lamps, tungsten is also used for electrodes in discharge
lamps, where greater light output is required. In this case, instead of a very fine glowing
filament, there is a a solid lump of metal that can be as large as about the size of a stack of 10
quarters (10p s, 50Euro cents). These are used in industrial applications, for example light
houses and follow spot lights in theatrical and entertainment applications.
This is the 2000w Tungsten/Xenon lamp from a Super Trouper (yes, the light nobody knows
ABBA made famous). Note the lack of filament, just a big lump that gets hot. However, as
Kenneth Ludgren has mentioned in the comments (thanks, late night last

night), the majority of the light actually comes from the arc.
Because of the amount of metal in these lamps, they take a minute or two to get to full, stable
intensity when switched on, and take quite a while to cool down too.
Here’s a random picture from the internet showing light output from an arc source - at
this point absolutely nothing to do with tungsten filaments but still interesting…

Q.10:- PowerTriangle
Power Triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing the relation between
active power, reactive power and apparent power. When each component of the current that
is the active component (Icosϕ) or the reactive component (Isinϕ) is multiplied by the voltage V,
a power triangle is obtained shown in the figure below
The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit is called True power
or Active Power or real power. It is measured in kilowatt (kW) or MW. The power which
flows back and forth that means it moves in both the direction in the circuit or react upon it, is
called Reactive Power. The reactive power is measured in kilovolt-ampere reactive (kVAR)
or MVAR. The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is known
as Apparent Power. This power is measured in KVA or MVA.

The following point shows the relationship between the following quantities and is explained
by graphical representation called Power Triangle shown above.

When an active component of current is multiplied by the circuit voltage V, it results in

active power.it is this power which produces torque in the motor, heat in heater, etc. This
power is measured by the wattmeter.
When the reactive component of the current is multiplied by the circuit voltage, it gives
reactive power. This power determines the power factor, and it flows back and froth in the
circuit.
When the circuit current is multiplied by the circuit voltage, it results in apparent power.
From the power triangle shown above the power, the factor may be determined by taking the ratio
of true power to the apparent power.

As we know simply power means the product of voltage and current but in AC circuit except pure
resistive circuit there is usually a phase difference between voltage and current and thus VI does not
give real or true power in the circuit

Which is more dangerous: AC or DC power?

Well, there are excellent answers.

My answer is going to contradict theirs at one specific point.

Both AC and DC current and voltage are dangerous. People who speak of AC is less dangerous
than DC are, please look at the statistical report of people die of electrocution. Almost all them
die due to AC current and voltage though there is zero current passing point which lets you to go or
leave your muscle to relax, there will be fibrillation of heart when 230V 10A passes through your
muscle, some may get severe muscle cramps from the point of contact to specified point depending
on intensity of electricity being passed through and most of them die due to shock affecting the
heart rhythms and causing heart attacks.

There is some shock difference experienced physically between DC and AC. I haven’t
experienced DC shock to differentiate but I can give you an account of extreme shock from AC
current (it causes muscle cramp, fibrillation of the heart and an unconscious state; you know
something is energizing you but you cannot move or act. Later you will fall down onto the ground
and will not have any consciousness). And I had this bitter or shock taste in my tongue. This
happened to me when I was fixing my ceiling fan. The
winding had shorted and the entire blade had AC current due to the short circuit. The muscle
cramps were there for at least a week or two.

My advice to anyone who is dabbling with electrical equipment, please take care of safety,
you cannot get back your life if you lose it. No matter whether one is less dangerous or more
dangerous, High current and High voltage kills you instantly (there is very little possibility of
survival though if you survive there will be severe burn, muscle cramps and other physiological
ill effects).

Always wear rubber footwear (very thick ones), use a multimeter to check the voltage or current of
the circuit (make sure you use a reputed one to do so), if fuses are not properly attached and
you make a measurement of current by tuning the voltage side of multimeter in a fraudulent
Chinese product you will experience shock or burst of the multimeter. Ask your friends to have a
wooden plank or broomstick at home to help you push you out if you been electrocuted or
someone has been electrocuted. There are many instances I have had electrical shocks. Luckily I
have survived because of simple safety measures and colleagues being with me while working
with electrical equipment

Why is the concept of average power used in ac circuits?

When we quote average power, we do so because often on a mains feeder the power to various
loads fluctuates a bit, so we work out the real power Vrms x Irms for a resistive load (more
complex for non linear and L or C loads) and average this every second or so, in the digital realm
you might compute the real power every 20mS (16.666mS in the US) and keep a running
average of this on a per second basis.

Is the power consumed in an AC or DC circuit the same or different?

Firstly the effective voltage and current of an AC waveform is the RMS value. Not the peak value.
RMS is .707 of the peak value. The RMS value equates to the equivalent DC value.

It depends upon the type of load. With a resistive load ( like a heater element) the parameters
are the same as in DC.

With a reactive load the power is quite different. A coil of wire around an iron core or a capacitor
are reactive loads. Then you have to take into account the lead or lag component of the current
and voltage.

A coil of wire as in a motor is an inductive load and has a lag component where the current lags
behind the voltage.

A capacitor exhibits a leading current flow when compared to the voltage.

An AC circuit frequently consists of all these components (resistive, inductive and
capacitive). The power in an AC circuit is the vector sum of all these components. They
cannot be simply added together

 Why do computers use a DC power instead of an AC?

Nearly all electronic devices use DC power internally. Many of the components that make
computers possible, especially transistors, require electrons to move in a single direction. This is
because logic gates work by turning the flow of electricity on and off very quickly - much faster
than AC power oscillates. Some components, like memory cells, also need continuous power to
maintain their state. If the electric power inside a computer was constantly turning on and off, which
is what’s happening in an AC world, then the computer would not be able to maintain its state,
pretty much making it useless.

What is real, reactive, and apparent power?

This is going to be a long post, be ready (I'll try my best to explain it in less technical terms as
possible) -
First, let us consider what reactive power is mathematically and then we'll see what it means
practically.
ACtive power = Voltage * component of current in phase with the voltage i.e. V*I cos(theta)
Reactive power = Voltage * component of current 90 degrees out of phase with voltage i.e. V*I
sin(theta)
Where theta = angle between Voltage and Current.
This was mathematical explanation which we find in most textbooks but that
doesn't tell a thing about what actually reactive power is.
So, let us now jump into practical considerations and i'll try to explain what
reactive power is and why it is said that it does not do any useful work with
practical examples.
Let us consider a Transformer.
As you might be knowing, both the windings of a transformer are not connected
electrically (they have insulation between them) but still electric power flows from one winding to
another.
Electric power cannot flow through air or any insulation under normal conditions, then how the hell
this happens ?
This is the point where reactive power comes into play.
Before explaining the role of reactive power, let me explain about transformer working in short.
In transformer, current flows in primary winding and sets up magnetic flux. This magnetic flux links
with secondary winding and then current is induced in secondary winding and this is how we get
current on secondary side.
Now let us comeback to the role of reactive power.
So, from where do you think this magnetic flux responsible for transformer operation came from?
and the answer is REACTIVE COMPONENT of current.

 Reactive power acts as a BRIDGE between primary and secondary windings.

It creates a constant bridge over which active power travels and move on to do some useful
work.
I think you still might not have got what actually reactive power.
So let me explain it one more time in layman's terms using simple analogy - Consider
there is a small river dividing two cities and you need to build bridge over it to connect both the
cities. After building bridge, you also need to construct a house on the other side of the river.
For the whole work including bridge and house, you've got only 100 wooden planks of which 10
are used to create bridge over the river. The workers will use this bridge to cross the river and
transport items and construct a house on the other side. Here the main work is to build the house on
the other side for which we've created a bridge to move from one point to another. In this case,
are the wooden planks used in constructing the bridge directly contributing to the building of
house ? NO. We've used 10 wooden planks for bridge and that cannot be used for building the
house.
And this - THE BRIDGE is what reactive power does.
100 wooden planks is the total complex power of which some amount is used to create bridge (10
planks) and remaining active power (90 planks) does the useful work. This is why we say
reactive power does not do useful work.
Now you might be thinking OK, THIS WAS THE CASE WITH A TRANSFORMER
BUT WHAT ABOUT OTHER THINGS ? EVERYTHING DOES NOT HAVE
ELECTRICAL ISOLATION LIKE A TRANSFORMER BUT STILL REACTIVE
POWER FLOWS ?
Yes, you are 100% correct.
 Reactive power assists the flow of electromagnetic energy.
To explain it further it will require some technical details and will take another long post. I think
you've got a basic idea of what a reactive power does.
Does hvdc transmission needs reactive power compensation?
Yes, HVDC transmission system requires reactive power compensation.
In HVDC system both the terminals have converter bridges . These bridges are made up of semi-controlled switches
arranged in a defined manner. The characteristic of power control in HVDC system is because of these semi-
controlled switches in the bridge. semi controlled switches have forward voltage blocking capability i.e. it can be
turned on in a controlled fashion. control angle alpha defines the delay in the firing, after the switch gets forward
bias. This delay in the firing causes lagging current through the switch and that’s why bridge needs reactive
power.

Now as both the bridges are connected to the AC grid, they will start drawing reactive power from
the grid and the grid voltage will start collapsing, so to prevent this event from happening, it is
required to compensate the reactive power demand of the converters locally at both the rectifier
and inverter terminal because reactive power can not be transmitted on a DC line. for this local
reactive power support is provided in the form of AC filters. These AC filters perform two
functions.

1. Filter out Characteristic and non Characteristic harmonics.

2. Provide reactive power compensation locally
 Why we need Q(reactive power) to risevoltage?
In power systems reactive energy is required to both establish and maintain the electric field through
the network. That is why reactive power only exists within the power system network as Omar
Luis Curetti has noted.

This is unlike the magnetic field which is responsible for the transmission of power through
the system to the load, with a small portion being lost in the transmission network as heat
losses. Without reactive power the system will not be able to support the transmission of power
leading to voltage collapse. Alternatively at very light loads too much reactive power can lead to
over voltage which is why PF correction equipment needs to be regulated or switched off at light
loads

 Why do we need reactive power in power transmission and distribution and

what are effects on motors and generators?
This is an interesting question but it they way it has been asked is mixed and confusing.

Firstly one has to distinguish been sources of reactive power and consumers of reactive power. Jim
Phipps, has provided such typical examples.

In any power system, generators (namely synchronous machines), are the primary source of reactive
energy/power whereas loads such as transmission lines, cables motors etc are the primary
consumers; capacitors serve as sources of reactive energy/power.
In any power system electrical energy is carried/stored/transmitted in the em fields which
propagate from source through the electrical power system network to the various loads. There are
two basic components of energy namely active energy and reactive energy. Active energy is
energy transmitted from source to load and which is used to perform useful work or dissipated as
heat in the form of losses ie power. Reactive energy is stored and retained within the em fields,
remains within the system and which also dissipates heat in the form of losses ie power as it
propagates within the system.

Reactive energy/power is thus very important as it is responsible for establishing and

maintaining the em fields within which electrical energy is stored and propagated through
the power system network for end use. Thus with an insufficient source of reactive
energy/power the em fields will simply collapse and which is commonly known as voltage
collapse.

So a generator, which is a source of reactive reactive energy/power, is responsible for establishing

and maintaining its own as well the em fields of the network. (This is where the term infinite bus and
stiff system arises). Motors on the other hand (those which are not sources of reactive energy /
power) consume such reactive energy / power as they require this to establish their own magnetic
field to allow electro-mechanical energy power conversion through the air gap and to the shaft.

A typical and classic example is a synchronous generator supplying an induction motor through a
long cable. In this case the SG will supply reactive energy / power (-Q) and the IM will absorb
such reactive energy / power (Q). If the SG cannot supply sufficient (-Q) then the em fields will
collapse leading to the entire system collapsing. One may improve matters by installing a capacitor
(source of reactive power -Q) which will serve as a local reactive energy / power repository (-Q)
for the IM (Q) thus freeing up that (Q) drawn from the SG through the long cable. This is
commonly termed power factor correction.

In conclusion it is seen that reactive power plays a critical role in establishing and maintaining
the em fields in any power system and one has to ensure there is always an excess in the supply of
reactive power (-Q) to that being consumed (Q) to ensure a stable system. Power factor
correction is a means of providing a local source of reactive energy/power thus making more
available from the primary source of generation. Note that one may have a system of generators
which even though they may have a real power generating capacity far in access of that of the load
will fail if they are unable to supply sufficient reactive energy / power as the em fields will
simply collapse

 Why do we need to reduce reactive power?

because reactive power (KVAR) although not a usable component of apparent power (KVA)
increases KVA when combined with KW (real power). The vector combination of KW and
KVAR increases KVA and utilities bill demand in KVA. It also puts more stress on service
entrance conductors and equipment. A professor once described power to me as this KVA is an
unopened bottle of beer, when you open it and pour it in a pilsner glass the liquid is the KW and
the foam is the KVAR
  Why do we need power factor improvement when reactive elements do not consume power?

Take, for example, a 750kW three-phase electric motor operating at 3,300V. Let’s assume that it is
operating at 94% of full-load power with a power factor of 0.83 and an efficiency of 93%.
0.94 x 750,000 = 705,000kW.

705,000kW / (3,300V * 1.732 * .83 * .93) = 160A

The supply must provide 160A to the motor. Now, let’s assume that there’s not just one,
but ten of these motors, all running off the same transformer. 10 x 160 = 1,600A Now,

improve the power factor of the motors to 0.95 with some capacitors:

705,000/(3,300V * 1.732 * .95 * .93) = 140A

Multiply by ten, and you get 1,400A. Those extra 200A have to circulate through the transformer,
causing I²R heating. The utility has to generate those extra 200 amps, regardless of the fact that
they don’t make any torque at the motor shaft. Everything in the system has to be sized to carry the
apparent current. So it makes sense to reduce that current to as low a level as economically
practicable

Why is reactive power compensation needed in a power system?

AC power supply systems produce and consume two types of
powers; active and reactive power. Real power or active power is the true power given to any
load. It accomplishes useful work like lighting lamps, rotating motors, etc.
On the other hand reactive power is the imaginary power, which does not do any useful work but
simply moves back and forth in the power system lines. It is a byproduct of AC systems and
produced from inductive and capacitive loads. It exists when there is phase displacement between
voltage and current. It is measured in units of volt-ampere reactive (VAR).
Reactive power can be expressed as
Q = S sin ϕ
Q = VI sin ϕ
Q = P tan ϕ
Where S = apparent power and P = active power.
  Why does an induction generator need reactive power?

Firstly, reactive energy is required to establish and maintain the em fields within which to store
electrical energy which is propagated along the transmission / distribution network from source to
load. This reactive energy stays within the network opposed to real energy / power which is
transmitted from source to load through the network

In addition all electrical machines use iron cores as we are able to induce very large flux densities
within the core material to produce electromagnetic torque in the air-gap of the machine due to
the interaction between the stator and rotor flux / magnetic fields. Such high flux densities within
the core material require an externally applied exciting magnetic field produced by the current
and number of turns in the stator winding’s which we know as the MMF and which in turn
induces the high flux density within the core material.

In the case of a stand-alone induction generator a prime mover will cause the rotor to move and
maintain a constant speed but since insufficient MMF is present (in the form of residual flux) the
machine is unable to self-excite and establish a stator voltage required to cause a stator current
to flow to develop sufficient MMF. This is no different to a shunt wound DC machine which if it
has too high a field resistance cannot generate a voltage for same reasons as shown below.

This, as noted earlier, is due to a source or lack of reactive power. This may be overcome by
connecting a capacitor to the terminals of the induction generator such that the residual flux is
able to generate a voltage to induce and store energy within the capacitor, which serves as a
source of reactive energy / power, and vice-versa and which leads to self-excitation and a build up
of the terminal voltage of the induction generator. Once sufficient reactive energy / power is
available then the Induction Generator is able to sustain the em fields and hence the ability to
convert mechanical energy from the prime mover to electrical energy stored in the em fields which
propagates this energy to the load as shown below.

 Why does an inductive load always need reactive power?

Thank you for A2A.

In case of an inductive load, current drawn by load lags the voltage. so there is always a phase
difference between current and voltage. Therefore reactive power is needed.

Reactive power is needed but not consumed.

Reactive power is the consequence of the electrical reactance of the circuit, that means, the
difference of phase between the source and the load.

All the power will be delivered to the active load, but since the circuit is not 100%
active(resistive), there will be a reactive power needed to "move" the active energy
through a reactive circuit.
  Why does a wind turbine with permanent magnet synchronous generator need a reactive power from a
grid in the start?
It's actually the controller that needs to see grid power, not the PM generator.

Grid tied controllers designed to meet UL 1741 are all designed to shut down when the grid goes
down as well as when grid voltage is too high or too low.

If the controller does not activate and, therefore, provide a load for the generator, it simply
freewheels waiting for a connection to a load

 What will happen if two transformers are connected in parallel with different
pollarities?
When two transformers are connected in different/opposite polarities, they will get shorted.
Because of this short circuit a huge circulating current will flow through the windings of the
transformers but no load will be fed from these transformers as load voltage and current will
become zero.

Generally per unit impedance of transformer is in between 5–15%. So short circuit MVA of
transformer will be 7–20 times of rated MVA and it will result a very high circulating current
which will be enough to damage the transformers windings.

Why do we need to define a vector group in a transformer?

These are the following reasons why we need to define a vector group in a transformer:

1.) To determine also the vector group of the other power transformer that needs to be connected in
parallel. DYn1 cannot be directly connected in parallel with DYn11 unless having a connection
manipulation to convert DYn1 to DYn11 or vice versa. You must also know the schematic
diagrams between both the DYn1 and DYn11 in order to have a connection manipulation that is
necessary for transformer parallel operation.

2.) To obtain both the transformer turns ratio test and polarity of the power transformer.

3.) To correctly install a power transformer differential relay and not having any nuisance operation
of the said relay upon operation. Typically, having a delta - wye power transformer, the CT’s
on the delta side has a wye connection while the CT’s on the wye side has a delta connection to
eliminate phase shifts
  What is the criteria for selecting vector group for parallel operation of power
transformer?
Well,for parallel operation of transformers,both the transformers should belong to the same
vector group .Wheather its dY1 or dY11,in all the cases the phase shift from primary to
secondary should be such that in all the 3 phases the maxima of supply occures at the same
time in order to avoid the circulating currents in the system to avoid the damage of transformers

What happens when we connect two unequal voltage sources in parallel?

Two unequal sources will have their individual internal resistance which will come in series with
both sources. The current will flow in circuit equal to difference in voltage divided by total
internal resistance of both sources. Then voltage at the output of parallel connection of sources will
be equal to either voltage of small voltage source plus voltage drop across it's internal resistance or
voltage of bigger voltage source minus voltage drop across it's internal resistance.

Let us try to explain this with one example of two batteries of 6V6V and 9V9V when
connected in parallel, what will be voltage at the output.
Let us assume both batteries are having basic cells of 1.5V1.5V with internal resistance of rr i.e.
6V6V battery with 4×1.5V4×1.5V and 4×r4×r internal resistance.
Similarly 9V9V battery with 6×1.5V6×1.5V and 6r6r internal resistance.
So current flowing through circuit will be =9−64r+6r=310r=9−64r+6r=310r
Taking bigger battery (9V9V) into consideration
Therefore output voltage =9−6r(310r)=9−1.8=7.2 V=9−6r(310r)=9−1.8=7.2 V
OR

Taking small battery (6V6V) into consideration, output

voltage =6+4r(310r)=6+1.2=7.2 V

What is the parallel operation of transformers which configuration (vector group) is

preferable for parallel operations?
The benefits of parallel operation of transformer are:
1. Parallel operation of transformers helps to maintain a reliable supply output to the
consumers.
2. It gives space for regular maintenance of each transformer, without hindering the output.
3. Instead of having one custom made heavy duty transformer, we could have a number of parallel
connected small rating transformers, which are easily available in the market.
Whatever phasor group is selected, should be same in all the transformers working on parallel,
else circulating current will flow, thereby disturbing the source as well as the load.
Q.14 What purityofhydrogen is needed to runahydrogen car?
That is spelled out in ASTM J2719 Hydrogen Fuel Quality for Fuel Cell Vehicles

Basically the hydrogen can have a maximum of 200 ppmV in impurities, but most impurities
other than nitrogen and helium are restricted to sub ppm levels

Why does hydrogen purity matter for generator cooling?

Primarily purity matters because of safety. Hydrogen purity must be maintained above the
UFL (upper flammability limit) of 75%. Most generators have alarms set at levels greater
than 90% with an automatic trip and purge if purity falls below 88%.
Additionally, hydrogen purity effects efficiency. Air is 14 times denser than hydrogen. When
the purity of hydrogen in a power generator casing is less than 99% the contaminant consists
mostly of air.
For every 1% of purity below 99% (the realistic achievable/maintainable purity in a power
generator) the resulting hydrogen gas is 47% more dense.
Density directly affects viscosity which of course directly affects friction. Increased friction
increases a phenomenon known as windage loss. Windage loss is the energy lost to heat
imparted by the friction of the rotating rotor rather than producing electricity that could have
been sold.
Depending on the capacity of the power generator and the design particulars of the generator
OEM, this windage loss per percent purity can be in the range of 70 to 400 kW per every
percent purity below 99.
This equates to as much as 600 to 3,650 MWhr/year depending on generator capacity
per every percent purity maintained below 99%. Hydrogen purities
observed in power plants are in the 94 to 99% range
BATTERY Charger Types
Chargers normally incorporate some form of voltage regulation to control the charging
voltage applied to the battery. The choice of charger circuit technology is usually a price -
performance trade off. Some examples follow:
Switch Mode Regulator (Switcher) - Uses pulse width modulation to control the
voltage. Low power dissipation over wide variations in input and battery voltage.
More efficient than linear regulators but more complex.
Needs a large passive LC (inductor and capacitor) output filter to smooth the pulsed
waveform. Component size depends on curent handling capacity but can be reduced by
using a higher switching frequency, typically 50 kHz to 500kHz., since the size of the
required transformers, inductors and capacitors is inversely proportional to the operating
frequency.
Switching heavy currents gives rise to EMI and electrical noise.
Series Regulator (Linear) - Less complex but more lossy - requiring a heat sink to
dissipate the heat in the series, voltage dropping transistor which takes up the difference
between the supply and the output voltage. All the load current passes through the
regulating transistor which consequently must be a high power device. Because there is
no switching, it delivers pure DC and doesn't need an output filter. For the same reason,
the design doesn't suffer from the problem of radiated and conducted emissions and
electrical noise. This makes it suitable for low noise wireless and radio applications.
With fewer components they are also smaller.
Shunt Regulator - Shunt regulators are common in photovoltaic (PV) systems since they
are relatively cheap to build and simple to design. The charging current is controlled by a
switch or transistor connected in parallel with the photovoltaic panel and the storage
battery. Overcharging of the battery is prevented by shorting (shunting) the PV output
through the transistor when the voltage reaches a predetermined limit. If the battery
voltage exceeds the PV supply voltage the shunt will also protect the PV panel from
damage due to reverse voltage by discharging the battery through the shunt. Series
regulators usually have better control and charge characteristics.
Buck Regulator A switching regulator which incorporates a step down DC-DC
converter. They have high efficiency and low heat losses. They can handle high output
currents and generate less RF interference than a conventional switch mode regulator. A
simple transformerless design with low switch stress and a small output filter.
Pulsed Charger. Uses a series transistor which can also be switched. With low battery
voltages the transistor remains on and conducts the source current directly to the battery.
As the battery voltage approaches the desired regulation voltage the series transistor
pulses the input current to maintain the desired voltage. Because it acts as a switch
mode supply for part of the cycle it dissipates less heat and because it acts as a linear
supply part of the time the output filters can be smaller. Pulsing allows the battery time
to stabilise (recover) with low increments of charge at progressively high charge levels
during charging. During rest periods the polarisation of the cell is lowered. This process
permits faster charging than possible with one prolonged high level charge which could
damage the battery since it does not permit gradual stabilisation of the active chemicals
during charging. Pulse chargers usually need current limiting on the input source for
safety reasons, adding to the cost.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) Charger
The USB specification was developed by a group of computer and peripheral device
manufacturers to replace a plethora of proprietary mechanical and electrical
interconnection standards for transferring data between computers and external devices. It
included a two wire data connection, a ground (earth) line and a 5 Volt power line
provided by the host device (the computer) which was available to power the external
devices. An unintended use of the USB port has been to provide the 5 Volt source not
only to power peripheral devices directly, but also to charge any batteries installed in
these external devices. In this case the peripheral device itself must incorporate the
necessary charge
control circuitry to protect the battery. The original USB standard specified a a data
rata of 1.5 Mbits/sec and a maximum charging current of 500mA.
Power always flows from the host to the device, but data can flow in both directions. For
this reason the USB host connector is mechanically different from the USB device
connector and thus USB cables have different connectors at each end. This prevents any
5 Volt connection from an external USB source from being applied to the host computer
and thus from possibly damaging the host machine.
Subsequent upgrades increased the standard data rates to 5 Gigabits/sec and the available
current to 900 mA. However the popularity of the USB connection has led to a lot of non
standard variants paricularly the use of the USB connector to provide a pure power
source without the associated data connection. In such cases the USB port may simply
incorporate a voltage regulator to provide the 5 Volts from a 12 Volt automotive power
rail or a rectifier and regulator to provide the 5 Volts DC from the 110 Volts or 240 Volts
AC mains supply with output currents up to 2100 mA. In both cases the device accepting
the power has to provide the necessary charge control. Mains powered USB power
supplies, often known as "dumb" USB chargers, may be incorporated into the body of the
mains plugs or into separate USB receptacles in wall mounted AC power socket outlets.
See more about USB connections in the section on battery Data Buses.
Inductive Charging
Inductive charging does not refer to the charging process of the battery itself. It refers to
the design of the charger. Essentially the input side of charger, the part connected to the
AC mains power, is constructed from a transformer which is split into two parts. The
primary winding of the transformer is housed in a unit connected to the AC mains
supply, while the secondary winding of the transformer is housed in the same sealed unit
which contains the battery, along with the rest of the conventional charger electronics.
This allows the battery to be charged without a physical connection to the mains and
without exposing any contacts which could cause an electric shock to the user.

A low power example is the electric toothbrush. The toothbrush and the charging base
form the two-part transformer, with the primary induction coil contained in the base and
the secondary induction coil and the electronics contained in the toothbrush. When the
toothbrush is placed into the base, the complete transformer is created and the induced
current in the secondary coil charges the battery. In use, the appliance is completely
separated from the mains power and since the battery unit is contained in a sealed
compartment the toothbrush can be safely immersed in water.

The technique is also used to charge medical battery implants.

A high power example is a charging system used for EVs. Similar to the toothbrush in
concept but on a larger scale, it is also a non-contact system. An induction coil in the
electric vehicle picks up current from an induction coil in the floor of the garage and
charges the vehicle overnight. To optimise system efficiency, the air gap between the
static coil and the pickup coil can be reduced by lowering the pickup coil during
charging and the vehicle must be precisely placed over the charging unit.
A similar system has been used for electric buses which pick up current from induction
coils embedded beneath each bus stop thus enabling the range of the bus to be extended
or conversely, smaller batteries can be specified for the same itinerary. One other
advantage of this system is that if the battery charge is constantly topped up, the depth of
discharge can be minimised and this leads to a longer cycle life. As shown in the section
on Battery Life, the cycle life increases exponentially as the depth of discharge is
reduced.
 A simpler and less expensive alternative to this opportunity charging is for the
vehicle to make a conductive coupling with electric contacts on an overhead gantry at
each bus stop.
Proposals have also been made to install a grid of inductive charging coils under the
surface along the length of public roadways to allow vehicles to pick up charge as they
drive along however no practical examples have yet been installed.

Electric Vehicle Charging Stations

For details about the specialised, high power chargers used for EVs, see the section
about Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure.

Charger Power Sources

When specifying a charger it is also necessary to specify the source from which the charger
derives its power, its availability and its voltage and power range. Efficiency losses in the
charger should also be taken into account, particularly for high power chargers where the
magnitude of the losses can be significant. Some examples are given below.

Controlled Charging
Easy to accommodate and manage.
AC Mains
Many portable low power chargers for small electrical appliances such as computers
and mobile phones are required to operate in international markets. They therefore have
auto sensing of the mains voltage and in special cases the mains frequency with
automatic switching to the appropriate input circuit.
Higher power applications may need special arrangements. Single phase mains power is
typically limited to about 3 KW. Three phase power may be required for charging high
capacity batteries (over 20 KWh capacity) such as those used in electric vehicles which
may require charging rates of greater than 3 KW to achieve reasonable charging times.
Regulated DC Battery Supply
May be provided by special purpose installations such as mobile generating
equipment for custom applications.
Special Chargers
Portable sources such as solar panels.

Opportunity Charging
Opportunity charging is charging the battery whenever power is available or between partial
discharges rather than waiting for the battery to be completely discharged. It is used with
batteries in cycle service, and in applications when energy is available only intermittently.
It can be subject to wide variations in energy availability and wide variations in power levels.
Special control electronics are needed to protect the battery from overvoltage. By avoiding
complete discharge of the battery, cycle life can be increased.
Availability affects the battery specification as well as the charger.
Typical applications are:-
Onboard vehicle chargers (Alternators, Regenerative braking)
Inductive chargers (on vehicle route stopping points)
Solar power
Wind power
Mechanical charging
This is only applicable to specific cell chemistries. It is nor a charger technology in the
normal sense of the word. Mechanical charging is used in some high power batteries such
as Flow Batteries and Zinc Air batteries. Zinc air batteries are recharged by replacing the
zinc electrodes. Flow batteries can be recharged by replacing the electrolyte.

Mechanical charging can be carried out in minutes. This is much quicker than the long
charging time associated with the conventional reversible cell electrochemistry which could
take several hours. Zinc air batteries have therefore been used to power electric buses to
overcome the problem of excessive charging times
Q.14 What is runaway speed?
The maximum rotational speed of the drive of a centrifugal pump is called runaway speed
................ When centrifugal pumps operate in turbine mode (as a drive or in the case
of reverse flow as a result of a malfunction), they can reach runaway speed if they run at
full flow (i.e. there is a pressure gradient) and no load
Q.15 What are various methods of cooling a transformer? There are four type of method to
cooling a transformer(for oil immersed transformer) that are generally used in a
substation.

1.O.N.A.N.(oil natural air forced)

2.O.N.A.F.(oil natural air forced)

3.O.F.A.N.(oli forced air natural)

4.O.F.A.F.(oil forced air forced)

Why do we use kVA instead of kW to rate alternators and transformers?

There are some very good theoretical answers here. But I would like t explain practically why rating
a transformer in kW will not be useful.

By the rating of any device, we want to know exactly how much energy will it be able to supply to
the load connected to it. For example, consider a motor, it is rated in HP or kW. This means that it
can supply that much mechanical energy. This rating does not specify how much energy it uses to
supply that. When we ask the rating, we only want to know how much work will it be able to do,
not how much energy it expends.

Now, in the case of the transformer, every kind of load is connected to it. It has to supply energy to
all of them. This includes inductive loads like motors. But in these loads, there is a component of
power used, which is called reactive power, which does not do any work. It is essentially the
energy expended by the motor. This reactive component has to be accounted for when we calculate
the energy required. This total energy is expressed
in kVA. The ratio of kVA and kW is called power factor. In layman terms it can be
considered as the amount of usable power from the total power, though it is actually a bit more
complex.

As an example, if there is motor rated 5 kW, the total power required by it usually is around 6
kVA, that is around 20% higher than the KW power. This is the amount of power that has to
be supplied to this load.

Now, if the transformer capacity is expressed in kW, we would not get any idea of the kind of
loads that will be connected to it. It expresses only the active component. If that remains the case,
and transformer is designed only taking into account the active power, it will be under the required
capacity. It will overload when the load is running. Therefore the total required power in kVA has
to be expressed.

Essentially, for any device, the unit has to be defined in terms of the actual unit which is dissipated
by its load, whatever that maybe. We are only concerned about what and how much we want out of
that device, so only those units are used.

As a side note, it is easy to see that if the power factor is 1, i.e. the loads do not have reactive
component, the power in kW will be equal to power in kVA

Q.16 What is corona loss?

First of all corona occurs in both AC and DC. In DC the critical Voltage is greater than that of
AC and the loss is less when compared to AC.

Corona loss is due to ionisation of the air coulumn sorrounding the conductor, due to distortion
in the electric field pattern around the conductor. This distortion in the field pattern in gasseous
medium is given by streamer theory. This distortion causes lots of miniature localised
breakdowns in the surrounding air column due to which you can expect a violet glow and a
hissing noise

What is the basic difference between skin effect and corona losses?
CORONA:

In electricity, a corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the ionization of a

fluid surrounding a conductor that is electrically charged.

“Corona is a discharge caused by electrical over stress.”

The ionization of air surrounding the conductor, due to which a spark produces, this is one of
the power loss during transmission.

SKIN EFFECT:
 1. Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become
distributed within a conductor such that the current density is largest near the surface of
the conductor, and decreases with greater depths in the conductor.
2. In this case resistance of the conductor increases, thus increase the power loss.
Why is skin effect only occurring on AC not on DC?
Skin effect - The name says it all! Every conductor line has resistance and inductance! When you
pass AC in a conductor (imagine a rod), then due to its alternating nature and with the conductor
inductance, it finds some opposition for the flow of current in the regions closer to the centre of the
conductor. Since this inductive reactance is stronger at the centre, the current tends to avoid that
area and prefers flowing on the periphery
or the skin of the conductor. Hence, skin effect. More the frequency, stronger is the
reactance.

Now in case of DC, there is no change in frequency and hence the inductive reactance is zero! So
the current doesn’t find any opposition other than the resistance and it flows completely in the
conductor, not just outside

What is the frequency of corona loss?

Corona discharge in power distribution systems? As every radio amateur knows: between tens of
kHz all the way into the shortwave bands, sometimes up to 15MHz give or take

Q.17 What is a universal motor?

An universal motor is a single phase high speed motor.it’s working A.C & D.C both supply.
3000 r.p.m. to 20000 r.p.m.speed of a motor. their two types winding of a motor (main -field &
compensating) .main field winding connection of a A.C supply and commutator convert AC
to DC supply as the running of motor.

What is a universal motor and how does it work?

A universal motor is a special type of motor which is designed to run either on DC supply or single
phase AC supply
And working principle is:the operation of this kind of motor in brief . In series circuit, same
amount of current flows throgh all components. Similarly in a series wound motor, the same
current flows through field windings and armature winding both. In an universal motor, both
windings connected in series with each other. When the motor is supplied from ac or dc supply,
magnetic fields are developed around the armature winding and field winding. They reacts
on each other to produce an unidirectional torque forcefully. In some other words, the
interaction in between series magnetic field and armature field causes to develop a torque and this
torque leads to rotate the shaft

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a universal motor?

Advantages of universal motor

 Can run from AC or DC supplies

 Is a cheap motor
 It has good torque at low speeds. This makes it useful in e.g. mains operated hand
held power tools.
Disadvantages of universal motor

 Brushes and commutator wear out, create sparking which can cause
electromagnetic interference and may be an ignition source of VOCs.
 Speed control is lousy - it has characteristics of series DC motor. On no load it races to
high speed and often has a shaft mounted fan to provide some load and prevent
runaway.
 It is not easy to reverse the motor
Q.18 What is meant by Compound motor?

A compound wound DC motor (also known as a DC compound motor) is a type of self-

excited motor, and is made up of both series the field coils S1 S2 and shunt field coils F1 F2
connected to the armature winding as shown in the figure below.
What are the advantages of a compound DC motor?
Seeing that a compound DC motor is basically a combination of a shunt wound DC motor
and a series wound DC motor, it inherently acquires, to some extent, the advantages of
these two categories of motors.

A shunt wound DC motor has very good speed regulation characteristics while a series wound DC
motor has a high starting torque.

The compound wound motor hence has fairly good speed regulation characteristics and fairly high
starting torque

Q.18 What is the impedance relay?

It is Distance Relay and it is the Ratio of voltage and current, Impedance of a
transmission is directly proportional to its length
How does an impedance relay operate?
The concept is simple and straight forward although there are many technical details associated with
the subject so this answer is limited to just the basic concept.

An impedance relay works by measuring the voltage and current present at the line terminal
where the relay is located. The line impedance is calculated by taking the ratio of the voltage to the
current: Z=V/IZ=V/I. This measured impedance is then compared to the characteristic impedance
of the line. When a fault occurs on the protected portion of the line, the voltage dips while the
current increases. The impedance ZZ is thereby reduced while the fault is present. When the
measured impedance falls below a predetermined setting based on the characteristic line
impedance, the relay issues a trip command to open the circuit breaker protecting line and this
action clears the fault

Q.19 Effect of HV EHV lines on wireless communication

Q.20 Dc generators and types

What are the different types and uses of DC generators?
We have three types of DC generators:
(1) Shunt generator

(2) Series generator

(3) Compound generator

Compound generator is the best and costliest. It maintains a fairly constant voltage across its
terminals under varying load conditions.

Shunt generator is good at rated load. Increase in load will cause significant drop in generator
terminal voltage.

Series generator can not be used as a conventional generator because its terminal voltage
increases with load. Instead, it is used as a voltage booster to compensate for line drop.

Q.21 What is an electrical traction?

A traction system is that which involves propulsion of wheels of vehical on a track. A
traction systems involving the use of electricity is known as “Electrical Traction System”.

In electric traction drive, drive is mainly by electric motors ( dc series motors) which are fed from
over head distribution system generally.

A high voltage & low frequency supply is given to the locomotive from overhead system. High
supply voltage reduce current consumption & low frequency will reduce the impedence drop.

Main Advantages:

 It is free from smoke and flu gases. So clean

 Regenerative braking is used
 D.C. series motors are used because of its high starting torque characteristics. So high
acceleration.
 Economical operation cost.
The DC motor was the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-
electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. It
consists of two parts, a rotating armature and fixed field windings surrounding the rotating
armature mounted around a shaft.
Q.21 Which motor should be used on load
What type of load do you recommend for a DC series motor? ANS IS DC SERIES
Actually a DC series motor have high starting torque and high starting current and high
starting torque is needed for any traction purpose …..

There are many such machines which needed high starting torque

1. Cranes
2. Railway system
3. Lift or elevator….
And many such machines.

Q.22 Whichisthe most usedcircuit breaker inthepower system? Why?

There are different types of circuit breakers used under different circumstances and voltages. For
low voltages like 230 and 400, air circuit breakers are used and generally called as MCBs or
miniature circuit breakers. These are nothing but domestic switches with automatic tripping
arrangement in case of overload or short circuit. Probably this is most used circuit breaker by their
numbers because every house with electricity will invariably have one or more.

Now coming to higher voltages like 11Kv , 33, 66,110,220,400,768 Kv different types of breakers
are used. In olden days oil breakers of different types like bulk oil, medium oil, low oil were in use.
Later they turned to pressurised air circuit breakers. Then again trend changed. The present practice
is to go for vacuum breakers for voltages upto 33Kv and for higher voltages SF6 breakers are
used.

Whatever I have mentioned is only AC and for HV DC( High voltage DC systems which is now
being used for connecting different grids) totally different type of breakers are used

ALSO
In the power system vacuum circuit breakers are mostly used up to 33 kv level, but SF6 circuit
breakers are mostly used for higher voltage level. SF6 is so far the best medium for
extinguishing the arcs inside the breaker contact chamber and also it is non combustible.
Compared to oil circuit breaker or the air circuit breaker, the maintenance of SF6 circuit
breaker is less. But care must be taken to keep the breaker free of leakage, as SF6 is highly
pollutant to environment

Different Types of Circuit Breakers – How They are

Classified
An electrical circuit breaker is a switching device that can be operated manually or
automatically for controlling and protecting the electrical power system. Without a
circuit breaker, there is a high risk of electrical fires, electrocution and electrical
shocks.

There are different types of circuit breakers which are based on voltage, installation
location, external design and interrupting mechanism. Read on to know more.

Different types of circuit breakers

1. Based on Voltage
o Low voltage circuit breakers-These breakers are rated for use at low
voltages up to 2 kV and are mainly used in small-scale industries.
o High voltage circuit breakers-These breakers are rated for use at voltages
greater than 2 kV. High voltage circuit breakers are further subdivided into
transmission class breakers
 Those which are rated 123 kV and above
 Medium voltage class (lesser than 72 kV) circuit breakers
2. By Installation Location
o Indoor circuit breakers-These are designed to use inside the buildings or in
weather-resistant enclosures. They are typically operated at a medium voltage
with a metal clad switchgear enclosure.
o Outdoor Circuit breakers-You can use these breakers outdoors without any
roof due to their design. Their external enclosure arrangement is strong
compared to the indoor breakers and can withstand wear and tear.
3. Based on External Design
o Dead tank circuit breakers-The breakers whose enclosed tank is at ground
potential are known as dead tank circuit breakers. Their tank encloses all the
insulating and interrupting medium. In other words, the tank is shorted to
ground or it is at dead potential.
o Live tank circuit breakers-These breakers have a tank housing interrupter
that is at a potential above the ground. It is above the ground with some
insulation medium in between.
4. By Interrupting Mechanism
o Air circuit breaker– This breaker uses air as an insulating and interrupting
medium. The breaker is sub-classified into two types
 Low voltage circuit breaker whose value lies below 1000 V
 High voltage circuit breaker whose value is 1000 V and above. It is
further classified into oil circuit breakers and the oil-less circuit
breaker
o Oil circuit breaker-It uses oil as an interrupting and insulating medium.
These breakers are divided into two types based on the pressure and amount
of oil used.
o Vacuum circuit breakers-These breakers use vacuum as the interrupting
medium due to its high dielectric and diffusive properties.
o MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)-The current ratings for this breaker
are less than 100A and has only one over-current protection built within it.
The trip settings are not adjustable in this circuit.
 o MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breakers)-Current ratings for these
breakers are higher than 1000A. They have earth fault protection along with
current protection. The trip settings of the Molded Case Circuit Breaker can
be adjusted easily.
o Single pole circuit breaker – This breaker has one hot wire and one neutral
wire that operate at 120 V. When there is a fault, it will interrupt just the hot
wire.
o Double pole circuit breaker-This is used for 220 V. There are two hot wires
and both the poles need to be interrupted.
o GFI or GFCI circuit breaker (Ground fault circuit interrupter)-These are
safety switches that trip on ground fault current. The GFCI breaker interrupts
the electrical circuit when it detects the slightest variance between phase and
neutral wires.
o Arc Fault circuit interrupter (AFCI)-The AFCI breaker interrupts the
circuit during excessive arc conditions and prevents fire. Under the normal
arcing condition, this breaker will be idle and won’t interrupt the circuit.
It is absolutely critical that circuit breakers are a part of every home to protect the
families residing within. To get a competitive quote for the same, contact D&F
Liquidators

What is solenoid and toroid?

Solenoid

Let us consider a solenoid, such that its length is large as compared to its radius. Here, the wire is
wound in the form of helix with very little gap between any two turns. Also, the wires are
enameled, thus rendering them insulated from each other. As a result, each turn can be taken as a
closed circular loop. The magnetic field thus generated is equivalent to that generated by a
circular loop and the total magnetic field generated by the solenoid can be given as the vector sum
of force generated by each such turn. The magnetic field lines generated inside a finite solenoid
has been shown in the figure

below.

We can see from the figure that the magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform in nature and is
along the axis of the solenoid. The field at the exterior at any point immediate to the solenoid
is very weak and the field lines cannot be seen near the close vicinity. It is important to note that
the field inside it is parallel to its axis at every position.

From the Ampere’s Law, the magnetic force produced by a solenoid can be given as,

Where n is the number of turns of the wire per unit length, I is the current flowing through
the wire and the direction is given using the right hand thumb rule.
Toroid:-
A toroid is shaped like a solenoid bent into a circular shape such as to close itself into a loop-like
structure. The toroid is a hollow circular ring, as can be seen in the image shown below,
with large number of turns of enameled wire, closely wound with negligible spacing
between any two turns.

The magnetic field inside and outside the toroid is zero. The magnetic field inside the toroid, along
the circular turn is constant in magnitude and its direction inside the toroid is clockwise as per the
right hand thumb rule for circular loops.

The magnetic field due to a toroid can be given as,

Where N is the number of turns of the toroid coil, I is the amount of current flowing and r is the
radIus of the toroid

Q.22 What are the types of tests performed on transformer oil?

There are multiple test for different purpose.

 Insulating Oil analysis (As per IS 1866: 2000): In service, transformer insulating
oil is subjected to deterioration due to various service conditions and these changes
affects on both solid and liquid insulating materials which affects the proper
functioning of transformer and shorten the total working life. There are large numbers of
tests that can applied to the transformer oil but following test are believed to be
sufficient to determine whether the oil condition is adequate for the continuous
operation.
Breakdown Voltage (BDV): Important to measure the suitability of insulating oil to
withstand electric stress.

Interfacial tension: Interfacial tension between oil & water detects the soluble polar
contaminants.

Flash Point: A Low flash point indicates the presence of volatile combustible in the oil.

Dielectric Dissipation Factor (DDF) & Resistivity: It measures the leakage current
through the oil.

Acidity or Neutralization Number: Acidity of insulating oil should never be allowed to exceed
otherwise it can induce corrosion inside the transformer.

Water Content: It accelerates the deterioration of both the insulating oil and paper
insulation.

Sediment & Sludge: It comprises insoluble oxidation or degradation product of

insulating material.

 DGA Analysis : To detection of different incipient fault condition.

  Fuhran Analysis: To Determine the condition of insulation paper

There are four types of transformer oil. They are paraffinic-base transformer oil, naphthenic-
base transformer oil, silicone-base transformer oil, and bio-based transformer oil. Generally,
naphthenic-base transformer oil and paraffinic-base transformer oil used more than the
other types of oil.

 Naphthenic-base transformer oil: The oxidizing power of naphtha-based

transformer is more than the paraffinic-base transformer oil. The best feature of
naphthenic-base transformer oil is it has the good heat distribution oil.
 Paraffinic-base transformer oil: Paraffinic-base transformer oil is less
oxidizing power than naphthenic-base transformer oil. Paraffinic-base transformer
oil has good thermal and oxidation durability and good high- temperature viscosity
feature.
 Silicone-based transformer oil: Silicone-based transformer oil was generally
popularized in the middle of ’70s and has become broadly accepted for transformer
where the location or environment presents a risk that appeals a fire safety alternative
to transformer oil.
 Bio-base transformer oil: These oils are obtained from vegetable oil feedstock.
This oil has the far higher resistance to fire than minerals oil
What kind of oil is used in transformers?
Oil in a Transformer; Acts as a Coolant, Act as insulation, Protects the Paper from chemical
attack, helps in Prevention of sludge buildup and Used as Diagnostic Tool. Mainly following
types of oils are used in Transformer:

A. Mineral Oil: These are Petroleum products and are mainly following two types:

1. NAPTHANIC OIL : Naphtha oil is more easily oxidized than Paraffin oil but
oxidation product i.e. sludge in the naphtha oil is more soluble than Paraffin oil. Thus
sludge of naphtha based oil is not precipitated in bottom of the transformer. Hence it
does not obstruct convection circulation of the oil, means it does not disturb the
transformer cooling system
2. PARAFFINIC OIL : Oxidation rate of Paraffin oil is lower than that of Naphtha oil
but the oxidation product or sludge is insoluble and precipitated at bottom of the tank
and obstruct the transformer cooling system. It has high pour point due to the wax
content. In India it is generally used because of its cheaper and easy availability.
B. Synthetic Oil: These are generally the chemical products e.g. Silicon Oil. These are Fire
retardant, hence used only for fire prone area. Lower heat dissipation capacity and high moisture
absorbing capacity. This type of oil is Costlier than mineral oil

Transformer oil is called as mineral oil which is free from FATTY acids. And the
Chemical name of Transformer oil is Hydrotreated Light Nepthanic Distillate
Transformer Testing | Type Tests and Routine Tests of Transformer
March 2, 2019 by Electrical4U

For confirming the specifications and performances of an electrical power

transformer it has to go through a number of testing procedures. Some tests are done
at a transformer manufacturer premises before delivering the transformer.
Transformer manufacturers perform two main types of transformer testing
– type test of transformer and routine test of transformer.
Some transformer tests are also carried out at the consumer site before
commissioning and also periodically in regular and emergency basis throughout
its service life.
Type of Transformer Testing

Tests done at factory

1. Type tests
2. Routine tests
3. Special tests
Tests done at site

1. Pre-commissioning tests
2. Periodic/condition monitoring tests
3. Emergency tests

Type Test of Transformer

To prove that the transformer meets customer’s specifications and design

expectations, the transformer has to go through different testing
procedures in manufacturer premises. Some transformer tests are carried out for
confirming the basic design expectation of that transformer. These tests are done
mainly in a prototype unit not in all manufactured units in a lot. Type test of
transformer confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot.
Routine Tests of Transformer

Routine tests of transformer is mainly for confirming the operational performance

of the individual unit in a production lot. Routine tests are carried out on every unit
manufactured.
Special Tests of Transformer

Special tests of transformer is done as per customer requirement to obtain

information useful to the user during operation or maintenance of the transformer.
Pre Commissioning Test of Transformer

In addition to these, the transformer also goes through some other tests, performed
on it, before actual commissioning of the transformer at the site. The transformer
testing performed before commissioning the transformer at the site is called the pre-
commissioning test of transformer. These tests are done to assess the condition of
transformer after installation and compare the test results of all the low voltage tests
with the factory test reports.
Type tests of transformer include:
1. Winding resistance test of transformer
2. Transformer ratio test
3. Transformer vector group test
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance
(principal tap) and load loss (Short circuit test)
5. Measurement of no-load loss and current (Open circuit test)
6. Measurement of insulation resistance
7. Dielectric tests of transformer
8. Temperature rise test of transformer
9. Tests on on-load tap-changer
10. Vacuum tests on tank and radiators
Routine tests of transformer include
1. Winding resistance test of transformer
2. Transformer ratio test
 3. Transformer vector group test
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance
(principal tap) and load loss (Short circuit test)
5. Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test)
6. Measurement of insulation resistance
7. Dielectric tests of transformer.
8. Tests on on-load tap-changer.
9. Oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints and
gaskets
That means Routine tests of transformer include all the type tests except temperature
rise and vacuum tests. The oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages
past joints and gaskets is included.

Special Tests of transformer include

1. Dielectric tests.
2. Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase
transformers
3. Short-circuit test
4. Measurement of acoustic noise level
5. Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current.
6. Measurement of the power taken by the fans and oil pumps.
7. Tests on bought out components / accessories such as buchhloz relay,
temperature indicators, pressure relief devices, oil preservation system etc.
Transformer Winding Resistance Measurement

Transformer winding resistance measurement is carried out to calculate the I2R

losses and to calculate winding temperature at the end of a temperature rise test. It
is carried out as a type test as well as routine test. It is also done at site to ensure
healthiness of a transformer that is to check loose connections, broken strands of
conductor, high contact resistance in tap changers, high voltage leads and bushings
etc.
There are different methods for measuring of the transformer winding, likewise:

 Current-voltage method of measurement of winding resistance.

 Bridge method of measurement of winding resistance.
 Kelvin bridge method of Measuring Winding Resistance.
  Measuring winding resistance by Automatic Winding Resistance
Measurement Kit.
Note: Transformer winding resistance measurement shall be carried out at each tap.

Transformer Ratio Test

The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of specific turns

or voltage ratio of transformer. So transformer ratio test is an essential type test of
transformer. This test also performed as a routine test of transformer. So for ensuring
proper performance of electrical power transformer, voltage and turn ratio test of
transformer one of the important tests.
The procedure of the transformer ratio test is simple. We just apply three phase 415
V supply to HV winding, with keeping LV winding open. We measure the induced
voltages at HV and LV terminals of the transformer to find out actual voltage ratio
of the transformer. We repeat the test for all tap position separately.

Magnetic Balance Test of Transformer

Magnetic balance test of transformer is conducted only on three-phase

transformers to check the imbalance in the magnetic circuit.
Procedure of Magnetic Balance Test of Transformer

1. Keep the tap changer of transformer in normal position.

2. Now disconnect the transformer neutral from ground.
3. Then apply single phase 230 V AC supply across one of the HV
winding terminals and neutral terminal.
4. Measure the voltage in two other HV terminals in respect of neutral
terminal.
5. Repeat the test for each of the three phases.

In case of an autotransformer, a magnetic balance test of transformer should be

repeated for LV winding also.
There are three limbs placed side by side in a core of the transformer. One phase
winding is wound in one limb. The voltage induced in different phases depends
upon the respective position of the limb in the core. The
voltage induced in different phases of a transformer in respect to neutral terminals
given in the table below.

Magnetizing Current Test of Transformer

Magnetizing current test of transformer is performed to locate defects in the

magnetic core structure, shifting of windings, failure in between turn insulation or
problem in tap changers. These conditions change the effective reluctance of the
magnetic circuit, thus affecting the current required to establish flux in the core.
1. Keep the tap changer in the lowest position and open all IV and LV
terminals
2. Then apply three phase 415 V supply on the line terminals for three- phase
transformers and single phase 230 V supply on single phase transformers
3. Measure the supply voltage and current in each phase
4. Now repeat the magnetizing current test of transformer test with keeping
tap changer in normal position
5. Repeat the test while keeping the tap at highest position
Normally, there are two similar higher readings on two outer limb phases on
transformer core and one lower reading on the center limb phase, in the case of
three phase transformers.

An agreement to within 30% of the measured exciting current with the previous
test is usually considered satisfactory. If the measured exciting current value is 50
times higher than the value measured during factory test, there is a likelihood of a
fault in the winding which needs further analysis.

Caution: This magnetizing current test of a transformer is to be carried out before DC

resistance measurement.
Vector Group Test of Transformer

In a 3 phase transformer, it is essential to carry out a vector group test of transformer.

Proper vector grouping in a transformer is an essential criteria for parallel operation
of transformers.
There are several internal connections of three-phase transformer are available
on the market. These several connections give various
magnitudes and phase of the secondary voltage; the magnitude can be adjusted
for parallel operation by suitable choice of turn ratio, but the phase divergence
cannot be compensated.

So we have to choose a transformer suitable for parallel operation whose phase

sequence and phase divergence are same. All the transformers with the same vector
ground have same phase sequence and phase divergence between primary and
secondary.
Before procuring an electrical power transformer, you should ensure the vector
group of the transformer, whether it will be matched with his or her existing system
or not. The vector group test of transformer confirms his or her requirements.

Insulation Resistance Test or Megger Test of Transformer

Insulation resistance test of transformer is essential type test. This test is carried
out to ensure the healthiness of the overall insulation system of an electrical power
transformer.
Procedure of Insulation Resistance Test of Transformer

1. Disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer

2. Megger leads to be connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure
insulation resistance IR value in between the LV and HV windings
3. Megger leads to be connected to HV bushing studs and transformer tank
earth point to measure insulation resistance IR value in between the HV
windings and earth
4. Megger leads to be connected to LV bushing studs and transformer tank
earth point to measure insulation resistance IR value in between the LV
windings and earth
NB: It is unnecessary to perform insulation resistance test of transformer per
phase wise in three-phase transformer. IR values are taken between the windings
collectively as because all the windings on HV side are internally connected together
to form either star or delta and also all the windings on LV side are internally
connected together to form either star or delta.
Measurements are to be taken as follows:
  For autotransformer: HV-IV to LV, HV-IV to E, LV to E.
 For two winding transformer: HV to LV, HV to E, LV to E.
 Three winding transformers: HV to IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to E, IV to E,
LV to E.
 Oil temperature should be noted at the time of insulation resistance test of
the transformer, since the IR value of transformer insulating oil may vary
with temperature.
 IR values to be recorded at intervals of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10
minutes.
 With the duration of application of voltage, IR value increases. The
increase in IR is an indication of dryness of insulation.
 Absorption coefficient = 1 minute value/15 secs. value.
 Polarization index = 10 minutes value/1 minute value.
Dielectric Tests of Transformer

Dielectric test of a transformer is one kind of insulation test. This test is

performed to ensure the expected overall insulation strength of the transformer.
There are several tests performed to ensure the required quality of transformer
insulation; the dielectric test is one of them.
Dielectric test of the transformer is performed in two different steps.

First one is called Separate Source Voltage Withstand Test of transformer, where a
single phase power frequency voltage of prescribed level, is applied on
transformer winding under test for 60 seconds while the other windings and tank
are connected to the earth, and it is observed that whether any failure of
insulation occurs or not during the test.

The second one is the induced voltage test of Transformer where, three- phase
voltage, twice of rated secondary voltage is applied to the secondary winding for 60
seconds by keeping the primary of the transformer open circuited.

The frequency of the applied voltage should be double of power frequency too. Here
also if no failure of insulation, the test is successful.

In addition to dielectric tests of transformers, there are other types of test for
checking insulation of transformer, such as lightning impulse test, switching
impulse test and partial discharge test.
Induced Voltage Test of Transformer

The induced voltage test of the transformer is intended to check the inter- turn and
line end insulation as well as main insulation to earth and between windings-

1. Keep the primary winding of transformer open circuited.

2. Apply three-phase voltage to the secondary winding. The applied voltage
should be twice of the rated voltage of secondary winding in magnitude and
frequency.
3. The duration of the test shall be 60 seconds.
4. The test shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage, and it
shall be quickly increased up to the desired value.
The test is successful if no breakdown occurs at full test voltage during the test.

Temperature Rise Test of Transformer

Temperature rise test of transformer is included in type test of transformer. In this

test, we check whether the temperature-rising limit of the transformer winding and
oil as per specification or not. In this type test of the transformer, we have to check
oil temperature rise as well as winding temperature rise limits of an electrical
transformer

Q.23 List of Electrical Substation Equipment :

1. Instrument Transformers
2. Current Transformer
3. Potential Transformer
4. Conductors
5. Insulators
6. Isolators
7. Busbars
8. Lightning Arrestors
9. Circuit Breakers
10. Relays
11. Capacitor Banks
12. Batteries
13. WaveTrapper
14. SwitchYard
15. Metering and Indication Instruments
16. Equipment for Carrier Current
17. Prevention from Surge Voltage
 18. The Outgoing Feeders

Q.24 HEAT RATE

The rate of heat flow is the amount of heat that is transferred per unit of time in some
material, usually measured in watts (joules per second). Heat is the flow of thermal energy
driven by thermal non-equilibrium, so that 'heat flow' is a redundancy (i.e. a pleonasm, and
the same for ‘work flow’). Heat must not be confused with stored thermal energy, and
moving a hot object from one place to another must not be called heat transfer. But, in spite
of all these remarks, it is common in normal parlance to say ‘heat flow’, to talk of ‘heat
content’, etc.[1]
Rate of heat flow = - (heat transfer coefficient) * (area of the body) * (variation
of the temperature) / (length of the material)
The formula for the rate of heat flow is:
Q.25PLC & Scada
Workshop. Programmable Logic Controller or PLC is a computing system used to control
electromechanical processes. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.
It is a type of industrial control system that is used to monitor and control facilities and
infrastructure in industries
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a control system
architecture comprising computers networked data communications and graphical
user
interfaces(GUI) for high-level process supervisory management, while also comprising
other peripheral devices like programmable logic controller (PLC) and discrete
Proportional Integral Differentiator (PID) controllers to interface with process plant or
machinery. The use of SCADA has been considered also for management and operations
of project-driven-process in construction
A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is an industrial
digital computer which has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing
processes, such as assembly lines, or robotic devices, or any activity that requires high
reliability control and ease of programming and process fault diagnosis.
PLCs were first developed in the automobile manufacturing industry to provide flexible,
ruggedized and easily programmable controllers to replace hard-wired relays, timers and
sequencers. Since then, they have been widely adopted as high-reliability automation
controllers suitable for harsh environments. A PLC is an example of a "hard" real-time
system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited
time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
Distributed control system

A distributed control system (DCS) is a computerised control system for a process or plant
usually with many control loops, in which autonomous controllers are distributed throughout
the system, but there is no central operator supervisory control. This is in contrast to systems
that use centralized controllers; either discrete controllers located at a central control room or
within a central computer. The DCS concept increases reliability and reduces installation
costs by localising control functions near the process plant, with remote monitoring and
supervision.
Distributed control systems first emerged in large, high value, safety critical process
industries, and were attractive because the DCS manufacturer would supply both the local
control level and central supervisory equipment as an integrated package, thus reducing
design integration risk. Today the functionality of SCADA and DCS systems are very
similar, but DCS tends to be used on large continuous process plants where high reliability
and security is important, and the control room is not geographically remote
Q.25 Can we use fluorescent lamps in DC?
The Fluorescent lamps which is commonly known as Tube light can be operated on DC supply
also.

Let’s discuss about how to make tube light works on DC supply.

To make the fluorescent lamp work on DC Supply, a resistance is connected in addition to the
usual choke as shown in the following figure.

 After adding the extra resistance and connected to DC supply continuously, the positive
end of the tube will become blackened.
 It is due to the migration of ionized mercury vapour to the negative end.
 To decrease this effect, the input supply terminals have to be changed
continuously.
 To achieve this, a changeover switch is used. Usually a rotary switch is
incorporated. It ensures the polarity reversal, every time the fluorescent lamp is switched
ON
Can a fluorescent tube work on AC and DC?
Fluorescent tube can directly from a direct current (DC) supply of sufficient voltage to strike an
arc. The ballast must be resistive, and would consume about as much power as the tube.

To make the fluorescent lamp work on DC Supply, a resistance is connected in addition to the
usual choke as shown in the following figure.

 After adding the extra resistance and connected to DC supply continuously, the positive
end of the tube will become blackened.
 It is due to the migration of ionized mercury vapour to the negative end.
 To decrease this effect, the input supply terminals have to be changed
continuously.
  To achieve this, a changeover switch is used. Usually a rotary switch is
incorporated. It ensures the polarity reversal, every time the fluorescent lamp is switched
ON.
Advantages:

1. It eliminates the stroboscopic effect.

2. Power factor correction is not required.
Disadvantages:

1. Initial Investment cost is high.

2. Due to the addition of the extra resistor, power consumption is increased.
3. Tube light efficiency is decreased
Q.26 BENEFITS OF LEADING POWER FACTOR
Which is better, lagging power factor or leading the power factor for the generation
system?
Lagging power factor beteeen 0.95– 1.0 is the preferred choice for safe working of any system. If
the load becomes leading (capacitive), it will lead to over excitation of motors and generators,
which can damage these equipment.

Therefore all power factor correction systems are designed to keep power factor slightly on lagging
side. It can go 0.99 or even slightly higher, but not 1.00 to avoid the possibility of turning it to
leading side. Latest development in electronic control systems allows it to remain at 1.0 , but this
system is very expensive

What are the advantages of leading power factor and lagging power factor?
What are their disadvantage?
Power factor is generally mentioned for linear loads such as inductive or resistive loads.
Here a power factor is the cosine of the angle between voltage & current. With the advent of
power electronics, we now have an equal part of non-linear loads in use today and which
cannot be neglected or brushed aside. These are devices such as rectifiers, VFDs, LED lights,
SMPS, etc. where a change in input current is not proportionately reflected on the output.

For linear loads, the disadvantages of a lagging power factor is that you have to face penalty
charges from your electricity supplier. This is because generation and transmission charges
increase with lagging power factor. And advantages of improved power factor rather than
leading power factor is that you could possibly get some discounts in your tariff especially for 3-
phase high voltage consumers. A very high power factor, especially on light load conditions could
increase the voltage to dangerous levels causing voltage stresses to the connected equipment.
This condition may come into picture if you manually switch on/off capacitors for p.f.
improvement or if APFC meter is faulty! And hence the disadvantage of high power factor.
In case of non-linear loads, the term distortion power factor (DPF) is introduced because of the
harmonics generated by these loads. Its the ratio of fundamental rms current to the total rms
current. ie., DPF = Ifrms/Irms. It can also be termed in terms of THD as

Another term called displacement power factor (PFd) which is the ratio of active
power P to the apparent power S. True power factor PF = PFd * DPF.
Now that we know these things, it is actually dangerous to have low values of power factor in
non-linear loads since it will cause some serious phase and neutral loading. Some standards
and regulation bodies like the EU suggest a pf > 0.9 for such devices. And almost all the devices
be it LED lights, SMPS, etc. do comply to these standards.

How do you know whether it is leading or lagging in Power Factor?

Lagging power factor:
The phasor current has negative sign angle.

And the reactive power is positive on the load side.

So the load is consuming reactive power ,but on generator side positive reactive power means that
the generator is supplying reactive power.

Note that most loads operate at lagging power factor such as induction motor . Leading
power factor :

The phasor current has a positive sign angle

Negative reactive power which means that the load is supplying reactive power to adjacent
loads ,improving the power factor and reducing transmission line current and reducing the
transmission line cupper losses.but negative reactive power factor at generator side means that
the generator is consuming reactive power from the network which is a problem that can be solved
by increasing the field current in the rotor

Whataretheeffectsofleadingpowerfactoronloads, transformers & generators?

As far as the Generators are concerned,All most all the generators are operated in Lagging
Power Factor.The reason they are operated in Lagging power factor is to supply the Reactive Power
to the loads.Because most of the loads are Inductive type loads(R- L),which consume the
Reactive power.
Even the Fan that you are using in your house is an Induction motor and it consumes Reactive
power for creating a Rotating Magnetic Field. So in order to supply that much amount of Reactive
power to the loads,the generator has to generate them by operating in lagging mode.

If the generator is operating in Leading mode and synchronized with the Grid then it will consume
Reactive power from the Grid.Weather the generator will operate in Lagging mode or Leading
mode,this totally depends on the Grid condition. The Load Dispatch Center gives the command
to the Generating Units to consume or supply Reactive power depending on the conditions.

Coming to the Loads,if they are operating in lead power factor that also means they are supplying
Reactive power to the system as in case of Synchronous Condenser.When the synchronous
condenser is operating in leading mode,it supplies Reactive power to the GriD

Q.27 What is regenerative braking?

State of the art energy conservation stuff used in higher end Automobiles.

Regenerative roughly translates to “generate it over and over”. When you are driving your
automobile at a high speed, and have to brake due to any road condition, you press the brake
pedal. The brakes instead converts kinetic energy of wheels to heat energy generated due to
tremendous braking pressure applied by the disc/drum unit to wheels. This heat energy, which
otherwise would go unused, is utilised to charge a cell. This cell stores the heat energy by
converting it into chemical energy and assists the performance of engine later. This is the basic
idea of regenerative braking.

It's used in F1 cars, hyper cars and few supercars

Q. 28 What is the difference betweenMCB and MCCB? Where can it be used?

These are the following difference between MCB and MCCB.

1. NAME

MCB stands for Miniature circuit breaker but MCCB stands for Molded case circuit
breaker.

2. RATING

Rating of MCB is generally varied from 0–63A in markets but the rating of MCCB
generally varies from 50 to 2500 A.

3. TRIP CHARACTERISTICS
In MCCB we can set trip characteristics by using the button(switch) given on MCCB and we can
set the class(class 5,10,20) also.

EXAMPLE- MCCB of rated current 400A can be set between 320A-400A by using the
button. MCCB can be set between any class like class 5, class 10, class 20. MCCB of 3 pole
400A(320A–400A).

IN MCB we can’t set the Trip characteristics. MCB of rated current 10A will trip when
current is higher than 10A. time taken in tripping depend on trip characteristics.

EXAMPLE- MCB of class B, 1 Pole, 10A

4. SHORT CIRCUIT BREAKING CAPACITY

In short circuit fault, the level of current a circuit breaker can safely break is known as short
circuit breaking capacity.

MCCB has a current breaking capacity of 50KA, 100KA usually. BUT MCB has a Short
circuit breaking capacity of 10KA usually.

5. APPLICATION

MCB is used for low current household applications. BUT MCCB is used where high
current breaking is required. MCCB is used in industrial applications.

MCCB

MCB
Q.28 What are 'GIS' gas insulated substations?
A gas insulated substation (GIS) is a substation where the conducting equipment such as
breakers, switches, and buses are enclosed with gas. The gas serves as an insulator that has a
higher breakdown voltage than air. This gas environment arcs extinguish over smaller
distances than in normal atmosphere.
The main gas used is SF6 or sulfur hexafluoride. GIS are smaller than normal air insulated
substation of the same voltage levels. Urban and city environments are prime locations for GIS due
to the need for a small and discreet substation. However they are more expensive air insulated
substations and need replenishment of the gas from time to time.
SF6 is used in the electrical industry as a gaseous dielectric medium for high-voltage circuit
breaker, switchgear, and other electrical equipment, often replacing oil filled circuit breakers
(OCBs) that can contain harmful PCBs. SF6 gas under pressure is used as an insulator in gas
insulated switchgear(GIS) because it has a much higher dielectric strength than air or dry
nitrogen. The high dielectric strength is a result of the gas's high electronegativity and density. [1]
This is an example of gas insulated breakers.[2]
The exact design of equipment varies depending on the voltage level and
manufacturer, but this is an example of a Siemens gas insulated breaker.

Q.29 THERMOCOUPLE

What is a thermocouple?
A thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature in a number of processes.
Thermocouples consist of two wire legs made from dissimilar metals which are fixed together at
one end, creating a junction. When this junction experiences a change in temperature a voltage is
created, this voltage can then be measured and referenced back to the temperature.

Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals, each with its own unique
characteristics in terms of temperature range, durability, vibration resistance, chemical
resistance, and application compatibility.

• Base metal thermocouples or type J, K, T, & E are relatively low cost and therefore the most
popular thermocouples, they are commonly used in a broad range of low to medium
temperature applications.

• Noble metal thermocouples or type R, S, and B have greater resistance than base metal
thermocouples, however they have platinum conductors, making them far more expensive.
They are commonly used in high temperature applications.

To conclude, Thermocouples are the most widely used temperature sensors in the world, with RTD
sensors not far behind, if you would like to learn more about temperature sensors, visit our
website.
What is difference between thermocouple and thermostat?
A thermocouple is a device to measure the temperature, a thermostat is a control device which
measures the temperature (could be using a thermocouple to do that) and comparing the
measured temperature with the required temperature (setpoint) and based on these data control a
heating and/or cooling device.

A thermocouple is a type of thermometer.

Thermocouples are made of two different metals jointed together, normally in the form of two
wires twisted, welded or crimped at a tip. When there is a temperature difference between the
jointed tip and the open terminals, a voltage is produce that has a repeatable relationship between
the temperature difference and voltage.

Q.30 DEAD END TOWER/POLE IN DISTRIBUTION?

Dead-end towers may use earth anchor cables to compensate for the asymmetric attachment
of the conductors. They are often used when the power line must cross a large gap, such as a
railway line, river, or valley. Dead-end towers may be constructed of the same materials as
other structures of the line

NATIONAL ELECTRIC POWER REGULATORY AUTHORITY(NEPRA)

INTRODUCTION
In 1992, the Government approved WAPDAs Strategic Plan for the Privatization of the
Pakistan Power Sector. This Plan sought to meet three critical goals:
1. Enhance capital formation,
2. Improve efficiency and rationalize prices, and
3. Move over time towards full competition by providing the greatest possible role for the
private sector through privatization.

This major decision was taken to improve the viability of Pakistan's electric power sector which was
characterized by extensive government involvement in management, political interference, and a
tariff plagued by cross-subsidies. A critical element of the Strategic Plan was the creation and
establishment of a Regulatory Authority to oversee the restructuring process and to regulate
monopolistic services. The existence of an independent and objective regulatory entity reduces
the perception of risk to investors in a market. Accordingly, an autonomous regulatory agency
is essential for the immediate need and long-term stability of the sector.

Pakistan has been successful in attracting substantial foreign investment in the power sector, but the
absence of a transparent regulatory regime led investors to secure their investment through long-term
contracts. Consequently, a substantial part of the sector
has been carved out for long-term contract regulation and the rest of the sector has to carry
whatever risk arises from changing circumstances and realities. Pakistan has had to pay dearly for the
absence of an acceptable and established regulatory environment for the commercial operation of
the sector.

The December 16, 1997 issue of the Gazette of Pakistan proclaimed the enactment of the
Regulation of Generation, Transmission and Distribution of Electric Power Act, 1997; which had
become effective on December 13, 1997.

NEPRA has been created to introduce transparent and judicious economic regulation, based on
sound commercial principals, to the electric power sector of Pakistan. NEPRA reflects the
country's resolve to enter the new era as a nation committed to free enterprise and to meet its
social objectives with the aim of improving the quality of life for its people and to offer them
opportunities for growth and development.

PREPARING FOR FUTURE

Pakistan is attempting to restructure the electric power sector to catch up and keep pace with the
gigantic strides the power utility business has made during the 20th century.
The World is moving towards an integrated electric power system. Electricity is produced,
traded and sold across international boundaries in many parts of the World. Pakistan has to
immediately start working towards creating an environment that will not only enable but also
attract international trading in electricity. If we do not keep pace with the changing global
environment, we will be isolated and left even further behind than where we found ourselves at
the end of the previous century.
A first step to creating a climate conducive to investment and economic development is the need to
enunciate a new regime to regulate the utility business of the future. NEPRA is one such name and
it proposes to establish a new form of governance in Pakistan through its regulatory regime.
The NEPRA statute reflects the desire of the Government to establish an autonomous regulator
body to improve the efficiency and availability of electric power services by protecting the interest
of the investor, the operator and the consumers and to do so with a view to promoting competition
and to deregulate power sector activities where there is competition.

NEPRA'S ROLE
NEPRA's main responsibilities are to:
Issue Licences for generation, transmission and distribution of electric power;
 Establish and enforce Standards to ensure quality and safety of operation and supply of electric
power to consumers;
Approve investment and power acquisition programs of the utility companies; and
Determine Tariffs for generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.

NEPRA will regulate the electric power sector to promote a competitive structure for the industry
and to ensure the co-ordinated, reliable and adequate supply of electric power in the future. By law,
NEPRA is mandated to ensure that the interests of the investor and the customer are protected
through judicious decisions based on transparent commercial principals and that the sector
moves towards a competitive environment.

A primary challenge is to quickly create a track record of NEPRA's working such that it
demonstrates its objectivity and impartiality. NEPRA has to demonstrate that its decisions are
neither arbitrary nor influenced by individual and personal discretion. It is accordingly proposed that
to introduce transparency and accountability in NEPRA, all regulatory decisions regarding
licensees will be published and made public property.
Tarbela Dam (Urdu/Pashto: ‫ )تربیال بند‬is an earth-filled dam along the Indus
River in Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. Located in the Swabi and Haripur
Districts of the province,[2] the dam is about 30 km (20 mi) from the city of Swabi, 105 km
(65 mi) northwest of Islamabad, and 125 km (80 mi) east of Peshawar. It is the largest earth-
filled dam in the world, and also the largest dam by structural volume.[3][4][5]
The dam was completed in 1976 and was designed to store water from the Indus River
for irrigation, flood control, and the generation of hydroelectric power.[6] The dam is 143
metres (470 ft) high above the riverbed. The dam’s reservoir, Tarbela Lake, has a surface area
of approximately 250 square kilometres (97 sq mi).
Tarbela Dam’s primary use is electricity generation. The installed capacity of the 4,888
MW Tarbela hydroelectric power stations will increase to 6,298 MW after completion of
the planned fifth extension financed by Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the
World Bank.[7]

The Mangla Dam (Urdu: ‫ )م نگال ب ند‬is a multipurpose dam located on the Jhelum River in the
Mirpur District of Azad Kashmir in Pakistan. It is the seventh largest dam in the world. The
dam got its name from the village of Mangla. Major Nasrullah Khan of the Pakistan Army
revealed for the first time in 2003, that the project was designed and supervised by Binnie &
Partners of London (the team led by partner Geoffrey Binnie),[2] and it was built by Mangla
Dam Contractors, a consortium of 8 U.S. construction firms, sponsored by Guy F. Atkinson
Company of South San FranciscoIn November 2012, United States announced a grant of
$150 million for the expansion of the Mangla Dam power house. Under the project, $400
million would be spent on the Mangla Dam power house which is estimated to provide
additional production for the next 40 years. The project, when complete, will increase the
power generation capacity of the Mangla Dam to 1,310 MW from the existing 1000 MW
capacity. The dam was further expanded in era of Pervez Musharraf but it did not enhance
the capacity of electric generation except increasing the level of water in the dam

GENERATION CAPACITY IN PAKISTAN

Total existing installed power capacity as of March, 2017 was 29,944 MW (Pakistan Energy
Yearbook 2017) in the form of thermal (68.4% of Pakistan’s Capacity), hydro (23.8%),
renewable (4.1%) and nuclear power plants (3.6%). The available power at any given time is
substantially
below the installed capacity and reaches its trough during the winter when low water levels
reduce the hydro power output.
Thermal generation capacity is distributed among WAPDA, IPPs and KESC. Hydro power is
presently exclusively owned by WAPDA. There are a few small run of the river IPPs under
development; however, these projects have not flourished owing to the long gestation period,
which has discouraged private sector developers. Nuclear energy is exclusively controlled by
PAEC.
Presently, the renewable energy sector consists primarily of wind projects, which are being
developed exclusively within the private sector.
Furthermore, there are a very small number of captive power stations for industrial groups
which are mostly thermal. A few are generating electricity from bagasse (residual waste in
sugar mills) during the sugar cane crushing season
What is the total electric power output of Pakistan?
Pakistan had a total installed power generation capacity of over 34 GW by December
2018. However, de-rated capacity is approximately 31 GW during the year
List of power stations in Pakistan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chasnupp

Kanupp

KNPC
This is a list of Power Stations in Pakistan. Pakistan had a total installed power generation capacity
of over 34 GW by December 2018. However, de-rated capacity is approximately 31 GW during the
year. Under China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) project, with an investment of
$25 Billion, the power plants of 12,334 MW capacity would be completed on a priority
basis. Pakistan has witnessed a sharp increase in electricity production of almost 11 GW
in last five years bridging much needed gap between supply and demand. [1][2][3]
Pakistan has an installed electricity generation capacity of 33,836 MW in 2018.[4] Furnace
oil (16 percent), hydel (27 percent), Natural gas (12 percent), LNG (26 percent), Coal (9
percent), Renewable (Solar & Wind 5 percent) and nuclear (5 per cent) are the principal
sources. In the next 10 years, peak electricity demand is expected to rise by four to five per
cent, which is roughly 1,500 MW. Pakistan has a lopsided energy mix, diminishing
indigenous fuel reserves, increasing circular debt and transmission hold-ups. Pakistan has
almost exhausted its gas reserves. Imported oil's price hikes affect the budget and its
constant supply cannot be guaranteed. Pakistan has the potential to meet these energy
challenges through hydroelectric power, but there are political and environmental issues in
building dams. Rationality demands reducing reliance on oil and going for alternatives. The
development of alternatives does not happen overnight. Pakistan will have to rely on
imported fuels for the interim period at a huge cost. LNG is difficult to import, using coal
has environmental issues, using shale gas also has environmental issues attached with it, and
wind power has transmission network
 challenges.[5] With total estimated coal reserves of over 186bn tonnes, Pakistan ranks sixth
among coal-rich countries. Yet, coal's potential has not been exploited adequately except
only recently when over half dozen of coal power projects of 5GW have been completed and

Contents
as many under construction[6][7]

 1Thermal
o 1.1In service
 2Natural Gas
o 2.1In service
o 2.2Under construction or proposed
 3Coal
o 3.1In Service
o 3.2Under Construction and Proposed
 4Hydroelectricity
o 4.1In service
o 4.2Under construction
o 4.3Proposed
 5Nuclear
o 5.1In service
o 5.2Under construction or proposed
 6Renewables
o 6.1Wind Power
o 6.2Solar Power
o 6.3Bagasse Power
o 6.4Solid Waste to Energy
o 6.5Waste Heat Recovery Power
 7See also
 8References
 9External links

Thermal[edit]
In service[edit]

In-
Capac servi Not Re
Station Location Coordinates it y ce es f
(MW) Date s

Multi
Fuel-
Kot Addu Fired
Power Kot Addu, 1,600 Therma
Company Punjab
l
Station
.
 In-
Capac servi Not Re
Station Location Coordinates it y ce es f
(MW) Date s

Furnace
Hub Power 24.9057°N Oil
Hub, Balochistan 1,292
Company 66.6946°E Fired
Plant.

Furnace
Hubco 32.059067, Oil
Narowal Narowal, Punjab 74.781222, 225 Fired
Power Plant Plant.

Furnace
Nishat Oil
Lahore, Punjab 31.122560, 200
Power Ltd Fired
73.905405
Plant.

Furnace
Nishat Oil
Chunian Lahore, Punjab 200 Fired
Power Ltd Plant.

Furnace
Saba Power Sheikhupura, Oil
Company Punja b 31.733013, 125 Fired
Ltd 73.873654
Plant.

Southern
Electric Furnace
Power Raiwind, Lahore 31.291388, 136 Oil
74.249188
Fired
Company
Ltd Plant.

Furnace
Tapal Oil
Energy Karachi, Sindh 24.999713, 126
Fired
Ltd 66.906860
Plant.
 In-
Capac servi Not Re
Station Location Coordinates it y ce es f
(MW) Date s

Furnace
Japan Power Oil
Generation Raiwind, Punjab 31.325566, 135 Fired
Pvt Ltd 74.262225 Plant.

Furnace
Kohinoor Oil
Energy Ltd Lahore, Punjab 31.263200, 131 Fired
74.187321 Plant.

Furnace
Liberty Oil
Power Tech Faisalabad, Punjab 200 Fired
Plant.

Furnace
AES Lal Muzaffargarh, Oil
Pir Power Punj ab 30°06′19″N 362 Fired
71°09′49″ Plant.
E

Furnace
Muzaffargarh, Oil
AES PakGen Punj ab 30°06′19″N 365 Fired
71°09′49″ E Plant.

Furnace
Attock Oil
Group/Atto Rawalpindi, Punjab 165 Fired
c k Gen Ltd Plant.

Oil
Jamshoro and
Power Jamshoro, Sindh 25°28′20″N 850 Natural
Station 68°15′58″ Gas-
E Fired
Therma
 In-
Capac servi Not Re
Station Location Coordinates it y ce es f
(MW) Date s

l
Station
.

Oil
and
Bin Qasim Natura
Power l Gas-
Karachi, Sindh 24.785546, 1,260
Plant I 67.358929 Fired
Therm
al
Station

Diesel
and
Sitara Natura
Faisalabad, Punjab 31.533111, 85
Energy Ltd l Gas
73.393330
Fired
Plant.

Diesel
and
Saif Power Natura
Sahiwal, Punjab 30.696164, 225
Ltd l Gas
73.260541
Fired
Plant.

Attock 33.5575853,73.07669 Heavy

Refinery Ltd Rawalpindi, Punjab 97 18 Fuel
Oil

Atlas Heavy
Power Ltd Sheikhpura, Punjab 225 Fuel
Oil

Natural Gas[edit]
In service[edit]

In-
Capac servi Re
Station Location Coordinates it y ce Notes f
(MW) Date s

Combin
Guddo ed
Thermal Guddu, Sindh 28°25′38″N 2,402 Cycle
Power Plant 69°41′4 Power
9″E Plant

Fauji Combine
Foundati
on Power 27.985137, d Cycle
Daharki, Sindh 185
Company 69.673544 Power
Daharki Ltd Plant

Combin
Uch-I, II Dera Murad 28.582798, ed
Power Plant Jamali, Balochista 68.171539 1000 Cycle
n Power
Plant

Combine
Nandipur Gujranwala, 32.245294, d Cycle
425
Power Project Punja 74.270007 Power
b
Plant

Combin
Habibullah Quetta, Balochista ed
Coastal Power n 140 Cycle
Pvt Company Power
Plant

WAPDA Combin
Quetta Quetta, Balochista ed
Thermal n 30°26′38″N 35 Cycle
Power Station 66°59′4 Power
9″E Plant

Combine
Liberty Power d Cycle
Daharki, Sindh 235
Project Power
Plant
 In-
Capac servi Re
Station Location Coordinates it y ce Notes f
(MW) Date s

Combin
Rousch Abdul Hakeem, ed
(Pakistan) Pakistan, Punjab 30°34′06″N 450 Cycle
Power Limited 72°08′2 Power
4″E Plant

Combin
Engro ed
Powergen Ghotki, Sindh 28°01′37″N 227 Cycle
Qadirpur Ltd 69°21′4 Power
7″E Plant

Halmore Combine
Power Sheikhupura, d Cycle
Punj 225
Generation Power
ab
Company Ltd Plant

Combine
Orient Power d Cycle
Kasur, Punjab 229
Company Ltd Power
Plant

Combine
Saif Power d Cycle
Sahiwal, Punjab 229
Limited Power
Plant

Combine
Bin Qasim 24.781873, d Cycle
Karachi, Sindh 560
Power Plant 67.359767 Power
II
Plant

Combin
Fauji 30.524865, ed
Kabirwala Kabirwala, 71.954946 157 Cycle
Power Punjab
Power
Company Plant
 In-
Capac servi Re
Station Location Coordinates it y ce Notes f
(MW) Date s

Combin
Sapphire ed
Electric Muridke, Punjab 234 Cycle
Company Power
Ltd Plant

Sindh
Nooriabad Combin
Power Jamshoro, Sindh 100 ed
Company Pvt Cycle
Ltd Power
Plant

Combin
Haveli ed
Bahadur Shah Jhang, Punjab 1,230 Cycle
Power Plant Power
Plant

Combin
Bhikki Sheikhupura, ed
RLNG- Punj ab 1,180 Cycle
based Power Power
Project Plant

Combine
Balloki Power d Cycle
Balloki, Punjab 1,223
Plant Power
Plant

Combine
Altern Energy Fateh d Cycle
32
Ltd Jang, Punjab Power
Plant
Under construction or proposed[edit]

Capaci
Station Location ty Statu
(MW) s

Under construction. To be operational by

Punjab Power Jhang, Punjab 1263 Feb 2020.[8]
Plant

K-Electric Power Under construction. To be operational by

Plant Karachi, 900 Aug 2021.[9]
Sindh

Coal[edit]
In Service[edit]

Statio Location Capacity Status

n (MW)

Master power pvt Limited Raiwand, punjab 20 Operational.

Sitara Chemical Industries Faisalabad, Punjab 40 Operational since

Ltd 2016.

Fauji Fertilizer Power Plant Karachi, Sindh 118 Operational since

2017.

Sahiwal Coal Power Project Sahiwal, Punjab 1320 Operational since

2017.

Maple Leaf Power Ltd Mianwali, 40 Operational since

Punjab 2017.

Port Qasim Coal Power Karachi, Sindh 1320 Operational since

Project 2017.

DG Cement Coal Power DG Khan, 30 Operational since

Project Punjab 2017.

Hub Coal Power Project Hub, Balochistan 1320 Operational since

2018.

Engro Powergen Thar Tharparkar, Sindh 660 Operational since

2019.
Under Construction and Proposed[edit]

Capaci
Station Location ty Note
(MW) s

Under construction. To
Thar Energy Ltd Tharparkar, Sindh 330 be operational by Mar
2021.[10]

Under construction. To
Lucky Electric Power Karachi, Sindh 660 be operational by Mar
2021.[11]

Under construction. To
ThalNova Power Pvt Tharparkar, Sindh 330 be operational by Jun
Ltd
2021.[12]

Under construction. To
Siddiqsons Energy Ltd Tharparkar, Sindh 330 be operational by Jun
2021.[11]

Gwadar Coal Power

Project Gwadar, 300 Under construction.[13]
Balochistan

Shanghai Electric Coal

Power Project- I Tharparkar, Sindh 1320 LOI issued.[14]

Shanghai Electric Coal

Power Project- II Tharparkar, Sindh 1320 LOI issued.[15]

K-Electric Coal Power

Project Karachi, Sindh 700 LOI issued.[16]

Hydroelectricity[edit]
In service[edit]

In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e

Tarbela Dam Tarbela, KPK 34°05′23″N 4,888 1974 Operational

72°41′54 .
″E

Attock, Punjab 33°46′48″N

Ghazi-Barotha 1,450 2002 Operational
Hydropower Project 72°15′35 .
″E

Mangla
Refurbishment
Project is
under
construction
wherein the
generating
units of
Mangla
Hydel Power
Station will
be
refurbished
by closing
down one
Mirpur, Azad tunnel (two
Mangla Dam Kashmir 33°08′31″N 1,150 1967 generating
73°38′42 units) at a
″E time. First
two units will
be
refurbished
by December
2018, the next
two by
December
2019 and the
other two by
December
2020.Refurbish
ment of all
the 10
generating
units will be
completed by
the year 2024.
After
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e
undergoing
refurbishmen
t project is
completed
capacity will
increase by
another 310
MW.

Neelum–Jhelum Muzaffarabad 34°23′34″N 969 2018 Operational

Hydropower Plant , Azad 73°43′08 .
Kashmir ″E

Operational.
Extension and
rehabilitation
is being
planned. The
total cost of
the
rehabilitation
project €162
Warsak Dam Peshawar, KPK 34°09′50″N 243 1960 million is
71°21′29 being co-
″E financed with
the KfW (€40
million), EIB
(€4.5
million), AFD
(€41.5 million)
and Pakistan
government
contributions.

Chashma, Punja
Chashma Barrage b 184 2001 Operational
.

Patrind Hydropower Muzaffarabad

Plant , Azad 147 2017 Operational
.
Kashmir
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e

Duber Khwar
Hydropower Project Kohistan, 130 2013 Operational
KPK .

Allai Khwar
Hydropower Project Mansehra, 121 2013 Operational
KPK .

Golen Gol
Hydropower Project Chitral, KPK 108 2018 Operational
.

Gulpur Hydropower Gulpur,

Project Azad Poonch River 102 2020 Operational
Kashmir .

Jinnah hydropower Jinnah

project Barrage, 96 2013 Operational
Punjab .

New Bong Escape Mirpur, Azad

Hydropower Plant Kashmir 84 2013 Operational
.

Malakand-III
Hydropower Project Malakand, 81 2008 Operational
KPK .

Khan Khwar
Hydropower Project Shangla, KPK 72 2013 Operational
.

Daral Khwar Swat

Hydropower Plant District, 36.6 2018 Operational
KPK .

Jagran-I Dam Neelum, 34°36′1.52″N 30.4 2000 Operational

Azad 73°45′4 .
Kashmir 4.20″E
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e

Mandi
Rasul Barrage Bahauddin, 32°40′49″N 22 1952 Operational
Hydropower Project Pun jab 73°31′15 .
″E

Jabban Hydropower
Plant Malakand, 22 1935 Operational
KPK .

Dargai
Hydropower Plant Malakand, 20 1953 Operational
KPK .

Naltar
Naltar-IV Valley, 18 2007 Operational
Hydropower Plant Gilgit- .
Baltistan

South
Gomal Zam Dam Waziristan 17.4 2013 Operational
.

Satpara Dam Skardu 17.3 2012 Operational

.

Ranolia
Hydropower Plant Kohistan, 17 2016 Operational
KPK .

Naltar
Naltar-V Valley, 14.4 2016 Operational
Hydropower Gilgit- .
Project Baltistan

Nandipur Gujranwala,
Hydropower Plant Pu njab 13.8 1963 Operational
.
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e

Shadiwal
Shadiwal Warriach, 13.5 1961 Operational
Hydropower Plant Punja b .

Chichonki Malian Sheikhupura, P

Hydropower Plant unjab 13.2 1959 Operational
.

Marala Hydropower
Project Sialkot, 7.64 2018 Operational
Punjab .

Reshun Dam Chitral 4.5 1991 Operational

.

Kurram Garhi Kurram

Hydropower Plant Garhi, 4 1958 Operational
KPK .

Naltar
Nalter-II Valley, 2.28 Operational
Hydropower Gilgit- .
Project Baltistan

Renala Khurd Renala

Hydropower Plant Khurd, Punjab 1.1 1925 Operational
.

Jamshoro, Sind
Darawat Dam h 0.5 2014 Operational
.

Machai
Hydropower Plant Mardan, KPK 2.6 2017 Operational
.

Chashma, Punja
Chashma Dam b 1.2 2000 Operational
.
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e

Muzaffarabad
Kathai Dam , Azad 3.2 1995 Operational
Kashmir .

Neelam
Kundal Shahi Valley, 2 1992 Operational
Hydropower Project Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Kel Htdropower Muzaffarabad,

Project Azad Kashmir 0.45 Operational
.

Muzaffarabad
Leepa Dam , Azad 2 Operational
Kashmir .

Pehur Dam Pehur, KPK 18 2012 Operational

.

Sishi Dam Chitral, KPK 2 Operational

.

Singul Dam Gilgit- 1.2 Operational

Baltistan .

Bubind Dam Astore 0.64 Operational

.

Gilgit Dam Gilgit- 10.63 Operational

Baltistan .

Skardu-I Dam Skardu 6.96 Operational

.

Skardu-II, III Skardu 1.64 Operational

Dams .

Chilas-I Dam Chilas 5.62 Operational

.
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e

Hunza
Hunza Dam Valley, 5.13 Operational
Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Shyok
Shyok Dam Valley, 4.85 Operational
Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Astore Dam Astore 3.11 Operational

.

Kachura-II Dam Skardu 3 Operational

.

Pakpatan Pakpatan, Punj

Hydropower Project ab 2.82 2019 Operational
.

Ghizer
Ghizar Dam District, 2 Operational
Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Thak Dam Chilas 2.00 Operational

.

Ghizer
Phandar Dam District, 2 Operational
Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Bordas Dam Ghanche 2 Operational

.

Kharmang
Kharmang Dam Valley, 1.89 Operational
Gilgit- .
Baltistan
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e

Ghizer
Yasin Dam District, 1.61 Operational
Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Diamer
Bunnar Chilas District, 1.5 Operational
Dam Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Roundu
Roundu Dam Valley, 1.52 Operational
Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Kar Gah-I, II, III, IV,

V, Gilgit- 13.34 Operational
VI, VII Baltistan .
Hydropower
Project

Jaglot-I, II
Hydodropower Jaglot 1.32 Operational
Project .

Darel-I, II Dams Ghanche 1.2 Operational

.

Dunsam power Ghanche,

station Gilgit-
Baltistan

Hunza
Boladas-I Dam Valley, 0.64 Operational
Gilgit- .
Baltistan

Khunjerab Dam Gujrab River 0.59 Operational

.
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e

Gol Dam Skardu 0.4 Operational

.

Harpo-I, Harchu,
Dainyor, Gurikot,
Kayo, Dango Das Gilgit- 2 Operational
Baltistan .
Hydropower Project

Manthoka, Astore,
Gulmit, Tolti-I,
Khaplu-I, Kachura- Gilgit- 1.5 Operational
I, Darel Baltistan .
Hydropower
Project

Khaibar-I, II,
Mushki, Rattu,
Misgar, Ghandus, Gilgit- 4.85 Operational
Kiris-I, Thally-I, Baltistan .
Mendi, Stak
Hydropower
Project

Tangir-I, Chillas-
II, Hayul,
Khaplu-I,
Sumayar-I, Gilgit- 1.5 Operational
Baltistan .
Mehdabad,
Nomal, Pari
Hydropower
Project
[[Jaglot Sai, Sermik-
I, Olding-I, Thore,
Minapin-I,
Ahmadabad-I, II,
Chalt-I, Sosat
Hydropower, Gilgit- 1 Operational
Jalalabad, Tangir Baltistan .
Dam, Bunner,
Parishing/Louse,
Shirting, Sher
Qila, Shigar ,
Khyber-I,
 In-
Cap Ser
Station Community Location ac vi Status
ity ce
(M Dat
W) e
Khyber-II, Chalt,
Naz Bar, Hisper-I,
Haramosh, Tormik-
I, Basho-I,
Sermik, Pion,
Chitral Hydel, Jari,
Machai]]

Hasanabad-I, II, III,

IV, V Dams Hunza Valley 2 Operational
.

Dumsum Dam Gah 1.5 Operational

.

Balagond Dam Gah 1.5 Operational

.

Ishkuman-I, II Ishkuman 2.38 Operational

Dams .

Ashuran Dam 1.2 Operational

.

Thall Dam 0.4 Operational

.

Bumborat, Rashang
HPP, Matta HPP,
Shishi, Karora,
Kalam HPP, Keyal,
Various
Kaghan, Duber, 2.2 Operational
Location
Jalkot, Gram .
s in
Chashma, Damori,
KPK
Keel, Pattika,
Chinari, Serai,
Kumra t HPPs

Total In- 10132.5

Service 3
Generation
Under construction[edit]

Capaci
Station Community Location ty Status
(MW)

Jagran-II Under
Hydropower Neelum, Neelum River 48 construction. To be
Project Azad operational by
Kashmir Feb 2020.[17]

Under
Kurram North Kurram River 83.4 construction. To be
Tangi Dam- Waziristan, operational by
Stage I FATA Apr 2020.[18]

Koto Under
Hydropower Upper Dir, KPK Panjkora River 40.8 construction. To be
Plant operational by Jun
2020.[19]

Karora Under
Hydropower Shangla, KPK Khan Khwar River 11.8 construction. To be
Plant operational by Jun
2020. [20]

Jabori Under
Hydropower Mansehra, KPK Siran River 10.8 construction. To be
Project operational by Jun
2020.[21]

Naltar-III Under
Hydropower Naltar, Gilgit- 16 construction. To be
Project Baltistan operational by Jul
2020. [22]

Keyal Under
Khwar Kohistan, KPK Keyal Khwar River 128 construction. To be
Hydropowe operational by
r Project Aug 2020.[23]

Nara Under
Hydropower Nara, Sindh 13.6 construction. To be
Project operational by
Mar 2021.[24]
 Capaci
Station Community Location ty Status
(MW)

Karot Under
Hydropower Rawalpindi, Punjab 720 construction. To be
Project operational by
Apr 2021. [25]

Lawi Under
Hydropower Chitral, KPK 69 construction. To be
Plant operational by
Nov 2021.[26]

Matiltan Under
Hydropower Swat, KPK 84 construction. To be
Project operational by
2021.[27]

Suki Kinari Under

Hydropower Mansehra, KPK 884 construction. To be
Project operational by
Dec 2022.[28]

Under
Naulong Jhal 4.4 construction. To be
Dam Magsi, Balochistan operational by
2022.[29]

Sharmai Under
Hydropower Upper Dir, KPK 150 construction. To be
Project operational by
2022.[30]

Shagarthang Under
Hydropowe Skardu, 26 construction. To be
r Project Gilgit- operational by
Baltistan
2022.[31][32]

Shingo Kas Under

Hydropower Dir, KPK 102 construction. To be
Project operational by
Mar 2024.[33]
 Under
Dasu Dasu, KPK 2,160 construction. To be
Dam (Stage I) operational by
2025. [34]
 Capaci
Station Community Location ty Status
(MW)

Under
Mohmand Mohmand 800 construction. To be
Dam Agency, KPK 34°21′11″N operational by
71°31′58″E
2025. [35]

Kohala Under
Hydropower Muzaffarabad, Azad 1,124 construction. To be
Project Kashmir operational by
2026.[36]

Lower Spat Gah Under

hydropower Kohistan, KPK 496 construction. To be
project operational by
2026. [37]

Arkari Gol
Hydropower Chitral, KPK 99 Under
Project construction.[
38]

Taunsa Barrage
Hydropower Muzaffargarh, Punjab 120 Under
Plant construction.[
39]

Chianwali
Hydropower Gujranwala, Punjab 5.38 Under
Project construction.[
40]

Deg Outfall
Hydropower Gujranwala, Punjab 4.04 Under
Project construction.[
40]

Okara
Hydropower Gujranwala, Punjab 4.16 Under
Project construction.[
40]

Chashma Hydel Under

Power Project Mianwali, Punjab 5.0 construction.[
41]
 Capaci
Station Community Location ty Status
(MW)

Total
Under- 7348.7
Constructi
on
Generatio
n
Proposed[edit]

Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Diamer- Chilas, Gilgit- Ready to be constructed

Bhasha Dam Baltistan 4,500 in 2020.[42]

Balakot
Hydropower Mansehra, Khyber 300 Ready to be constructed
Project Pakhtunkhwa in 2020.[43]

Ready to be
constructed. Korea
Athmuqam Athmuqam, Hydro & Nuclear
350
Dam Azad Kashmir Power Corporation won
the contract for
construction.[44]

Tangir
Hydropower Chilas, Gilgit- 15 Ready to be
Project Baltistan constructed.[45]

Ready to be constructed.
Sinohydro Corporation
China and Sichuan
Toren More
Energy Industry
Project KPK 35
Investment Group Co.
Ltd. China won the
contract for
construction. [46]

Turtonus- Ready to be constructed.

Uzghor Chitral, KPK 58 Sinohydro Corp Ltd and
Dam Sachal Engineering Works
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)
Private Ltd won the
contract for
construction.

Ready to be
Mahl constructed. China
Hydropower Azad Kashmir 590 Three Gorges
Project 34°55′N 73°34′E
Corporation won the
contract for
construction.[47]

Ready to be
Nekherdim- Chitral, KPK 80 constructed. CTG won
Paur Dam the contract for
construction.[48]

Chakothi-
Hattian Muzaffarabad, Aza Ready to be constructed.
Hydropower d Kashmir 500 Chinese firm won the
Project contract for construction.

Hanzel Ready to be
Hydropower Hanzel, Gilgit 20 constructed. Cost
Project estimate $63
million.[49]

Ready to be
constructed. KPK
government signed
Kalam Asrit Kalam, KPK 197
MOU with Korea’s
state- owned M/S
Korea South
East Power Company.
Cost estimate $500
million.[50]

Nai Gaj Dam Dadu, Sindh 4.2 Ready to be constructed.

Ghowari Ready to be
Hydropower Gilgit-Baltistan 30 constructed. Cost
Project estimate $80
million.[51]
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Tarbela Ready to be
Dam Tarbela, KPK 34°05′23″N 1,410 constructed. Cost
Extensio n-V 72°41′54 estimate $796
″E million.[52][53]

Tirah, Ready to be
Bara Dam Khyber 5.8 constructed.[54][55][
Agency 55][56][57]

Ready to be
Bunji Astore constructed. MOU
Hydropower District, 7,100 signed with China’s
Project Gilgit- 35°39′N 74°36′E
National Energy
Baltistan Administration.[58]
Cost estimate $6.8
billion.[59]

Ready to be constructed.
Patan MOU signed with
hydropowe Patan Village, Indus China’s National
2,400
r Project River Energy
Administration.[55][56][
57][60] Co st estimate
$6 billion.[61]

Harpo
Hydropower Skardu, 34.5 Ready to be
Project Gilgit- constructed.[62]
Baltistan

Feasibility studies to be
completed by Dec 2017.
Thakot MOU signed with
Battagram
Hydropower 34°45′N 72°55′E 4,000 China’s National Energy
District, KPK
Project
Administration[55][56][5
7] Cost estimate $6
billion.[61]
 Detailed engineering
Phandar Ghizer design or tender of
Hydropower District, 81 documents under
Project Gilgit- process.[54][57] Cost
Baltistan estimate
$128 million .[61]
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Detailed engineering
Basho design or tender of
Hydropower Skardu, GB, Indus documents under
28
Station River
process.[54][55] Cost
estimate
$40 million.[61]

Hinis Feasibility studies

Tank Zam Tangi, KPK, 25.5 completed.[55] Cost
Dam Tank Zam estimate $234
River million.[59]

Lasbela Feasibility studies

Hingol Dam District, 3.5 completed. Cost
Hingol estimate
River, $311 million.[59]
Balochistan

Feasibility studies ongoing.

Akhori Dam Akhori, Punjab, 600 Cost estimate $1.6
Har o River billion.[61]

Middle Feasibility studies

Palas Kohistan, KPK 373 ongoing.[55][56][57]
hydropowe Cost estimate $763
r project
million.[59]

Upper Palas Feasibility studies

hydropowe Kohistan, KPK 160 ongoing.[55][56][57]
r project Cost estimate $763
million.[59]

Madian
Hydropower Swat, KPK, 157 Feasibility studies
Project Swat River ongoing.[63]

Shushai- Financing is being

Zhendoli arranged for these
Hydropower Chitral, KPK 144 projects by selling shares
Project in the existing
projects.[64]
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Financing is being
Shogosin arranged for these
Hydropower Chitral, KPK 132 projects by selling shares
Project in the existing
projects.[64]

The preliminary
Karak feasibility study of the
Latambar District, Khyber ? project has been
Dam Pukhtunkhwa completed and process
of site selection
completed.[65]

The preliminary
Nowshera feasibility study of the
Mairoobi District, Khyber ? project has been
Dam Pukhtunkhwa completed and process
of site selection
completed.[65]

The preliminary
Nowshera feasibility study of the
Jaroba Dam District, Khyber ? project has been
Pukhtunkhwa completed and process
of site selection
completed.[65]

Mansehra
Naran Dam District, Khyber 188 EOI invited.[65]
Pukhtunkhwa

The preliminary
Gorband feasibility study of the
Hydropower Shangla project has been
14
Project District, completed and process
KPK of site selection
completed.[65][66]

Battagram
Nand District, Khyber 50 The preliminary
Bahar Dam Pukhtunkhwa feasibility study of the
project has been
completed and
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)
process of site
selection
completed.[65]

The preliminary
Chitral feasibility study of the
Mojigram District, Khyber project has been
50
Shagoor Dam Pukhtunkhwa completed and process
of site selection
completed.[65]

The preliminary
Chitral feasibility study of the
Astar District, Khyber project has been
50
Rabooni Pukhtunkhwa completed and process
Dam of site selection
completed.[65]

The preliminary
Chitral feasibility study of the
Arkari Gol District, Khyber project has been
50
Dam Pukhtunkhwa completed and process
of site selection
completed.[65]

The preliminary
Upper Dir feasibility study of the
Shringal District, 50 project has been
Dam Khyber completed and process
Pukhtunkhwa of site selection
completed.[65]

The preliminary
Swat feasibility study of the
Patrak Barikot District, Khyber project has been
60
Dam Pukhtunkhwa completed and process
of site selection
completed.[65]
 The preliminary
feasibility study of the
Segokatch project has been
Chitral District, 60
Dam KPK completed and process
of site selection
completed.[65]
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Taunsa
Hydropower 135 IPP, RFP has been
Project accepted.[67]

Shigo Kas
Hydropower 102 EOI invited.[67]
Project

Bata Kundi
Hydropower 96 EOI invited.[67]
Project

Ghorband
Khwar
Hydropower 21 EOI Iinvited.[67]
Project

Nandihar
Khwar
Hydropower 12 EOI invited.[67]
Project

Lasbela
Winder Dam District, 0.3 Proposed. Cost estimate
Winder $148 million.[59]
River,
Balochistan

Dera Ismail
Daraban Zam Khan, KPK, 0.75 Proposed. Cost estimate
Dam Khora River $69 million.[59]

Proposed. Cost estimate

Ghabir Dam Ghabir River 0.15 $121 million.[59]

Rawalpindi Proposed. Cost estimate

Papin Dam District, Wadala 0.3 $101 million.[59]
Kas
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Kotli
Rajhdani District, AJK 132 EOI invited.[48]
Dam Poonc h River

Kalam, Khyber
Gabral Pakhtunkhwa 101 LoS issued.
Kalam

Bhadi
Dhoba Haveli District 1 Proposed.
Hydropowe
r Project

Galeter
Hydropower Kotli District 1 Proposed.[68]
Project

Saridoa Cross
Hydropower Bhimber District 1.7 Proposed.
Project

Chamfall
Hydropower Hattian District 6.4 Proposed.[68]
Project

Guddu
Hydropower Kashmore, Sindh 33 Proposed.
Station

Harighel
Hydropower 53 Proposed.
Project

Sehra Azad
Hydropower Kashmir, Poonch 130 Proposed.
Project River
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Nagdar
Hydropower Neelum, AJK, 25 Proposed.[69]
Project Jagra n River

Duwarian Hattian
Hydropower Bala, AJK, Jagran 29 Proposed.[69]
Project River

Asrit-
Kedam Kalam, KPK, 215 Proposed.
Hydropowe Swat River
r Project

Karang
Hydropower 458 Proposed.
Project

Shogo-Sin
Hydel 132 Proposed.
Dam

Shushgai
Zhendol 144 Proposed.
l

Yogo, 500 Proposed.

Pakistan

Thor
Hydropower 3.6 Proposed.[59]
Project

Yulbo
Hydropower 3000 Proposed.[61]
Project
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Shyok
Hydropower 520 Proposed.[61]
Project

Tungus
Hydropower 2200 Proposed.[61]
Project

Skardu Dam Skardu 1600 Proposed.[61]

Dudhnial
Hydropower 960 Proposed.[61]
Project

Kundal
Shahi 960 Proposed.[61]
Hydropowe
r Project

Trappi
Hydropower 32 Proposed.[61]
Project

Nandihar
Hydropower Battagram, Khyber 10 Proposed.[66]
Project Pukhtunkhwa

Mujigaram
Shagore Chitral,
Hydropower Khyber 51 Proposed.[66]
Project Pukhtunkhwa

Istaro
Booni Chitral, 52 Proposed.[66]
Hydropowe Khyber
r Project Pukhtunkhwa
 Capac
Station Community Location it y Status
(MW)

Arkari Gol
Hydropower Chitral, 79 Proposed.[66]
Project Khyber
Pukhtunkhwa

Nuclear[edit]

Chashma Nuclear Power Plant

Karachi Nuclear Power Plant

KNPC

Location of Nuclear Power Plants in Pakistan

In service[edit]

Capaci Year
Station Community Location ty Status in
(MW) Servic
e

(KANUPP- Karachi, 24°50′41″N 85 Operational 1972.

1) Sindh 66°47′20″E
 Capaci Year
Station Community Location ty Status in
(MW) Servic
e

(CHASNUPP-
1) Mianwali, 32°23′20″N 320 Operational 2000.
Punjab 71°27′45.5″E

(CHASNUPP-
2) Mianwali, 32°23′20″N 320 Operational 2011.
Punjab 71°27′45.5″E

(CHASNUPP-
3) Mianwali, 32°23′20″N 340 Operational 2016.
Punjab 71°27′45.5″E

(CHASNUPP-
4) Mianwali, 32°23′20″N 340 Operational 2017.
Punjab 71°27′45.5″E
Under construction or proposed[edit]

Capaci
Station Community Location ty Statu
(MW) s

Under construction. To
(KANUPP- Karachi, Sindh 1145 be operational by Nov
2)
2020.[70]

Under construction. To
(KANUPP- Karachi, Sindh 1145 be operational by Sep
3) 2021.[71]

(CHASNUPP-
5) Mianwali, 1145 LOI issued. [72]
Punjab

Renewables[edit]
Wind Power[edit]

Capaci
Station Community Location ty Statu
(MW) s

Zorlu Enerji Jhimpir, 56.4 Operational since 2009.

Sindh
 Capaci
Station Community Location ty Statu
(MW) s

Jhimpir Wind Energy

Project Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2012.
Sindh

FFC Energy Ltd Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2013.

Sindh

Three Gorges Pvt Ltd- Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2014.

1 Sindh

Foundation Wind
Energy Pvt Ltd–1 & Gharo, Sindh 100 Operational since 2015.
2

Sapphire Wind
Power Pvt Ltd Gharo, Sindh 52.8 Operational since 2015.

Yunus Energy Ltd Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2016.

Sindh

Metro Wind Power Co

Ltd Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2016.
Sindh

Tenaga Generai Ltd Gharo, Sindh 50 Operational since 2016.

Gul Ahmed Wind

Power Ltd Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2016.
Sindh

Master Wind Energy Jhimpir, 52.8 Operational since 2016.

Ltd Sindh

Zorlu Enerji Pakistan Jhimpir, 56.4 Operational since 2016.

Sindh

Tapal Wind Energy Jhimpir, 30 Operational since 2016.

Ltd Sindh
 Capaci
Station Community Location ty Statu
(MW) s

HydroChina Dawood
Power Ltd Gharo, Sindh 50 Operational since 2017.

Sachal Energy Wind

Farm Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2017.
Sindh

United Energy Ltd Jhimpir, 100 Operational since 2017.

Sindh

Hawa Energy Ltd Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2018.

Sindh

Burj Capital
Jhimpir Project Jhimpir, 50 Operational since 2018.
Sindh

Three Gorges Pvt Ltd-2

&3 Jhimpir, 100 Operational since 2018.
Sindh

Tricon
Boston Jhimpir, 150 Operational since 2018.
Corporation Sindh

Zephyr Power Ltd Gharo, Sindh 50 Operational since 2019.

Under construction. To
Naveena Group Ltd Jhimpir, 50 be operational by 2021.
Sindh [73]

Under construction. To
TriCom Wind Power Jhimpir, 50 be operational by 2021.
Ltd Sindh [74]

Under construction. To
Metro Wind Power Jhimpir, 60 be operational by 2021.
Ltd Sindh [75]
 Capaci
Station Community Location ty Statu
(MW) s

Under construction. To
Din Energy Ltd Jhimpir, 50 be operational by 2021.
Sindh [76]

Under construction. To
Act 2 Wind Ltd Jhimpir, 50 be operational by 2021.
Sindh [77]

Artistic Under construction. To

Alternate Jhimpir, 50 be operational by 2021.
Energy Pvt Ltd Sindh [78]

Gul Ahmed Electric Under construction. To

Pvt Ltd Jhimpir, 50 be operational by 2021.
Sindh [79]

Trans Atlantic LOI issued. To be

Energy Pvt Ltd Jhimpir, 48 operational by 2021. [80]
Sindh

Indus Wind Energy LOI issued. To be

Pvt Ltd Jhimpir, 50 operational by 2021. [81]
Sindh

Liberty Wind LOI issued. To be

Power-1 Pvt Ltd Jhimpir, 50 operational by 2021. [82]
Sindh

Liberty Wind LOI issued. To be

Power-2 Pvt Ltd Jhimpir, 50 operational by 2021. [83]
Sindh

NASDA Green LOI issued. To be

Energy Pvt Ltd Jhimpir, 50 operational by 2021. [84]
Sindh

LOI issued. To be
Lake Side Energy Pvt Jhimpir, 50 operational by 2021. [85]
Ltd Sindh

Master Green LOI issued. To be

Energy Pvt Ltd Jhimpir, 50 operational by 2021. [86]
Sindh
Solar Power[edit]

Capaci
Station Community Location ty Status
(MW)

Quaid-e-Azam Solar Operational

Park Bahawalpur, 400 since 2016.
Punjab

Operational
Harappa Solar Pvt Sahiwal, Punjab 18 since 2018.
Ltd

Operational
ENI New Energy Bhit, Sindh 10 since 2019.

Operational
Fauji Cement Co Ltd Jhang, Punjab 12.5 since 2019.

Bagasse Power[edit]

Capaci
Statio Community Location ty Status
n (MW)

JDW Sugar Mill Power Jhimpir, Sindh 26.35 Operational.

plant I

JDW Sugar Mills (Unit- II) Jhimpir, Sindh 26.35 Operational.

JDW Sugar Mills (Unit- Jhimpir, Sindh 26.35 Operational.

III)

Rahim Yar
RYK Mills Ltd Khan, Punjab 30 Operational.

Chiniot Power Ltd Chiniot, Punjab 62.4 Operational.

Mirpurkhas Sugar Power

Plant Mirpurkhas, Sindh 34.1 Operational.
 Capaci
Statio Community Location ty Status
n (MW)

Sanghar SPP 32 Operational.

Shahmurad SPP 26.5 Operational.

Mehran SPP 22.9 Operational.

Kamaila SPP 20.1 Operational.

Fatima SPP 20.1 Operational.

Khosi SPP 20.1 Operational.

Madina SPP 20.1 Operational.

Pahrianwall SPP 20.1 Operational.

Tandlianwala SPP 20.1 Operational.

Sheikhoo SPP 20.1 Operational.

Bahawalnagar SPP 18.5 Operational.

Bachani Sugar Mill

Power Plant 16.8 Operational.

Husein SPP 13.4 Operational.

Faran SPP 13.4 Operational.

 Capaci
Statio Community Location ty Status
n (MW)

Phalia SPP 13.4 Operational.

Premier SPP 13.4 Operational.

Chashma SPP 13.4 Operational.

Punjab SPP 13.4 Operational.

Kohinoor SPP 10.1 Operational.

Bawani Sugar Mill

Power Plant 10.1 Operational.

Matiari SPP 6.7 Operational.

Layyah Sugar Mills Ltd Layyah, Punjab 41 Operational.

Al-Arabia Sugar Mills Sargodha, Sindh 18 Operational.

Digri-Gen Ltd Mirpurkhas, Sindh 25 Operational.

Solid Waste to Energy[edit]

Station Community Location Capacity Status

(MW)

K-Electric/Engro Karachi, 50 LOI

Energy Sindh issued.[87]
Waste Heat Recovery Power[edit]

Statio Community Location Capacity Status

n (MW)

Lucky Cement Ltd Karachi, Sindh 20 Operational.

Lucky Cement Ltd Pezu, KPK 30 Operational.

Maple Leaf Cement Ltd Mianwali, Punjab 15 Operational.

Gharibwal Cement Ltd Chakwal, Punjab 20 Operational.

Bestway Cement Ltd Chakwal, Punjab 15 Operational.

Bestway Cement Ltd Hattar, KPK, 13.5 Operational.

Pakistan

Bestway Cement Ltd Farooqia, Punjab 13.5 Operational.

Bestway Cement Ltd Chakwal, Punjab 15 Operational.

Bestway Cement Ltd Kallar Kahar, 12 Operational.

Punjab

Fauji Cement Company Ltd Attock, Punjab 21 Operational.

Pioneer Cement Ltd Sargodha, Punjab 12 Operational.

DG Khan Cement Company Chakwal , Punjab 8.6 Operational.

Ltd

Kohat Cement Ltd Chakwal, KPK 15 Operational.

See also
500KV GRID STATION
NTDC operates and maintains sixteen 500 KV and forty five 220 KV Grid Stations, 5893 km of
500 KV transmission line and 10963 km of 220 KV transmission line in Pakistan.

Islamabad 500KV (2) 220KV (11)

Lahore 500KV (5) 220KV (19)
Multan 500KV (4) 220KV (5)
Hyderabad 500KV (5) 220KV (5)
Quetta 500KV (0) 220KV (5)
Total 500KV (16) 220KV (45)
220KV GRID STATION

NTDC operates and maintains sixteen 500 KV and forty five 220 KV Grid Stations, 5893 km of
500 KV transmission line and 10963 km of 220 KV transmission line in Pakistan.

Islamabad 220KV (11) 500KV (2)

Lahore 220KV (19) 500KV (5)
Multan 220KV (5) 500KV (4)
Hyderabad 220KV (5) 500KV (5)
Quetta 220KV (5) 500KV (0)

MEPCO

MEPCO the Multan Electric Power Company is one of the biggest Distribution Company of
WAPDA. The Charter of duties of MEPCO is to investigate plan and execute the transmission and
Distribution of Power in the Jurisdiction of MEPCO. MEPCO officer and staff are doing their
efforts to make it a modern and progressive organization. Multan Electric Power G. Hd (MEPCO) is
one of the eight power distribution companies opening in Pakistan comprising the Power Wing of
WAPDA. It's area of operation extract from Sahiwal to D.G.Khan boarding with Sind, Balochistan
and NWPF. Hence the larger of the eight companies. MEPCO endeavors utmost to plan and ensure
smooth power supply is its consumers. Its services have been re enforced to make it can enforced
and progressive commercial organization.

Total 220KV (45) 500KV (16)

TRANSMISSION NETWORK

Longitudinal network, extends from North to South Hydro generation is mainly in Northern part of
the country and major thermal generation in South & in lower middle part of the network.
Large load centers are remote from major generation sources. Seasonal variation in generation
despatch and in power flows:
  Bulk power flows from north to mid-country in summer
 Bulk power flows from south to mid-country and north in winter

Kv No. of Grid Stations Transmission Line MVA

C

500 16 5970 - km 22350

Kv

220 45 11322 - km 31060

Kv

Total 61 17292 - km 53410

POWER ACQUISITION
Installed Capacity (in MW) for FY 2017-
18 Installed Capacity (in MW) for FY
2017-18 Hydro : 8341 MW

Hydro IPPs : 348 MW

Thermal Public : 5662 MW

Thermal IPPs : 15138 MW

Nuclear IPPs : 1345 MW

Wind IPPs : 985 MW

Solar IPPs : 400 MW

Bagasse IPPs : 306 MW

Energy Generation (in GWh) for FY 2017-

18 Energy Generation (in GWh) for FY
2017-18 Hydro Public: 27425 GWh

Thermal Public : 17086 GWh

Hydro IPPs : 1137 GWh

Thermal IPPs : 62485 GWh

Solar IPPs : 664 GWh

Wind IPPs : 2118 GWh

Nuclear IPPs : 8800 GWh

Bagasse IPPs : 1039 GWh

Import from KE : 31 GWh

Moreover visit sites

q.30 DEFINE PPIP

According to Treasury, the purpose of the Public–Private Investment Program

("PPIP") is to purchase legacy securities from banks, insurance companies, mutual
funds, pension funds, and other eligible financial institutions as defined in EESA,
through PPIFs. ........................................... The fund managers raised private-
sector capital

Transsmission line voltages in Pakistan

500, 220, 1 32, 66 kVWhat is feeder loss?
Feeder Loss : Feeder loss indicates the signal loss caused by various devices that are
located on the path of the antenna to the receiver. Any device using an external antenna for
service provision at either the base station side or terminal side must consider feeder loss
What is line loss factor?
Line Loss Factors. Line Loss Factors are multipliers which are used to scale energy
consumed or generated to account for losses on the UK's Distribution Networks
What are the line losses?
Line losses refer to the power that is lost in a conductor during transmission and
distribution phase. Its also known as the Copper Loss. They give a quantitative estimation
of the amount of power that is converted from Eletrical Energy to Heat Energy in
conductors, which is then dissipated to the surroundings
Differnet Types of Electrical Transformer Protection Systems

By mplgmg | July 12, 2017

1 Comment
 Today we are going to discuss Types of
Electrical Transformer which are the most costly protection system of the electrical system.
As all we know transformers are generally used to step up and step down the voltage level. Since
transformer working under several voltage levels, it’s also require to have better protection in the
transformers.
There are the several type of transformer faults occurs and it can mainly divide into Internal faults
and through faults.Internal fault of the transformers mainly happened due to the insulation
breakdown of it.Insulation breakdown create short-circuit conditions inside the transformers.
This will cause hazard situations so we need to special attention on this type of transformer fault.
Factors to Types of Electrical Transformer Protection Transformer are use to
protect on several kind of phenomena such as following.
 Open Circuit faults
 Short circuit faults
 Over loadings
 Surge lighting
Types of Electrical Transformer Protection Systems
Over current protection
Overcurrent protection of the transformers can done by using fuses , circuit breakers and relays.
Protections systems are use as primary protection system of the transformers.
Differential Protection
Differential protection of the power transformer effect on the different current. This also should
consider while apply a differential protection. The factors can also result in differential current in
under balanced power conditions.
Following are some of the situations which can occur.
 Magnetic in rush current
 Over excitation
 Current Transformer saturation
 Phase Displacement in Star Delta Winding
 Primary and secondary different voltage levels.
Differential Relays
Differential relays are used to reduce the mention effects of transformers. The percentage
characteristic of the differential relays are vary in the rage of 15%
to 60%. in Addition to that the modern microprocessor and numeric relays and harmonic
restraints can apply in to it.
Transformer testings
 Open circuit tests
 Short circuit test
 Measurement of acoustic noise level
 Magnetic balance test.
 Measurement of zero phase sequence impedance test
 Measurement of harmonic of the no load current.
Buchholz Relay Protection
Buchhols relay are one of the protection system which is really important in electrical power
transformer. Normally there buchholz relay are gas actuated and its installed in oi. This protection
equipment is used to immersed transformer for protection against all kind of faults.
Transformer Lighting Protection
In transformers following methods are used to protection against the lightning such as.
 Earth Screen
 Lightning Arrestors
 Overhead Ground Wires
Following are the most commonly use transformer protection types which use in electrical
transmission system.
 Earth fault on transformer windings
 Over fluctuating protection
 overload protection
 transformer feeder protection
 over current protection
 Directional protection of parral transformer
 Biased differential protection of two and three winding transformers.
In this article we have discuss the basics of transformer protection systems such as Over current
protection , Differential Protection , Differential Relays
,Buchholz Relay Protection and Transformer Lighting Protection. Hope that you have gain
some good knowledge about it

How can we reduce transmission losses?

Since losses scale with the square of a wire's current, keeping voltage high (and current
low) helps reduce losses. The more efficient high-
voltage transmission lines are used for moving electricity long distances. How
can we reduce losses in distribution power system?
Losses in the distribution of electricity cannot be eliminated, but can be minimized by
proper planning of the distribution systems to ensure that power remain within limits. Some
of the ways to reduce losses include; Use of proper jointing techniques, and keeping the
number of the joints to a minimum
What are power losses?
Electric power losses are wasteful energy caused by external factors or internal factors,
and energy dissipated in the system [6, 8, 10]. They include losses due to resistance,
atmospheric conditions, theft, miscalculations, etc, and losses incurred between sources of
supply to load centre (or consumers
What are the line losses?
Line losses refer to the power that is lost in a conductor during transmission and
distribution phase. Its also known as the Copper Loss. They give a quantitative estimation
of the amount of power that is converted from Eletrical Energy to Heat Energy in
conductors, which is then dissipated to the surroundings
How the losses affect the power system?
Technical Losses
The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the conductors, equipment used for
transmission line, transformer, subtransmission line and distribution line and magnetic losses
in transformers. .................................... The major amount of losses in a power
system is in primary and secondary distribution lines
What are technical losses?
Technical losses are naturally occurring losses (caused by action internal to the power
system) and consist mainly of power dissipation in electrical system component such as
transmission lines, power transformers, measurement system, etc.Technical losses are
possible to compute and control, provided the power system
What is non technical losses?
Non-technical losses are caused by actions external to the power system and consist
primarily of electricity theft, non-payment by customers, and errors in accounting and
record-keeping ................................... Metering and billing for electricity actually
consumed by users is integral to commercial management of an electricity utility
WHAT IS AT and C losses?
Aggregate Technical and Commercial Losses (AT & C Losses) is nothing but the. sum total
of technical loss, commercial losses and shortage due to non- realisation of total billed
amount: {(Total Energy Input LESS Energy Realised)/ Total Energy Input}*100.
What is feeder loss?
Feeder Loss : Feeder loss indicates the signal loss caused by various devices that are
located on the path of the antenna to the receiver. Any device using an external antenna for
service provision at either the base station side or terminal side must consider feeder loss
What is T&D loss?
Central Electricity Authority
T&D losses. □ Energy losses occur in the process of. supplying electricity to
consumers due to. technical and commercial reasons
How are T&D losses calculated?
T&D loss is calculated as the difference between input in the T&D network and sales to
consumers. AT&C loss is calculated as the difference between the energy input in the
distribution network and revenue collected for the same
What is a feeder cable?
A feeder cable is a term used to describe different or same wires bundled together as a
single cable
Why are transformers rated in KVA?
The Copper loss(I2R) occurs due to the flow of the current in
the transformer winding and the Iron or core loss occurs due to the voltage. These losses
do not depend on the power factor so that is why the transformer rating in KVA not KW.
These are the Three Reasons Why Transformer is Rated in KVA What are hysteresis
losses?
Hysteresis loss. Hysteresis loss is caused by the magnetization and demagnetization of
the core as current flows in the forward and reverse directions. As the magnetizing force
(current) increases, the magnetic flux increases
Why Transformer is Rated in KVA

Electrical, Electrical Machine, Transformer

Today we are going to know the Three Reasons Why Transformer is Rated in KVA, not
KW or KVAR.
The transformer is the most important electrical machine which transfers electrical power. If
you do not know how a Transformer works then you can read our article Working of a
Simple transformer. The link is given at the end of the article.

The three reasons why transformer ratings in KVA are given below,
 Why Transformer is Rated in KVA.

(1) KVA= KV(killo Volt) * A(ampere)

KW= KV(killo Volt) * A(ampere) * Power factor

We already know that Power factor only depends on the type of Loads like,
Inductive Load - Lagging Power factor
Capacitive Load - Leading Power Factor
Resistive Load - Unity Power Factor
The Transformer is not a Load, it is a device which can transfer power not consume power.
If you think that a Transformer is a Load that's wrong. So as the transformer does not
consume power it can only transfer power with increasing and decreasing voltage and
current that is why the Transformer always rated in KVA.

(2) When the transformer is designed the manufacturer does not know which type of load
will be connected in future. And the power factor depends upon the load. If an Inductive
Load is connected then the current will be lag which flows through the secondary winding
of the transformer as well as the primary winding of the transformer.
We also know that pure inductive and pure capacitive load does not practically exist.
Every load has some resistance even it inductive or capacitive. For example, a motor is
connected to the transformer which is inductive + resistive. So the motor draws both
reactive(KVAR) and active power(KW). So the power supplied by the transformer is the
vector sum of reactive(KVAR) power and active power(KW) that is KVA.

(3) The last reason is power loss. Most of the people think that is the main reason "Why
Transformer Ratings in KVA" but I will say that is not the main reason. The first and
second reason is more important which is described above.
The Copper loss(I2R) occurs due to the flow of the current in the transformer winding and the
Iron or core loss occurs due to the voltage. These losses do not depend on the power factor so
that is why the transformer rating in KVA not KW.

These are the Three Reasons Why Transformer is Rated in KVA.

Hysteresislossandeddycurrent loss:
What’s thedifference?

MARCH 30, 2018 BY DANIELLE COLLINS LEAVE A COMMENT

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All electric motors experience rotational losses during the conversion of electrical power to
mechanical power. These losses are generally categorized as magnetic losses, mechanical
losses, copper losses, brush losses, or stray losses, depending on the underlying cause and
mechanism. Included in the category of magnetic losses are two types — hysteresis loss
and eddy current loss.

Hysteresis loss

Hysteresis loss is caused by the magnetization and demagnetization of the core as current
flows in the forward and reverse directions. As the magnetizing force (current) increases, the
magnetic flux increases. But when the magnetizing force (current) is decreased, the magnetic
flux doesn’t decrease at the same rate, but less gradually. Therefore, when the magnetizing
force reaches zero, the flux density still has a positive value. In order for the flux density to
reach zero, the magnetizing force must be applied in the negative direction.

The relationship between the magnetizing force, H, and the flux density, B, is shown on a
hysteresis curve, or loop. The area of the hysteresis loop shows the energy required to
complete a full cycle of magnetizing and de-magnetizing, and the area of the loop represents
the energy lost during this process.

A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density
(B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop.
Image credit: NDT Resource Center
The equation for hysteresis loss is given as:

Pb = η * Bmaxn * f * V

Pb = hysteresis loss (W)

η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient, depending on material (J/m3) Bmax

= maximum flux density (Wb/m2)

n = Steinmetz exponent, ranges from 1.5 to 2.5, depending on material

f = frequency of magnetic reversals per second (Hz) V =

volume of magnetic material (m3)

Eddy current losses

Eddy current losses are the result of Farady’s law, which states that, “Any change in the
environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage to be induced in the coil, regardless of how
the magnetic change is produced.” Thus, when a motor core is rotated in a magnetic field, a
voltage, or EMF, is induced in the coils. This induced EMF causes circulating currents to
flow, referred to as eddy currents. The power loss caused by these currents is known as eddy
current loss.

Motors armature cores use many, thin pieces of iron (referred to as “laminations”), rather
than a single piece, because the resistance of individual pieces is higher than the resistance
of one, solid piece. This higher resistance (due to smaller area per piece) reduces eddy
currents, and in turn, eddy current losses. The laminations are insulated from each other with
a lacquer coating to prevent the eddy currents from “jumping” from one lamination to
another.

Eddy currents in laminated cores (right) are smaller than those in solid cores (left).
Image credit: wikipedia.org
The equation for eddy current loss is given as:

Pe = Ke * Bmax2 * f2 * t2 * V

Pe = eddy current loss (W)

Ke = eddy current constant B

= flux density (Wb/m2)

f = frequency of magnetic reversals per second (Hz) t =

material thickness (m)

V = volume (m3)

Magnetic losses are so named because they depend on the magnetic paths in the motor,
but they are also referred to as “core losses” and “iron losses.”

How can we reduce losses in distribution power system?

Losses in the distribution of electricity cannot be eliminated, but can be minimized by
proper planning of the distribution systems to ensure that power remain within limits. Some
of the ways to reduce losses include; Use of proper jointing techniques, and keeping the
number of the joints to a minimum.
What is meant by BH curve?
The B-H curve is the curve characteristic of the magnetic properties of a material or
element or alloy. It tells you how the material responds to an external magnetic field, and is a
critical piece of information when designing magnetic circuits. The
hysteresis comes into play when the material has been magnetized What
is the difference between kW and kVA?
The primary difference between kW (kilowatt) and kVA (kilovolt-ampere) is the
power factor. kW is the unit of real power and kVA is a unit of apparent power (or real
power plus re-active power) For example if you have a 500 horsepower
engine it has a kW rating of 373
What do you mean by skin effect?
Skin effect is a tendency for alternating current (AC) to flow mostly near the outer surface of
an electrical conductor, such as metal wire.The effect becomes more and more apparent as
the frequency increases.
What is the cause of skin effect?
The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase at higher
frequencies where the skin depth is smaller, thus reducing the effective cross-section of
the conductor. The skin effect is due to opposing eddy currents induced by the changing
magnetic field resulting from the alternating current.
What is skin effect and proximity effect?
Skin effect is the tendency for high-frequency currents to flow on the surface of a
conductor. Proximity effect is the tendency for current to flow in other undesirable
patterns---loops or concentrated distributions ------- due to the presence of magnetic
fields generated by nearby conductors
How can skin effect be reduced?
To minimize the skin effect, the shape of the wire should be less for stranded
conductor than that of solid conductor. To reduce the skin effect, stranded
conductors are used in transmission and distribution lines
s lightning DC or AC?
As we know that Lightning is an electric discharge in the form of a spark or flash
originating in a charged cloud ......... Therefore, Lightning is neither DC nor AC. It is
more like an impulse signal or a series of occurrences of impulse signals. A DC
signal should have constant magnitude throughout the entire time What is
Corona and skin effect?
Corona Effect. Definition: The phenomenon of ionisation of surrounding air around the
conductor due to which luminous glow with hissing noise is rise is known as
the corona effect ..........If the intensity of the electric field is less than 30kV, the current
induces between the conductor is neglected
What do you mean by skin depth?
Skin Depth is a measure of how closely electric current flows along the surface of a
material. At d.c. (0 Hz or a constant voltage), electric current flows uniformly through a
conductor. This means the current density is the same everywhere
What is mean by proximity effect?
Definition of proximity effect. : the mutual effect of the currents in closely adjacent
conductors (as the turns of a coil) producing an apparent increase in resistance especially
with high-frequency alternating current
Can DC kill you?
1800 volts of DC current through the body in the proper manner will certainly kill you.
However, it's not the voltage but the current that does the damage. A current of less than 0.75
amps through your heart or brain will almost certainly kill you.
AC, DC, voltage, doesn't matter.
What is voltage of lightning?
Cloud-to-ground lightning bolts are a common phenomenon—about 100 strike Earth's
surface every single second—yet their power is extraordinary. Each bolt can contain up to
one billion volts of electricity.
What is Litz wire used for?
Litz wire is a special type of multistrand wire or cable used in electronics to carry
alternating current (AC) at radio frequencies. The wire is designed to reduce the skin effect
and proximity effect losses in conductors used at frequencies up to about 1 MHz
Which is better DC or AC?
DC is more efficient than AC power and has lower line losses than AC lines.
With AC, the current travels on the skin of the conductor while with DC, the current flows
throughout the entire conductor and not just the conductor skin. DC therefore has lower
skin losses in the line
Why tests are performed in transformer?
The purpose of this test is to check for differences in resistance between windings and
opens in the connections. This test ensures that each circuit is properly wired properly and
that all connections are tight. Resistance testing is performed using a transformer
ohmmeter
What are the two main types of transformers?
There are three primary types of voltage transformers (VT): electromagnetic,
capacitor, and optical. The electromagnetic voltage transformer is a wire- wound
transformer. The capacitor voltage transformer uses a capacitance potential divider
and is used at higher voltages due to a lower cost than an electromagnetic VT
Why are transformers rated in KVA?
The Copper loss(I2R) occurs due to the flow of the current in
the transformer winding and the Iron or core loss occurs due to the voltage. These losses
do not depend on the power factor so that is why the transformer rating in KVA not KW.
These are the Three Reasons Why Transformer is Rated in KVA What will happen if a
transformer is connected to DC supply?
When a DC voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, due to low
resistance, the winding acts as a short circuit across the terminals of the DC source that lead
to the flow of heavy current through the winding resulting in overheating of the winding.
T/F oil dielectric strength.?

Minimum breakdown voltage of transformer oil or dielectric

strength of transformer oil at which this oil can safely be used in transformer, is
considered as 30 KV

What is dielectric strength of transformer oil?

Dielectric strength is an indicator used to assess insulation properties
of transformer oil ....... Clean transformer oil generally contains no water and other
impurities, which allows it to have sufficient breakdown voltage (over 60 kV
What should be the BDV value of transformer oil?
A typical value of BDV Test result for 220 / 6.6 kV Transformer oil is 65 kV and
moisture content should be less than 10 ppm
Why the dielectric strength of a transformer oil reduces?
The dielectric strength of transformer oil is mainly determined by the presence of acids,
water, and other contaminates ...................... There can be an even more dramatic
reduction of dielectric strength when the oil becomes contaminated by other
impurities other than water such as acids and particulate matte
What is ppm in transformer oil?
Measured in parts per million (ppm) using the weight of moisture divided by the weight of
oil. Moisture content in oil lowers the insulating system dielectric strength and allows
flashover that can damage a transformer. For mineral oil, a generally accepted maximum
moisture content is 35 ppm
What is the Colour of transformer oil?
Darkened coloration is the first sign that transformer oil needs to be changed or filtered. As
the oil ages, it slowly changes from a pale yellow, transparent color to a deep brown, nearly
opaque shade
Which gas is used in transformer?
Gas is used as an insulating and cooling agent in gas insulated transformers. Sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) is the main gas used in these types of transformer at present
although other gases are under developmen
What is the function of oil in transformer?
It is used in oil-filled transformers, some types of high-voltage capacitors, fluorescent
lamp ballasts, and some types of high-voltage switches and circuit breakers. Its functions
are to insulate, suppress corona discharge and arcing, and to serve as a coolant
What is the function of oil in transformer?
It is used in oil-filled transformers, some types of high-voltage capacitors, fluorescent
lamp ballasts, and some types of high-voltage switches and circuit breakers. Its functions
are to insulate, suppress corona discharge and arcing, and to serve as a coolant
 How is dielectric strength calculated?
Dielectric strength is calculated by dividing the breakdown voltage by the thickness
of the sample. The data is expressed in Volts/mil. The location of the failure is also
recorded
What material has the highest dielectric strength?
A perfect vacuum has the highest dielectric strength, rated at 1×10base12MV/m. A
perfect vacuum contains no material to break down and is, therefore, the perfect electrical
insulator
What is density of transformer oil?
Notwithstanding the factors that decide the density of the oil, the density number ought
not to surpass 900 kg/m3 at a foreordained temperature of
+20°C/+68°F. Transformer oil density is characterized as the proportion of the mass
of the substance to the volume of the substance
What is the cause of voltage drop?
Causes of Voltage Drop
Excessive dropping is due to increased resistance in a circuit, typically caused by an
increased load, or energy used to power electric lights, in the form of extra connections,
components, or high-resistance conductors
The simplest way to reduce voltage drop is to increase the diameter of the conductor
between the source and the load, which lowers the overall resistance. In power distribution
systems, a given amount of power can be transmitted with less voltage drop if a
higher voltage is usedHow can we calculate voltage drop?
To calculate voltage drop in a copper wire, use the following formula:
1. Volts= Length x Current x 0.017. Area.
2. Volts= Voltage drop. Length= Total Length of wire in metres (including any earth
return wire). ...
3. Notes.
4. Example.
5. 50 x 20 x 0.017= 17. Divide this by 4 (cross section area of wire): 17/4= 4.25V
6. What is meant by voltage regulation?
7. In electrical engineering, particularly power engineering, voltage regulation is a
measure of change in the voltage magnitude between the sending and receiving
end of a component, such as a transmission or distribution line
8. What is the importance of voltage regulation?
9. Voltage regulation is the measure of how well a power transformer can maintain
constant secondary voltage given a constant primary voltage and wide variance in
load current. The lower the percentage (closer to zero), the more stable the
secondary voltage and the better the regulation it will provide
10. What are the factors affecting voltage regulation?
11. What are the factors that affect the voltage regulation of an alternator? The
factors are the speed of the alternator, the quality of connections (circuit resistance),
the condition of the battery and system load in the case of an automotive system
12. What is meant by load curve?
 13. In a power system, a load curve or load profile is a chart illustrating the variation
in demand/electrical load over a specific time. Generation companies use this
information to plan how much power they will need to generate at any given time.
A load duration curve is similar to a load curve
14. What is the importance of load curve?
15. The significance of Load Curve
16. Observe the variation of load on the power system during different hours of the
day. The area under this curve gives the number of units generated in a day. The
highest point on that curve indicates the maximum demand on the power station on
that day
17. What is the difference between load curve and load duration curve?
18. When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes, the curve thus obtained is called a load duration curve. The load
duration curve is obtained from the same data as the load curve but the ordinates
are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes
Necessity Of Parallel Operation Of Transformers
Why parallel operation of transformers is needed?
 Increased Load: When load is increased and it exceeds the capacity of existing
transformer, another transformer may be connected in parallel with the existing
transformer to supply the increased load.
 Non-availability of large transformer: If a large transformer is not available which can meet
the total requirement of load, two or more small transformers can be connected in parallel
to increase the capacity.
 Increased reliability: If multiple transformers are running in parallel, and a fault occurs in one
transformer, then the other parallel transformers still continue to serve the load. And the
faulty transformer can be taken out for the maintenance.
 Transportation is easier for small transformers: If installation site is located far away, then
transportation of smaller units is easier and may be economical.
Conditions For Parallel Operation
When two or more transformers are to be operated in parallel, then certain conditions have to be
met for proper operation. These conditions are -
 Voltage ratio of all connected transformers must be same.
If the voltage ratio is not same, then the secondaries will not show equal voltage even if the
primaries are connected to same busbar. This results in a circulating current in secondaries,
and hence there will be reflected circulating current on the primary side also. In this case,
considerable amount of current is drawn by the transformers even without load.
 The per unit (pu) impedance of each transformer on its own base must be same.
Sometimes, transformers of different ratings may be required to operate in parallel. For, proper
load sharing, voltage drop across each machine must be same. That is, larger transformer has
to draw equivalent large current. That is why per unit impedance of the connected
transformers must be same.
 The polarity of all connected transformers must be same in order to avoid circulating
currents in transformers. Polarity of a transformer means the instantaneous direction of
induced emf in secondary. If polarity is opposite to each other, huge circulating current
flows.
 The phase sequence must be identical of all parallel transformers.
This condition is relevant to poly-phase transformers only. If the phase sequences are not
same, then transformers can not be connected in parallel.
 The short-circuit impedances should be approximately equal (as it is very difficult to
achieve identical impedances practically
Cottage industries of Pakistan
Types of cottage and small-scale industries in Pakistan
Textiles.
Embroidery.
Jewelry.
Ceramics.
Cutlery.
Woodwork.
Sports goods.
Large scale Surgical instruments.
What are the main industries in Pakistan?
Other major industries include cement, fertilizer, edible oil, sugar, steel,
tobacco, chemicals, machinery and food processing
What is an example of a cottage industry?
The definition of a cottage industry is a manufacturing activity operated at home.
The handcrafts sold on Etsy.com are an example of a cottage industry. "Cottage
industry." YourDictionary
What do you mean by autotransformer?
An autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only one winding .............. In
an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both the primary and
secondary sides of the transformer. In contrast, an ordinary transformer
 has separate primary and secondary windings which are not electrically
connected.
The autotransformer has many uses and applications including the starting of induction
motors, used to regulate the voltage of transmission lines, and can be used to transform
voltages when the primary to secondary ratio is close to unity. What is a disadvantage of an
autotransformer?
The Main Disadvantage of the Autotransformer is that it does not have the Primary to
secondary winding Isolation of a conventional Double Wound Transformer. Auto-
transformers are particularly sensitive to the atmospheric over-voltages
What is the difference between transformer and autotransformer?
An autotransformer has only one winding which acts both as a primary and the secondary
whereas the conventional transformer has a two separate windings, i.e., the primary and the
secondary winding .......................................... The auto-transformer is smaller in size,
whereas the conventional transformer is larger in size.
Advantages of Autotransformers:
Its efficiency is more when compared with the conventional one. Its size is relatively
very smaller. Voltage regulation of autotransformer is much better. Lower cost. What
is the function of autotransformer?
The autotransformer has many uses and applications including the starting of induction
motors, used to regulate the voltage of transmission lines, and can be used to transform
voltages when the primary to secondary ratio is close to unity
What are the advantages and disadvantages of autotransformer?
Advantages: Auto transformer uses single winding so its lesser is size, lesser in cost due
to less copper in winding. Disadvantages: Due to single winding it doesn't allow isolation
from primary to secondary
What is variable transformer?
Variable transformers are transformers that can put out differing amounts of
voltage from the same input voltage ........... Variable transformers are a type
of autotransformer, which is a transformer that does not have the dual-coil core design
What is the difference between an open loop and a closed loop control system?
– An open loop control system acts completely on the basis of input and the output has no
effect on the control action. – A closed loop control system considers the current output and
alters it to the desired condition. The control action in
these systems is based on the output. .............. These systems can be easily
implemented.
What is a control loop system?
A control loop is a system made up of all the hardware components and software
control functions needed for the measurement and adjustment of a variable that
controls an individual process. ................................ Each control loop commands a
given variable in an industrial process What
are examples of open loop systems?
Examples of the open loop control systems include washing machines, light
switches, gas ovens, etc. A washing machine is an example of an open loop control
system. Fig. 12 shows its block diagram. The input and output of an open loop
system are unrelated.
What are examples of closed loop systems?
Two very common examples of closed loop systems people use frequently are
temperature control systems (house thermostat) and cruise control systems (in
vehicles). Both rely on feedback and a closed-loop system to make automatic
adjustments without input from a user, other than creating a set point.
What is meant by renewable energy resources?
Renewable energy is any energy source that is naturally replenished, like that derived from
solar, wind, geothermal or hydroelectric action. Energy produced from the refining of
biomass is also often classified as renewable. Coal, oil or natural gas, on the other hand, are
finite sources
Biogas. ...
Tidal Energy. ...
Wind Energy. ...
Geothermal Energy. ...
Radiant Energy. ...
Hydro Electricity. ...
Compressed Natural Gas
What is the difference between squirrel cage rotor and wound rotor?
The motor whose rotor is wound type such type of motor is called slip ring
induction motor, whereas the squirrel cage motor, has a squirrel
cage type rotor. The rotor of the slip ring motor has a cylindrical core with
parallel slots, and each slot consists each bar
What is the advantage of the wound rotor motor over the squirrel cage motor?
When the motor reaches full speed the rotor poles are switched to short circuit.
During start-up the resistors reduce the field strength at the stator. As a result the
inrush current is reduced. Another important advantage over squirrel-cage motors
is higher starting torque
What are the types of rotor?
Type and construction of rotors
Squirrel-cage rotor.
Wound rotor.
Salient pole rotor.
Cylindrical rotor.
Rotor bar voltage.
Torque in rotor.
Induction motor slip.
Frequency of induced voltages and currents.
What is the use of Star and Delta Connection?
Star-star connection is generally used in the distribution transformers as it has
self sustained neutral which help in the flow of the return current. Star connection
can be converted into equivalent delta connection.
Changing connection from star to delta connection is used for starting of
induction motor
Difference Between Star and Delta Connection
Difference between star and delta connection are explained considering various factors like
the basic definition of the connections, the existence of a neutral point, the connection of the
terminals, the relation between line current and phase current and also between line voltage
and phase voltage, speed, its insulation level, number of turns, type of system and network
usage etc.

The difference between the Star and Delta Connection are given below in
the tabulated form.

BASIS STAR CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION

Basic Definition The terminals of the three
branches are connected to a
common point. The network
formed is known as Star
Connection
The three branches of the network are
connected in such a way that it forms a
closed loop known as Delta Connection

Connection of The starting and the finishing point The end of each coil is connected to
terminals that is the similar ends of the three the starting point of the other coil that
coils are connected together means the opposite terminals of the
coils are connected together.

Neutral point Neutral or the star point exists in Neutral point does not exist in the
the star connection. delta connection.

Relation Line current is equal to the Phase Line current is equal to root three
between line current. times of the Phase Current.
and phase
current

Relation Line voltage is equal to root three Line voltage is equal to the Phase
between line times of the Phase Voltage voltage.
and phase
voltage

Speed The Speed of the star connected The Speed of the delta connected
motors is slow as they receive 1/√3 motors is high because each phase gets
of the voltage. the total of the line voltage.
 BASIS STAR CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION

Phase voltage Phase voltage is low as 1/√3 times Phase voltage is equal to the line
of the line voltage. voltage.

Number of turns Requires less number of turns Requires large number of turns.

Insulation level Insulation required is low. High insulation is required.

Network Type Mainly used in the Power Used in the Power

Transmission networks. Distribution networks.

Received voltage In Star Connection each winding In delta connection each winding
receive 230 volts receives 414 volts.

Type of system Both Three phase four wire and Three phase four wire system can be
three phase three wire system can derived from the Delta connection.
be derived in star connection.

What is the simple definition of resonance?

In physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to vibrate with increasing
amplitudes at some frequencies of excitation. These are known as the
system's resonant frequencies (or resonance frequencies). The resonator may have a
fundamental frequency and any number of harmonics.
What causes resonance?
The result of resonance is always a big vibration - that is, a loud sound ................. The
vibrations of the aluminum force the air column inside of the rod to vibrate at its natural
frequency. The match between the vibrations of the air column and one of the natural
frequencies of the singing rod causes resonance.
Pushing a person in a swing is a common example of resonance. The loaded swing, a
pendulum, has a natural frequency of oscillation, its resonant frequency, and resists being
pushed at a faster or slower rateWhat controls the speed of a motor?
The number of wire turns in an armature, the operating voltage of the motor, and the strength
of the magnets all affect motor speed ........................... DC controls adjust speed by
varying the voltage sent to the motor (this differs from AC motor controls which adjust
the line frequency to the motor
How do you control the speed of a squirrel cage induction motor? By
changing the applied frequency
Synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field of an induction motor is given by, where,
f = frequency of the supply and P = number of stator poles. Hence, the
synchronous speed changes with change in supply frequency. Actual speed of an
induction motor is given as N = Ns (1 - s)
Why is the speed of an induction motor difficult?
Why is speed control in an induction motor, difficult? In ac rotating
machine speed of machine is govern by the equation (n=120*f/p). ............... Torque of the
machine is dependent on the air gap flux which is to be kept constant to achieve good
torque performance at all speeds
What is synchronous speed?
In a motor, synchronous speed is the speed at which the magnetic field rotates. Depending
on motor design, the actual mechanical speed may be equivalent (synchronous motor) or
slightly smaller (asynchronous motor). The synchronous speed is a function of: The
electrical frequency used, typically 60 Hz or 50 Hz.
What does a VFD do?
A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an electric
motor by varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor. Other names for
a VFD are variable speed drive, adjustable speed drive, adjustable frequency drive, AC
drive, microdrive, and inverter
What is pole in motor?
Definition: Poles
Poles are the number of sets of three-way electromagnetic windings that a
motor has. In the simplest three-phase motor, there are 3 separate
electromagnets formed by the single set of three-way windings. ... 6-pole
motors operate at 1200 rpm (1000 rpm at 50 Hertz).
What are three advantages of a digital electric meter?
First, we will discuss the pros or advantages of digital multimeters.
They are more accurate than analog multimeters.
They reduce reading and interpolation errors.
The 'auto-polarity' function can prevent problems from connecting the meter to a test circuit
with the wrong polarity.
Parallax errors are eliminated
What is an analog meter?
Show all Analog Multimeters Manufacturers. Analog multimeters are instruments
that are used to measure electrical quantities such as voltage, current, resistance,
frequency and signal power. Basic functionality includes measurement of potential
in volts, resistance in ohms, and current in amps
What type of motor is used in watch? ..... Mini Stepping Motors used in
clocks, watches and electric meters are a kind of mechanical-electrical converters,
transforming electrical energy to mechanical energy. Mini motors used in different ways are
machined by applying different techniques and materialsWhat happens if you run a 50hz
motor at 60hz?
It will run with following problems for a 50Hz motor running on 60Hz: The core loss will
increase and cause over heating of core. As the core loss will increase, the Power Factor of
motor will reduce. The motor speed will be higher, so shaft load will increase
Can you run 60hz on 50hz?
Can a 60Hz motor run on 50Hz power supply? For a generic answer: yes you can, IF:
you reduce the voltage by 50/60, the equipment doesn't care, you don't
care about potentially overheating the motor, the process/load can tolerate the lower
speed/torque, etc
Which type of relay is used in substation?
Electric Power eTool: Substation Equipment - Relays. A relay is a low-powered device
used to activate a high-powered device. Relays are used to trigger circuit breakers and
other switches in substations and transmission and distribution systems.
Which relay is used for feeders?
A MHO relay is used for distance protection on a line, a translay relay is used for line
differential protection via a pilot scheme, a Merz Price relay is used for generator
differential protection, and a Buchholz relay is used for transformer protection
Where are relays used?
The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal can be used
to control a circuit. It is also used in places where only one signal can
be used to control a lot of circuits. The application of relays started during the
invention of telephones
What is a grid station?
Power Grid Station is an interconnection point between two transmission line circuits
(Rings), those are serving/connecting two geographic regions. Power Grid Station has
transformer depending on the possibly different voltages, so that the voltage levels can be
adjusted as needed
What is the symbol of relay?
A single pole switch is often denoted by the letters SP, and a double pole by
DP. Relays can have one, two or more poles. Throw: The number of throws on an
electrical switch is the number of positions that are available. For an electromechanical
relay, there are normally only one or two throws
What are the types of relay?
Different Types of Relays
Electromagnetic Relays. These relays are constructed with electrical, mechanical and
magnetic components, and have operating coil and mechanical contacts. ...
Solid State Relays. Solid State uses solid state components to perform the switching
operation without moving any parts. ...
Hybrid Relay. ...
Thermal Relay. ...
Reed Relay.
How does distance relay work?
The working principle of distance relay or impedance relay is very simple. ...
Hence clearly operation or working principle of distance relay depends upon the
ratio of system voltage and current. As the ratio of voltage to current is nothing but
impedance so a distance relay is also known as
impedance relay
What is Translay relay?
TRANSLAY SCHEME FOR FEEDER PROTECTION. This system is similar to
voltage balance system except that here balance or opposition is between the
voltages induced in the secondary windings wound on the relay magnet and not
between the secondary voltages of the line current transformers.
What is a feeder protection relay?
Feeder protection, or more exactly protection for overhead lines and cables, is the
most commonly used type of protection. The protection has to ensure that the power
grid continues to supply energy. In case of a fault, it must be prevented from
spreading to healthy parts of the network
Who controls the power grid?
Electricity generators are owned by electric companies, or utilities, which are in turn
regulated by the state's Public Utility Commission (PUC) or the Public Service
Commission (PSC). PUCs and PSCs are independent regulatory agencies appointed
by the state legislature
What is the importance of relay?
Significance. Relays are mainly used for remote switching, and for high voltage or
high current switching. They are particularly valuable because they can control these
high voltages and currents with only a small voltage or current in return. Another
important usage is for AC power lines
What is the main function of relay?
Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or electronically.
Relays control one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another
circuit. As relay diagrams show, when a relay contact is normally open (NO), there is
an open contact when the relay is not energized.
Why MHO relay is called MHO relay?
Mho Relay ....... It means a mho relay is a voltage controlled directional relay.
A mho relay using the induction cup structure is shown in the figure below. The
operating torque is developed by the interaction of fluxes due to pole 2, 3, and 4 and
the controlling torque is developed due to poles 1, 2 and 4
What is earth fault relay?
The earth fault relay is basically a protection device used selectively
for earth fault protection. These can be used for both primary and backup
protection in an electrical system
What is a negative sequence relay?
A negative phase sequence or unbalance relay is essentially provided for the
protection of generators and motors against unbalanced loading that may arise due to
phase-to-phase faults. Negative phase sequence relay has a filter circuit which is
responsible only for the negative sequence components
What is a pilot wire?
A pilot wire is a communication cable between the two relays located at
different ends. ....... This protection is also called as Differential Pilot
Wire Protection
What is Merz price protection?
Differential protection or Merz-Price circulating current protection system of
alternator. ...... The core concept of alternator stator protection is to save 85%
of its coil from damage due to fault. There are two types fault might occur in a
alternator stator, namely phase to phase fault or phase to ground faul
What is PSM relay?
Since currents are measured through current transformer, both Iref and I should be
referred to either primary or secondary of the CT. This ratio abs(I / Iref) is called the
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM). The value of PSM indicates the severity of the fault
as seen by the rela
What is a Schweitzer relay?
selinc.com. Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. (SEL) designs,
manufactures, and supports products and services ranging from generator
and transmission protection to distribution automation and control systems. Founded
in 1982 by Edmund O. Schweitzer III, SEL shipped the world's first digital
protective relay.
What is difference between relay and switch?
A relay can be termed as different type of switch which can be operated
electrically. Generally, relays are mechanically operated as switch using an
electromagnet and these types of relays are termed as solid-state relays. ...
The relay is a control device that by which you can make it ( on/off ) with a low
voltage signal
What is MHO distance relay?
At a certain distance from the relay, Z equals the mho reach Zr. All points on the
bolted fault locus between the relay reach point and the origin are enclosed within the
area of operation
What is overcurrent and earth fault relay?
The combined overcurrent and earth-fault relay REJ 515 is a
secondary relay which is connected to the current transformers of the object to be
protected. The overcurrent unit and the earth-fault unit continuously measure the
phase currents and the neutral current of the object
What is Translay relay?
TRANSLAY SCHEME FOR FEEDER PROTECTION. This system is similar to
voltage balance system except that here balance or opposition is between the
voltages induced in the secondary windings wound on the relay magnet and not
between the secondary voltages of the line current transformers
What is SEL company?
SEL is a leading vertically integrated textile conglomerate, operating in various
textile sub-segments having facilities right from spinning, knitting, processing
of yarns and fabric, to the value added products viz.
What is Merz price protection?
Differential protection or Merz-Price circulating current protection system of
alternator. ...... The core concept of alternator stator protection is to save 85%
of its coil from damage due to fault. There are two types fault might occur in a
alternator stator, namely phase to phase fault or phase to ground fault
What is the purpose of shunt reactor?
A shunt reactor is an absorber of reactive power, thus increasing the energy
efficiency of the system. It is the most compact device commonly used for reactive
power compensation in long high-voltage transmission lines and in cable systems
What is the purpose of reactors?
Essentially a reactor is an inductor. Physically it is a coil of wire that allows a
magnetic field to form around the coil when current flows through it. When
energized, it is an electric magnet with the strength of the field being proportional to
the amperage flowing and the number of turns
Why reactors are used in substations?
A reactor is a coil which has large number of turns and whose ohmic resistance
value is much greater. Reactors are used to limit the short circuit currents which
can cause damage to the equipments of the power system. The additional reactance
added in series with the system for protection, are called reactors.
What is reactive power?
 Reactive power is the resultant power in watts of an AC circuit when the current
waveform is out of phase with the waveform of the voltage, usually by 90 degrees if
the load is purely reactive, and is the result of either capacitive or inductive loads
What are different types of reactors?
There are two basic types: the pressurized-water reactor (PWR)
and the boiling-water reactor (BWR). In the PWR, water at high pressure and
temperature removes heat from the core and is transported to a steam generator.
difference between isolator and circuit breaker

Isolator is an off-load device while, circuit breaker is an on-load device. Isolator is a

switch operated manually, which separate the circuit from the power main and discharges
the trapped charges in the circuit ................................ Isolators have the low withstand
capacity as compared to that of Circuit Breaker
What is isolator and circuit breaker?
Isolator and Circuit Breaker both are switches to isolate a section of power system. But
Isolator is off load device whereas Circuit Breaker is on load device. Off load device
means, Isolator cannot be operated when load is connected i.e, current is flowing through the
circuit
Can a circuit breaker be used as an isolator?
Isolator is designed to work when there is no load connected which makes it an off- load
device. Whereas circuit-breaker is considered an on-load device. Both of these devices
have the common purpose of disconnecting a certain section of
the circuit from rest of the system
Why isolator is used on both sides of circuit breaker?
'Isolation' means a physical (and visible) break in the conductors between the circuit
breaker and any potential source of supply -and this is provided by
placing isolator switches on each side of the circuit breaker ................ So in design it
provides two isolator use both side of circuit beaker What
is RCB and MCB?
An MCB saves wiring, and RCD saves lives. A Mechanical Circuit Breaker (MCB) is
typically rated at 10, 16 or 32A ......... The MCB detects the rising current and cuts the
circuit off. They do not prevent electric shocks. An RCD is a device which monitors the
amount of current flowing out the Live and back in via the neutral.
What is an Open in a circuit?
An electric circuit in which the normal path of current has been interrupted, either by the
disconnection of one part of its conducting pathway from another, or by the intervention of
an electric component, such as a transistor. Compare closed circuit. MLA Style. "Open
circuit.
Does MCB trip on earth fault?
MCB may or may not operate on earth fault here is the explanation. 2) MCB's will work
(or open the circuit) only in case when the current through it exceeds its rating.
... There are ELCB/RCCB/RCD available for detection of earth fault. They basically work
of Differential input principal
What is Type B and C MCB?
The classification of Types B, C or D is based on the fault current rating at which
instantaneous operation occurs (typically less than 100ms) to protect against short- circuits.
................. Type B devices are designed to trip at fault currents of 3-5 times rated
current (In)
Why are capacitors used in motors?
With a capacitor connected in series to the secondary winding, the magnetic field it
produces lags behind the magnetic field generated by the primary winding. This difference
in phases creates a starting torque and the motor starts to
rotate. Capacitors that allow a motor to start rotating are called start capacitors. Why do
we use capacitors on fan motors or blowers?
The current builds up slowly, and the armature has an opportunity to begin rotating with the
field of current. A run capacitor uses the charge in the dielectric to boost the current which
provides power to the motor. It is used to maintain a charge. In AC units, there are dual run
capacitors
What is MFD capacitor?
Capacitors with ratings above 70 microfarad (mfd) are starting capacitors.
Run capacitors are designed for continuous duty, and are energized the entire time the
motor is running. Single phase electric motors need a capacitor to energize a second phase
winding.
Which capacitor is used in fan?
Metalized polyester film capacitors are used in motors of air-conditioning systems which
have two capacitors. One capacitor is used with the compressor motor while the second
one is used with the fan motor. These capacitors have thin electrodes of aluminum foil
interlinked with a very thin plastic dielectric
Does changing capacitor increase fan speed?
"when you increase the capacitance, the voltage across the capacitor decreases but that
across the fan motor increases. Accordingly, the speed of the fan increases. In other
words, you need to increase the capacitor value
to increase the fan speed
Why the slip is never zero in an induction motor?
In motors the number of rotor slots and stator slots are different and thus cogging
(magnetic locking) can't happen. And thus The slip motor can't run at rated speed. Torque
developed by induction motor is proportional to the slip. At synchronous speed,slip is
zero and hence torque developed by the motor is zero
If the slip is zero, what is the speed of a induction motor?
If slip is zero then their is no relative speed between stator and rotor .so stator and rotor gets locked
and the rotor stops rotating.

 To explain clearly when there is relative speed between stator and rotor ample amount
of EMF is induced in the rotor . As the rotor ends are short circuited current flows
through the rotor. This rotor current produces rotor flux this flux is lagging with respect
to stator flux .So torque is exerted on rotor and rotor starts rotating .So when slip is zero
there is no phase difference between stator
 flux and rotor flux and there is no torque exerted on rotor and rotor does not rotate
 Can slip of induction motor be negative?
 The slip of the induction motor is negative when the speed of the rotor is more
than the synchronous speed and the motor operates in generating mode The
generating energy is dissipated in a resistor to bring
the motor speed down as per the set point of speed in bed drive
 Why is slip important in an induction motor?
 Importance of Slip
 Slip plays an essential role in Induction motor. As we know, the slip speed is the
difference between the synchronous and rotor speed of the induction motor. The
emf induces in the rotor because of the relative motion, or we can say the slip speed
of the motor.
 What is negative slip?
 Slip is defined as the difference between theoretical discharge and actual.
discharge. If actual discharge is greater than theoretical
discharge negative value is found this negative value is called negative slip
Radial, Parallel, Ring Main And Interconnected Distribution Systems

By Kiran Daware Power Distribution, Power System

An electric power distribution system can be classified according to its feeder connection
schemes or topologies as follows -

 Radial distribution system

 Parallel feeders distribution
 Ring main distribution system
 Interconnected distribution
There are few other variations of distribution feeder systems, but we'll stick to these four
basic and commonly used systems.

[Also read: Classification of distribution systems according to number of phases and wires
involved.]

Radial Distribution System

This system is used only when substation or generating station is located at the center of the
consumers. In this system, different feeders radiate from a substation or a generating station and
feed the distributors at one end. Thus, the main characteristic of a radial distribution system
is that the power flow is in only one direction. Single line diagram of a typical radial
distribution system is as shown in the figure below. It is the simplest system and has the lowest initial
cost.

Image credit: Wikimedia

commons

Although this system is simplest and least expensive, it is not highly reliable. A major
drawback of a radial distribution system is, a fault in the feeder will result in supply failure to
associated consumers as there won't be any alternative feeder to feed distributors.

Parallel Feeders Distribution System

The above-mentioned disadvantage of a radial system can be minimized by introducing

parallel feeders. The initial cost of this system is much more as the number of feeders is
doubled. Such system may be used where reliability of the supply is important or for load
sharing where the load is higher. (Reference: EEP - Distribution Feeder Systems)

Ring Main Distribution System

A similar level of system reliability to that of the parallel feeders can be achieved by using ring
distribution system. Here, each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders but in
different paths. The feeders in this system form a loop which starts from the substation bus- bars,
runs through the load area feeding distribution transformers and returns to the substation bus-
bars. The following figure shows a typical single line diagram of a ring main distribution system.

Ring main distribution system is the most preferred due to its following advantages.

Advantages Of Ring Main Distribution System

 There are fewer voltage fluctuations at consumer's terminal.

 The system is very reliable as each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders. That
means, in the event of a fault in any section of the feeder, the continuity of the supply is
ensured from the alternative path.
Interconnected Distribution System

When a ring main feeder is energized by two or more substations or generating stations, it is called
as an interconnected distribution system. This system ensures reliability in an event of transmission
failure. Also, any area fed from one generating stations during peak load hours can be fed from the
other generating station or substation for meeting power requirements from increased load.
What is grounding and its types?
There are two types of resistance grounding: high resistance grounding and low
resistance grounding
What are the different types of ground?
There exist different kinds of grounds: chassis ground, earth ground, circuit
ground, signal ground
What is the purpose of grounding?
One of the most important safety measures in electricity management, electrical
grounding refers to the practice of connecting an electrical device to
the ground through a wire in order to direct any surplus electricity away from you while
you use the device and into the ground
What happens if you don't connect the ground wire?
It is designed to save life. Not having that may kill people. If your electric appliance has
ground wire it is because there is at least a remote possibility of you get an electric shock
in case of electric appliance fail. Engineers won't add that ground wire unless it is
necessary
What are active filters and passive filters?
1. Passive filters consume the energy of the signal, but no power gain is available; while
active filters have a power gain. 2. Active filters require an external power supply, while
passive filters operate only on the signal input
What is a passive filter?
Passive filters are made up of passive components such as resistors, capacitors and
inductors and have no amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps, etc) so have no signal
gain, therefore their output level is always less than the input
What is filter explain?
Filtration is a process used to separate solids from liquids or gases using
a filter medium that allows the fluid to pass through but not the solid. The term "filtration"
applies whether the filter is mechanical, biological, or physical. The fluid that passes
through the filter is called the filtrate.
What is advantage of active filters over passive filters?
Advantages of Active Filters Over Passive Filters. Less Cost Active filters are very
much inexpensive than passive filters due to the variety of cheaper op-amp and the
absence of costly inductors
What is load flow studies in power system?
A load flow study should be performed during the planning design stages of a power
system and when evaluating changes to an existing system. A load
flow study calculates the voltage drop on each feeder, the voltage at each bus, and the
power flow and losses in all branch and feeder circuits
What are the methods of load flow analysis?
The deterministic methods, such as Newton?Raphson method,
Gauss?Seidel method, fast decoupled load flow method, and direct current load flow
method, use specific values of power generations and load demands of a selected
network configuration to calculate system states and power flows
What is feeder loss?
Feeder Loss : Feeder loss indicates the signal loss caused by various devices that are
located on the path of the antenna to the receiver. Any device using an external antenna for
service provision at either the base station side or terminal side must consider feeder loss
Method for reducing losses in distribution feeders
A method for reducing annual energy losses in a power system is presented. The technique
deals with the installation of shunt capacitors and the changing of conductor size in order to
reduce losses. An equation is derived for the net annual saving, and analytical expressions are
obtained for the capacitor size and the conductor cross-section that yield a maximum net
annual saving. A simple computer program is developed for computing the numerical values.
The technique is applied to a set of 11 kV feeders of an existing system, and the results
obtained indicate that the method is an efficient one for reducing losses in a power system.

Temperature Effect to Distribution Feeder Load Profiles and Losses

A systematic procedure is proposed to study the effect to temperature change to distribution

feeder load profiles and losses by using the typical load patterns of customer classes. The
database of an automated mapping/facility management (AM/FM) system is used to retrieve
the component attributes and the topology process is executed to determine the electrical
network configuration and the customers served by each distribution transformer. By using
the monthly energy consumption of customers in customer information system (CIS) and the
typical daily load patterns of customer classes, the hourly loading profiles of distribution
transformers and service zones can be derived to solve the loadings of each primary feeder
and lateral. The sensitivity analysis of load demand with respect to the temperature change
for each customer class is performed by statistic regression according to the actual customer
power consumption and temperature data. The load contribution by each customer class is
updated by the corresponding temperature sensitivity and integrated together to form the new
load profile of a service district with temperature change. To investigate the temperature
effect to the distribution feeder, two of the Taipower distribution feeders are selected for
computer simulation. The power demand at each load bus of the distribution feeder is
calculated by applying the temperature sensitivity and the three- phase load flow analysis is
then executed to find the new feeder loading and power loss with the temperature change

A systematic procedure is proposed to study the effect of temperature change to the power
system load demand by using the typical load patterns of customer classes. The billing data
of all service customers are retrieved to derive the daily load profile of the selected Taipower
district. To verify the accuracy of the estimated load composition, the simulation results are
compared to the actual load profile collected by the SCADA system. The sensitivity analysis
of load demand with respect to the temperature change for each customer class is performed
by statistic regression according to the actual customer power consumption and temperature
data. The load contribution by each customer class is updated by the corresponding
temperature sensitivity and integrated together to form the new load profile of a service
district with temperature change. To investigate the temperature effect to the distribution
system operation, one of the Taipower distribution feeders is selected for computer
simulation. The power demand at each load bus of the distribution feeder is calculated by
applying the temperature sensitivity and the three-phase load flow analysis is then executed
to find the new feeder loading and power loss with the temperature change.

How does the length of the conductor affect resistance?

 Resistance increases with length because the electrons have further to go, so suffer greater
collisions with atoms in the material. Look at these wires: Electrons moving through the
short wire only feel resistance for a short time compared to the longer one. This means its
resistance is less
What determines conductor size?
Insulation type, ambient temperature, and conductor bundling are three primary factors
in determining how big a conductor has to be for it to safely carry the current imposed
on it. A key concept in conductor sizing is understanding the definition of ampacity
How do you determine wire size?
How to Identify Electrical Cable Sizes
1. Look at the insulation on the cable. Search for text written on the insulation. ...
2. Cut the wire with your wire cutters. The cut should be perpendicular to the run of the wire.
3. Measure the diameter of the cross-section in inches. ...
4. Divide the diameter of the wire by .46
5. Why energy savers are used instead of normal bulb?
6. Heat is not light, and the purpose of the light bulb is light, so all of
the energy spent creating heat is a waste. Incandescent bulbs are therefore very
inefficient. They produce perhaps 15 lumens per watt of input power. A fluorescent
bulb uses a completely different method to produce light
7. What are two of the advantages of using energy efficient light bulbs What are two
disadvantages?
8. Less Energy Usage
9. Apart from using less energy, energy-saving light bulbs also generate less heat.
This makes it safer than an incandescent bulb, which heats up and explodes from
overuse. Energy-saving light bulbs are also less expensive than the newer LED
bulbs. Both are energy efficient and have long lifespan
DISADVANTAGES OF ENERGY SAVER

Disadvantages

 High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive (price per lumen)onan initial
capitalcost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. As of 2012, the cost
per thousand lumens (kilolumen) was about $6. The price was expected to reach
$2/kilolumen by 2013. At least one manufacturer claims to have reached $1 per kilolumen as
of March 2014. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output
and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed.
 Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient
temperature of the operating environment – or "thermal management" properties.
Over-driving an LED in high
 ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to
device failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially
important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate overawide
rangeoftemperatures, whichrequire low failurerates. Toshiba has produced LEDs with an
operating temperature range of
-40 to 100 °C, which suits the LEDs for both indoor and outdoor use in applications such as
lamps, ceiling lighting, street lights, and floodlights.
 Voltage sensitivity: LEDsmust besuppliedwiththevoltageabove the threshold and a
current below the rating. Current and lifetime changegreatlywithasmallchange inapplied
voltage. Theythus require a current-regulated supply (usually just a series resistor for
indicator LEDs).
 Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a
black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip
at 500 nmcan cause the colorofobjectsto be perceived differentlyunder cool- white LED
illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being
rendered particularly badly by typicalphosphor-basedcool-whiteLEDs. However, the
color- rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what
is now available in state-of-art white LEDs.
 Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of
light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a lambertiandistribution. So
LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing asphericallight field;however,different
fieldsoflightcan be manipulated bythe application of different optics or "lenses".
LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In contrast, laserscanemit beams
withdivergences of0.2degrees orless.
 Electrical polarity: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardlessofthe
electricalpolarity, LEDswillonlylightwithcorrect electricalpolarity. To automatically
matchsource polarityto LED devices, rectifiers can be used.
 Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of
exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications
such as ANSI/IESNA
 RP-27.1–05: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp
Systems.
 Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs with high color temperatureemit
proportionallymorebluelightthanconventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure
sodium vapor lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that
cool-white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources.TheInternational
Dark-SkyAssociationdiscouragesusing whitelightsourceswithcorrelatedcolor
temperatureabove3,000 K.
 Efficiency droop: The efficiencyofLEDs decreases asthe electric current increases.
Heating also increases with higher currents which compromises the lifetime ofthe LED.
These effects put practical limits on the current through an LED in high power applications.
 Impact on insects: LEDsaremuchmoreattractiveto insectsthan sodium-vapor lights,
so much so that there has been speculative concern about the possibility of disruption to
food webs.
 Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in comparison to
traditional electrical lights, LED lights used for traffic control can have snow obscuring
them, leading to accidents

- mdiWhat is MDI in electricity bill?

Maximum demand term or Maximum demand indicator (MDI)
Maximum demand register (kW or kVA). This is the maximum power value, usually the
average of 15 minutes, reached during the billing period (this average time may vary
depending on the country)
What is maximum demand in electrical engineering?
Maximum demand:
It is the highest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
The maximum of all the demands that have occurred during a given period (say a day) is
the maximum demand
What mean by voltage?
Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a quantitative expression of the potential
difference in charge between two points in an electrical field. ...
Alternating voltage exists between the terminals of a common utility outlet. What
is current and voltage?
V. Definition. Current is the rate at which electric charge flows past a point in a circuit. In
other words, current is the rate of flow of electric charge. Voltage, also called electromotive
force, is the potential difference in charge between two points in an electrical field.
Operating Voltage. The voltage level by which an electrical system is designated and to
which certain operating characteristics of the system are related; also, the
effective (root-mean-square) potential difference between any two conductors or
between a conductor and the ground.

Guy-wire
Description
A guy-wire, guy-line, or guy-rope, also known as simply a guy, is a tensioned cable
designed to add stability to a free-standing structure. They are used commonly in ship
masts, radio masts, wind turbines, utility poles, fire service extension ladders used in church
raises and tents
Are guy wires dangerous?
How dangerous are “guy wires”? ... Guy wires are support structures that are anchored
into the ground, to keep poles and energized conductors from falling, or sagging too
much. They do not carry power, and, therefore, do not create an electrical hazard, unless
poorly maintained
Which type of insulators is used in guy wires?
Many insulators for use in stay wire are made so that tension on the wire is converted to a
compressive force as shown in the photograph of an egg insulator, often made of
porcelein, ceramic or glass.
What is the function of stay wire?
Stay Wires are galvanized steel wire strands that are used for sustaining mechanical load.
Generally they are made up of 6 wires stranded around 1 wire, twisting 7 wires together. A
common use for stay wires is in the electricity industry, using the wire to stay power poles
and tower structures
What is creepage distance?
Creepage distance means the shortest distance along the surface of a solid
insulating material between two conductive parts. The values of table
"Creepage distances to avoid failure due to tracking" are based upon existing data and are
suitable for the majority of applications
What is earth wire?
An earth wire is literally a wire that goes down into the earth - also known as an “earth
ground.” It's meant to be the electrical path that unwanted electricity (such as lightning or a
short-circuit) finds easiest to take
What ACSR means?
Aluminium conductor steel-reinforced cable (ACSR) is a type of high-capacity, high-
strength stranded conductor typically used in overhead power lines. The outer strands are
high-purity aluminium, chosen for its good conductivity, low weight and low cost.
What is Zebra conductor?
A “ZEBRA” conductor is a ACSR cable with nominal aluminum cross-sectional area of 400
mm²
What are 3 types of conductors?
Conductors conduct electrical current very easily because of their free electrons.
Insulators oppose electrical current and make poor conductors.
Some common conductors are copper, aluminum, gold, and silver.
Some common insulators are glass, air, plastic, rubber, and wood.
What are the different types of conductors?
Types of Electrical Conductors
Hard Drawn Copper Conductor. ...
Cadmium Copper Conductor. ...
Steel-Cored Copper Conductor (SCC) ...
Copper Welded Conductor. ...
Hard-Drawn Aluminium Conductor or All-Aluminum Conductor. ...
Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced. ...
Smooth Body ACSR Conductor. ...
Expanded ACSR Conductor
What is ACSR Panther conductor?
This conductor is made of a solid or stranded steel core surrounded by stranded
aluminum. The nominal area of acsr panther is 200 sq mm. The diameter of
aluminum wire is 30/3.00mm, and the stranding steel is 7/3.00mm. Email:
sales03@huadongcablegroup.com. Code name
WHA IS FEEDER VOLTAGE?

From the distribution substation, feeders carry the power to the end customers, forming the
medium-voltage or primary network, operated at a medium voltage level, typically 5–35
kV. Feeders range in length from a few kilometers to several tens of kilometersWhat is a
feeder in electricity?
In electric power distribution, Feeder is “voltage power line transferring power from a
distribution substation to the distribution transformers” In an electrical wiring circuit in a
building which Feeder is a “wire/line that carries power from a transformer or switch gear to
a distribution panel.
What is the use of feeder in electrical?
In power engineering, a feeder line is part of an electric distribution network, usually a
radial circuit of intermediate voltage. The concept of feeder lines is also important in
public transportation. The term is particularly used in US air travel and rail transport
What is 11kV feeder?
11kV lines are more common in residential areas. This is the line that brings power to your
locality Transformer (11000/415V) which is distributed to consumers i.e. homes and offices
.................................... The power is then divided in 11kV segments to the consumer
areas, so the 11kV feeders connect further to distribution centers. What
is difference between feeder and distributor?
Both feeder and distributor carry the electrical load, but they have one
basic difference. Feeder feeds power from one point to another without being tapped
from any intermediate point. As because there is no tapping point
in between, the current at sending end is equal to that of receiving-end of the
conductor
What are the types of feeders?
TYPES OF FEEDERS: Commercial feeders come in four basic types: Hoppers: Hopper
feeders come in many different styles, but the old favorite looks like a little barn or covered
bridge. The sides are usually panels of Plexiglas or glass, positioned in a V shape
What is the difference between feeder and busbar?
while Feeder is used to feed electrical power from Busbar to distributors. ............ we can
connect more than one feeder to a Busbar. The busbar is used as a conductor and
is used as a connection between the parallel and the feeder. The feeder is the supply,
and it handles the relays
What is the difference between feeder and busbar?
while Feeder is used to feed electrical power from Busbar to distributors... we can connect
more than one feeder to a Busbar. The busbar is used as a conductor and is used as a
connection between the parallel and the feeder. The feeder is the supply, and it handles the
relays
What is RMU in electrical?
A Ring Main Unit (RMU) is a totally sealed, gas-insulated compact switchgear unit. The
primary switching devices can be either switch disconnectors or fused switch disconnectors
or circuit breakers
What is a feeder circuit?
The definition of a feeder also includes the conductors from the source of a separately
derived system or other non-utility power supply source and the final branch circuit
overcurrent device .................................. Circuit conductors between the service point
and the final branch-circuit overcurrent devic
What is feeder failure?
A feeder fault is nothing more than a short circuit between one or more of the phases and
usually ground or earth .............................. For a fault on a feeder lateral, for example, a
fuse cutout would melt during the overcurrent and drop open to sectionalize that part of the
feeder
Why are feeders connected in parallel?
For maintaining stability of the system it is required to feed a load from source by two or
more than two feeders in parallel ............... There are two feeders connected in
parallel from source to load. Both of the feeders have non-directional over current relay at
source end. These relays should be inverse time relay
What is busbar protection?
Busbar protection is a protection scheme meant to protect the busbar from electrical fault.
Various feeders are connected to a busbar through circuit breaker in any of the bus
configuration vi
What is voltage stress?
The dielectric or insulation has an electric field, equal to applied voltage, which causes a
stress in it , described as volts / unit thickness. If this stress goes beyond its bearing
capacity, there will be insulation breakdown or failure ................................ What is
voltage and current stress on power switches? How
many kV is High Voltage?
High voltage is defined as any voltage over 1000 volts. Cables for 3000 and 6000 volts
exist, but the majority of cables are used from 10 kV and upward. Those of 10 to 33 kV are
usually called medium voltage cables, those over 50 kV high voltage cables.
What voltage is HV?
High voltage is defined by the DOE Electrical Safety Guidelines as over 600 volts.
Generally considered to be a wire or cable with an operating voltage of over
600 volts. Any electric potential capable of producing breakdown in air at STP, or around
600volts. A voltage higher than that used for power distribution
What is a ring main system?
The ring main is a loop of cable which runs from your meter to your consumer unit (the
box containing fuses, circuit breakers etc), around your property to your electrical sockets,
then back to the consumer unit. Live, neutral and earth wires make up the cable
What is a feeder breaker?
Definition of feeder breaker. A portable feeding and crushing unit which can move on its
own or often be installed in a stationary position
Definition: Protection zone is defined as the part of the power system which is protected by
a certain protective scheme....... Thus, only the faulty element will be isolated without
disturbing the rest of the system. The protection zone cover the entire power system, and
no part of the equipment is left unprotectedWhat are the advantages of ring circuit?
Its advantages over radial circuits are therefore reduced quantity of copper used, and
greater flexibility of appliances and equipment that can be connected
What is a substation feeder?
Distribution feeder circuits are the connections between the output terminals of a
distribution substation and the input terminals of primary circuits. The
distribution feeder circuit conductors leave the substation from a circuit breaker or circuit
recloser via underground cables, called substation exit cables.
Why are feeders connected in parallel?
For maintaining stability of the system it is required to feed a load from source by two or
more than two feeders in parallel ............... There are two feeders connected in
parallel from source to load. Both of the feeders have non-directional over current relay at
source end. These relays should be inverse time relay
Why we are using AC current in home?
AC current/voltage can be transformed to higher or lower value with constant power as well
as frequency ..................... Also, the AC power allows us to have a central power
generation which can then be transmitted to farthest of distances. Another reason to have
AC at home is because you have AC appliances
Why is DC better than AC? Unlike AC, a direct current undergoes no switching. There are
no periods and the current flows in a single direction with a steady voltage. As already
mentioned, DC is prone to lose power as heat – a characteristic that Edison exploited to light
the first bulb
Can DC power kill you?
In terms of fatalities, both kill but more milliamps are required of DC current than AC
current at the same voltage ................. This typically takes place at 30 mA of AC (rms,
60 Hz) or 300 – 500 mA of DC. Though both AC and DC currents and shock are lethal,
more DC current is required to have the same effect as AC current
Why is transformer rated in kVA and not Watts?
Copper losses (I²R) depends on current which passing through transformer winding while
Iron losses or core losses or Insulation losses depends on Voltage ............................ That's
why the transformer rating may be expressed in VA or kVA, not in W or kW.
What causes a power factor penalty in power bills?
Power Factor penalty is spelled out in the contract between the Power Company and Industrial or
Commercial customer with large three phase loads. If the contract calls for 85% Power Factor,
once the customer’s power factor falls below 85%, the Power Company bills the Customer
according to the agreed penalty rates.

The Power Company is charging the customer for KW demand in addition to the KWH energy
consumed plus penalty charges for low Power Factor. KWH meter with KW Demand register
plus Power Factor register are used by the Power Company.
Industrial loads are mostly induction electric motors. When these motors are lightly loaded
mechanically they contribute reactive power (KVAR) to, and consume energy (KWH) from
the Power Supply. When the reactive power or energy is too much the systems power factor
become low.

Reactive Power or Energy is not good for the Power Company. When the Power Factor is low, the
Power Plants are consuming more fuel and the Billed KW Demand and KWH energy is lower
than when the Power Factor is good.

In addition, when the Power Factor is not good, the voltage drops and Power/Energy Losses in
the Power Lines and Transformers increase and the Power Company bills do not include such
losses. This is the reason for the low Power Factor penalty in the contract. The Customer is
required to maintain good Power Factor. This is done by installing Capacitors within the
Customers Industrial Plant.

The Power Company using Demand (KW) and Energy (KWH) Meters register only KW and
KWH consumed.The Power Factor is registered as well which is the ArcCosine of the Angle
between the True Power KW and the Active Power KVA in a Power Triangle. There is no such
KVAH meter

What are difference between AMI meter and Smart Energy Meter?

Smart meters enable two-way communication between the meter and the central system.
Such an advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) differs from
automatic meter reading (AMR) in that it enables two-way
communication between the meter and the supplier

What is an AMI electric meter?

Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) is an integrated system of smart meters,
communications networks, and data management systems that enables two-way
communication between utilities and customers
What is Smart Energy Meter?
A smart meter is a type of gas and electricity meter that can digitally
send meter readings to your energy supplier for more accurate energy bills. Smart meters
come with in-home displays so you can better understand
your energy usage
What is an AMR electric meter?
Automatic meter reading (AMR) is the technology of automatically collecting
consumption, diagnostic, and status data from water meter or
energy metering devices (gas, electric) and transferring that data to a central database
for billing, troubleshooting, and analyzing
What is are the benefits of AMI?
Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) can provide the necessary information to help
improve energy efficiency and bring other operational benefits that will help utilities
manage costs more effectively and improve customer service. AMI improves the process of
managing demand for natural resources
Hunting phenomena
The phenomenon of oscillation of the rotor about its final equilibrium position is called
Hunting. On the sudden application of load, the rotor search for its new equilibrium
position and this process is known as Hunting

There are four major types of overhead conductors used for electrical
transmission and distribution.
AAC - All Aluminum Conductor.
AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor.
ACSR - Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced.
ACAR - Aluminum Conductor Aluminum-Alloy Reinforced.
What is the difference between ACSR and AAAC?
The major difference between AAC, AAAC, and ACSR conductors are the
materials they are constructed from. AAC is manufactured from electrolytically
refined aluminium with .7% minimum purity. AAAC is made from an Aluminium
alloy whereas ACSR contains a combination of Aluminium reinforced with steel
What does AAAC stand for?
All Aluminium Alloy Conductor
AAC, AAAC, ACSR form part of the family of Overhead Conductors,
Transmission Conductors and Power Distribution Conductors. These cables are
formally known as All Aluminium Conductor (AAC), All Aluminium Alloy
Conductor (AAAC) and Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
What is ACSR conductor & type?
Aluminium conductor steel-reinforced cable (ACSR) is a type of high- capacity,
high-strength stranded conductor typically used in overhead power lines. The outer
strands are high-purity aluminium, chosen for its good conductivity, low weight and
low cost
What is a radial feeder?
A radial feeder leaves the station and passes through the service area with no
normal connection to any other supply. This is typical of long rural lines with
isolated load areas. A networked system, having multiple connections to other points
of supply, is generally found in more urban areas
What is a feeder conductor?
The definition of a feeder also includes the conductors from the source of a
separately derived system or other non-utility power supply source and the final
branch circuit overcurrent device. A Type SER cable between a 200-amp residential
service disconnect and a subpanel is a feeder
What is prototype with example?
For example, a concept car that is developed as a potential future production model.
Form Study. An object or animation that explores size, shape, form
and appearance. Functional Prototype. A prototype that is close to the end result in
functionality.
What is prototype and its types?
Types of Prototype and their Usage. A vertical prototype is the back end of a
product like a database generation to test front end. Muthu Singaram and Prathistha
Jain
What is exciter field?
Generators require direct current to energize its magnetic field. The
DC field current is obtained from a separate source called an exciter. Either rotating
or static-type exciters are used for AC power generation systems. ...
When it is housed separately, the exciter is rotated by the AC generator
through a drive belt.
What is the use of exciter?
In the 1st scheme of excitation, we have a pilot exciter and a
main exciter coupled to the Alternator . Pilot exciter is a DC Shunt generator which
feeds the field winding of the main generator. The main exciter is a DC Separately
excited generator which is used to excite the rotor winding
Why exciter is used in generator?
The rotor or the field coils in a generator produce the magnetic flux that is
essential to the production of the electric power. The rotor is a rotating
electromagnet that requires a DC ( Direct Current) electric power source to excite
the magnetic field. This power comes from an exciter
What is excitation voltage?
An excitation voltage is the amount of direct voltage required to excite a certain
field coil. Excitation is required to create magnetic field around the coils By
cutting this magnetic flux lines EMF is induced across the
armature
What is a pilot exciter?
The exciter (sometimes called the main exciter) is a synchronous generator that has
its stator and rotor windings inverted. Its field winding is fixed in the stator, and the
rotor carries the armature or AC
Why is DC excitation given?
The simple answer is if we give AC supply to the field winding of the synchronous
motor then the magnetic locking between the stator field and rotor field will not be
created. We know that the opposite pole can attract each other. This was the
reason Why DC is used not AC for excitation of
Synchronous Moto
What is pilot exciter and main exciter?
A pilot exciter is a small ACgenerator with permanent magnets mounted on the
rotor shaft and a 3-phase winding on the stator. It produces the power for the field
circuit of the exciter, which in turn controls the field circuit of
the main machine
What is difference between motor and alternator?
An alternator is a device that converts mechanical energy into AC electrical
energy. A generator is a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy to
either AC or DC electrical energy ........................... The alternator takes input
supply from the stator. The generator takes input supply from the rotor
Why are batteries used in a substation?
A substation battery charger ensures all the essential electrical systems in a
substation continue to operate in the event of a power outage .................... It
 supplies the energy needed to manage the protective devices and high voltage
components and allows electrical faults to be safely isolated
What is a battery grid?
Grid energy storage (also called large-scale energy storage) is a collection of
methods used to store electrical energy on a large scale within an electrical power
grid ................. Developments in battery storage have enabled commercially
viable projects to store energy during peak production and release during peak
de
how to synchronize the generator with the grid?conditions??

Synchronization (alternating current)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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In an alternating current electric power system, synchronization is the process of matching
the speed and frequency of a generator or other source to a running network. An AC
generator cannot deliver power to an electrical grid unless it is running at the same frequency
as the network. If two segments of a grid are disconnected, they cannot exchange AC power
again until they are brought back into exact synchronization.
A direct current (DC) generator can be connected to a power network by adjusting its open-
circuit terminal voltage to match the network voltage, by either adjusting its speed or its field
excitation. The exact engine speed is not critical. However, an AC generator must match both
the amplitude and the timing of the network voltage, which requires both speed and excitation
to be systematically controlled for synchronization. This extra complexity was one of the
arguments against AC operation during the war of currents in the 1880s. In modern grids,
synchronization of generators is carried out by automatic systems.

Conditions[edit]
There are five conditions that must be met before the synchronization process takes place.
The source (generator or sub-network) must have equal line voltage, frequency, phase
sequence, phase angle, and waveform to that of the system to which it is being synchronized
which instrument is used in synchronization of alternators?

Synchroscope[edit]
Main article: Synchroscope
Another manual method of synchronization relies on observing an instrument called a
"synchroscope", which displays the relative frequencies of system and generator. The
pointer of the synchroscope will indicate "fast" or "slow" speed of the generator with respect
to the system. To minimize the transient current when the generator circuit breaker is closed,
usual practice is to initiate the close as the needle slowly approaches the in-phase point. An
error of a few electrical degrees between system and generator will result in a momentary
inrush and abrupt speed change of the generator.

Process[edit]
The sequence of events is similar for manual or automatic synchronization. The generator is
brought up to approximate synchronous speed by supplying more energy to its shaft - for
example, opening the valves on a steam turbine, opening the gates on a hydraulic turbine, or
increasing the fuel rack setting on a diesel engine. The field of the generator is energized and
the
voltage at the terminals of the generator is observed and compared with the system. The
voltage magnitude must be the same as the system voltage.
If one machine is slightly out of phase it will pull into step with the others but, if the phase
difference is large, there will be heavy cross-currents which can cause voltage fluctuations
and, in extreme cases, damage to the machines.
Synchronizing lamps[edit]
Formerly, three light bulbs were connected between the generator terminals and the system
terminals (or more generally, to the terminals of instrument transformers connected to
generator and system). As the generator speed changes, the lights will flicker at the beat
frequency proportional to the difference between generator frequency and system
frequency. When the voltage at the generator is opposite to the system voltage (either
ahead or behind in phase), the lamps will be bright. When the voltage at the generator
matches the system
voltage, the lights will be dark. At that instant, the circuit breaker connecting the generator
to the system may be closed and the generator will then stay in synchronism with the
system.[3]
An alternative technique used a similar scheme to the above except that the connections of
two of the lamps were swapped either at the generator terminals or the system terminals. In
this scheme, when the generator was in synchronism with the system, one lamp would be
dark, but the two with the swapped connections would be of equal brightness.
Synchronizing on "dark" lamps was preferred over "bright" lamps because it was easier to
discern the minimum brightness. However, a lamp burnout could give a false-positive for
successful synchronization.
Synchronizing relays[edit]
Synchronizing relays allow unattended synchronization of a machine with a system. Today
these are digital microprocessor instruments, but in the past electromechanical relay systems
were applied. A synchronizing relay is useful to remove human reaction time from the
process, or when a human is not available such as at a remote controlled generating plant.
Synchroscopes or lamps are sometimes installed as a supplement to automatic relays, for
possible manual use or for monitoring the generating unit.
Sometimes as a precaution against out-of-step connection of a machine to a system, a
"synchro check" relay is installed that prevents closing the generator circuit breaker unless
the machine is within a few electrical degrees of being in-phase with the system. Synchro
check relays are also applied in places where several sources of supply may be connected
and where it is important that out-of-step sources are not accidentally paralleled.

Synchronous operation[edit]
While the generator is synchronized, the frequency of the system will change depending on
load and the average characteristics of all the generating units connected to the grid. [1] Large
changes in system frequency can cause the generator to fall out of synchronism with the
system.
Protective devices on the generator will operate to disconnect it automatically.

Synchronous speeds[edit]
Synchronous speeds for synchronous motors and alternators depend on the number of poles
on the machine and the frequency of the supply.
The relationship between the supply frequency, f, the number of poles, p, and the
synchronous speed (speed of rotating field), ns is given by:
 .
In the following table, frequencies are shown in hertz (Hz) and rotational
speeds in revolutions per minute (rpm):
What is power distribution transformer?
Distribution Transformer is an electrical isolation transformer which convert high-
voltage electricity to lower voltage levels acceptable for use in homes and business.
... Electrical energy is passed through distribution transformers to reduce high-
distribution voltage levels down to end-use levels
What is the use of power transformer?
The Power transformer is a one kind of transformer, that is used to transfer
electrical energy in any part of the electrical or electronic circuit between the generator
and the distribution primary circuits. These transformers are used in distribution
systems to interface step up and step down voltages.
What is the difference between generator and transformer?
Generators generate current and transformers convert between current and voltage.
A generator is a machine which, with the help of magnetic induction, converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy A transformer converts
voltage into higher or lower voltages.
Difference Between Power Transformer and Distribution Transformer

Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher voltages whereas the
Distribution Transformers are used in the distribution network of lower voltages.
The power transformers are available in various ratings of 400 KV, 200 KV, 110 KV, 66
KV, 33 KV in the market and the distribution transformer are available in 11 KV, 6.6 KV,
3.3 KV, 440 V, 230 Volts.
The power transformer always operates on rated full load as the load fluctuation is very
less but the distribution transformer is operated at the load less than full load as the
variation in the loads are very high.
The power transformers are designed for maximum efficiency of 100%, and the efficiency
is simply calculated by the ratio of output power to the input power, whereas the
distribution transformer the maximum efficiency varies between 50-70% and calculated by
All Day Efficiency.
Power transformers are used in power generating stations and transmission substations, and
the distribution transformer is installed at the distribution stations from where the power is
distributed for the industrial and domestic purposes.
The size of the power transformer is large as compared to the distribution transformers.
In Power Transformer, the iron and copper losses take place throughout the day but in
distribution transformer the iron loss takes place 24 hours i.e., throughout the day, and the
copper losses depend on the load cycle.

Protection in distribution transformer

Fuses and MV circuit breakers are often used to protect transformers up to 1000 kVA
(distribution transformers for 11kV and 33kV). relay are commonly used to protect them.
Current differential relays are applied for transformers as main protectionWhat are the
protection used for transformer?
Transformer Protection and Transformer Fault. There are different kinds of
transformers such as two winding or three winding electrical
power transformers, auto transformer, regulating transformers,
earthing transformers, rectifier transformers et
What is OSR in transformer?
The protective Oil Surge Relay (OSR) is used to protect the malfunction developed inside
the On Load Tap Changer (OLTC) ...................... This protective relay triggers the tripping
circuit when the oil flow exceed the specified limits, thus making the transformer to be
turned off and contain the damager to the OLTC and Transformer
What is Dgpt in transformer?
The DGPT (Detection of Gas, Pressure and Temperature, see Fig. B18) for the integral filled
transformers (see Fig ................................ This type of transformer is manufactured up
to around10 MVA. The DGPT as the buchholz detects the emissions of gasses and the
internal over pressures. In addition it monitors the temperature of the oil
What is safety of dry type transformer?
Dry type transformers require minimum maintenance to provide many years of reliable
trouble free service. ..................... Dry type transformers provide a safe and reliable
power source which does not require fire proof vaults, catch basins or the venting of toxic
gasses
Highesy transmission voltage in Pakistan

765KV DESIGNED DASSU TO ISLAMABAD BUT USED IS 500KV

What wind speed is needed for a wind turbine?

Generally, annual average wind speeds greater than four meters per second (m/s) (9 mph)
are required for small wind electric turbines (less wind is required for water-pumping
operations). Utility-scale wind power plants require minimum average wind speeds of 6
m/s (13 mph)
What RPM is required to generate electricity for wind energy?
The alternator produces three-phase AC in a Delta-wound coil, but the output is rectified to
produce the DC for supplying power to the automobile's electrical load and to keep the
battery charged. Generators in hydropower stations often turn slower, some as low as 600
RPM (10 revolutions per second)
What is the average RPM of a wind turbine?
Usually the rotational speed of the wind turbine is slower than the equivalent rotation speed
of the electrical network: typical rotation speeds for wind generators are 5–20 rpm while a
directly connected machine will have an electrical speed between 750 and 3600 rpm.
Which generator is used in wind turbine?
The electrical machine most commonly used for wind turbines applications are those
acting as generators, with synchronous generators and
induction generators (as shown) being commonly used in larger wind turbine
generators, while smaller and home made wind turbines tend to use a low speed DC
generator or Dynamo as they ..
Are wind turbines AC or DC?
The electrical generators used on wind turbines may either be induction generators or
synchronous generators. The electrical power from the generator is typical 60 Hz, AC
power with 600V output for large wind turbines ......................... Small wind
turbines produce a variety of voltages and some produce DC power
What is HV transmission?
Electrical transmission .......... High voltage power lines are used for
the transmission of electricity over long distances. Electrical transmission is the process
of delivering generated electricity - usually over long distances - to the distribution grid
located in populated areas
What are the components of transmission line?
Transmission Lines are made up of various components, namely poles, lattice
structures, conductors, cables, insulators, foundations and earthing systems.
These components are described in more detail in this document. The primary
functions of transmission line structures are to provide mechanical support to
conductors.
Why shouldn't the power factor be greater than 1?
A power factor greater than 1 inplies that the phase lag between current and voltage in your
transmission line is somehow GENERATING power, which is impossible.

It's also implying that there is a valid solution to:

cos A > 1
Why power factor is not more than unity?
Answer: Power factor is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current.
... True power can never exceed apparent power. True power may be equal to apparent
power but cannot exceed. So that is why power factor can not more than unity.
Which is better leading or lagging power factor?
Leading power factor means that the current leads the voltage, that is, the load is
capacitive. If the load is inductive then the power factor is lagging and its sign is positive.
When calculating kW from kVA use absolute value of the power
factor because it will be the same whether the PF is leading or lagging. What is
standard voltage in Pakistan?
In Pakistan the standard voltage is 230 V and the frequency is 50 Hz. You can use your
electric appliances in Pakistan, if the standard voltage in your country is in between 220 -
240 V (as is in the UK, Europe, Australia and most of Asia and Africa).
What is IPP in Pakistan?
IPP is an abbreviation of Independent Power Producer. 2. How many IPPs facilitated by
PPIB are functional in Pakistan? http://www.ppib.gov.pk/N_commissioned_ipps.htm. Kot
Addu Power Company (1638 MW) and K-Electric power plants (2341 MW) are also
operating in the private sector
How much hydropower power could I generate from a hydro turbine?

If you mean energy (which is what you sell), read How much energy could I generate from a
hydro turbine?.
If you mean power, read on.
Power is the rate of producing energy. Power is measured in Watts (W) or kiloWatts (kW).
Energy is what is used to do work and is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh) or megawatt-
hours (MWh).
In simple terms, the maximum hydropower power output is entirely dependent on how much head
and flow is available at the site, so a tiny micro-hydro system might produce just 2 kW, whereas a
large utility-scale hydro system could easily produce hundreds of Megawatts (MW). To put this
in context, a 2 kW hydropower system could satisfy the annual electrical energy needs of two
average UK homes, whereas a utility-scale 200 MW system could supply 200,000 average UK
homes.
If you don’t mind equations the easiest way to explain how much power you could
generate is to look at the equation for calculating hydropower:
P = m x g x Hnet x η

Where:
P
power, measured in Watts (W).

m
mass flow rate in kg/s (numerically the same as the flow rate in litres/second because 1
litre of water weighs 1 kg)

the gravitational constant, which is 9.81m/s2

Hnet

the net head. This is the gross head physically measured at the site, less any head losses. To
keep things simple head losses can be assumed to be 10%, so Hnet=Hgross x 0.9

η
the product of all of the component efficiencies, which are normally the turbine, drive
system and generator
For a typical small hydro system the turbine efficiency would be 85%, drive efficiency 95% and
generator efficiency 93%, so the overall system efficiency would be:

0.85 x 0.95 x 0.93 = 0.751 i.e. 75.1%

Therefore, if you had a relatively low gross head of 2.5 metres, and a turbine that could take a
maximum flow rate of 3 m3/s, the maximum power output of the system would be:

First convert the gross head into the net head by multiplying it by 0.9, so:
Hnet = Hgross x 0.9 = 2.5 x 0.9 = 2.25 m

Then convert the flow rate in m3/s into litres/second by multiplying it by 1000, so:
3 m3/s = 3,000 litres per second

Remember that 1 litre of water weighs 1 kg, so m is the same numerically as the flow rate in
litres/second, in this case 3,000 kg/s.
Now you are ready to calculate the hydropower power:

Power (W) = m x g x Hnet x η = 3,000 x 9.81 x 2.25 x 0.751 = 49,729 W = 49.7 kW

Now, do the same for a high-head hydropower site where the gross head is 50 metres and
maximum flow rate through the turbine is 150 litres / second.
In this case Hnet = 50 x 0.9 = 45 m and the flow rate in litres/second is 150, hence:
Power (W) = m x g x Hnet x η = 150 x 9.81 x 45 x 0.751 = 49,729 W = 49.7 kW

What is management in simple words?

The organization and coordination of the activities of a business in order to achieve defined
objectives. .................... Management consists of the interlocking functions of creating
corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing an organization's
resources in order to achieve the objectives of that policy. 2.
What is management and its types?
Management functions include: Planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and
controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the
purpose of accomplishing a goal. There are several different
resource types within management.
What is the difference b N efficiency and effectiveness? Key
Differences Between Efficiency and Effectiveness
The ability to produce maximum output with limited resources is known
as Efficiency. The level of the nearness of the actual result with planned result
is Effectiveness. Efficiency is 'to do the things perfect' while Effectiveness is 'to do perfect
things'
Which is better fuse or circuit breaker?
Circuit breakers can be reset after they trip, which is a huge advantage over fuses, but they
don't add any level of safety. Today, circuit breakers are used in homes instead of fuses.
The main reason is because a circuit breaker can be re-used.
Once a fuse blows, it has to be replaced.
Key Differences Between Fuses and Circuit Breakers ............... While a fuse is made of a
piece of metal that melts when overheated, circuit breakers on the other hand, have internal
switch mechanisms that can be tripped by an unsafe surge of electricity.

Surge arrestors
Surge arrester

Description
A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment from over-voltage transients
caused by external or internal events. Also called a surge protection device or transient
voltage surge suppressor, this class of device is used to protect equipment in power
transmission and distribution systems.

People also ask

What are surge arresters made of?
A new design uses zinc oxide for surge arresters, that have a nonlinear voltage current
characteristic as shown in Fig. 9.2. In normal voltage the arrester is open circuited, however
when surges in voltage occur, the arrester is short circuited to pass the current and protect
the equipment.
What is difference between surge arrester and lightning arrester?
What is the difference between lightning arrester and surge arrester?
That lightning arrestor is connected to a conductor which runs along the walls and goes
into the earth. Surge arrestor gives the protection against surge currents or voltages in a
circuit.
What is surge absorber?
A device protecting electronic equipment from surge (abnormal voltage) is called
a Surge Protective Components (SPC) ............. However; when surge (abnormal voltage)
enters, the Surge Absorber instantly eliminates surge with low resistance to protect the
electronic equipment
What is Ferranti surge absorber?
The Ferranti Surge Absorber is use to minimize the steepness of a travelling wave. The
Ferranti surge absorber is made of a coil which is enclosed in a metallic cylinder which is
grounded .................................... Energy is transmitted from the coil to the dissipator
and expended as heat. This reduces the steepness of the travelling wave What is
surge modifier?
SURGE MODIFIER. a small shunt capacitor between the line and the earth or a series air
cored induct is incorporated which by storing temporary energy in them , reduces the
steepness of the surge wave front, which otherwise can be detrimental to the apparatus and
this is known as surge modifier
Difference between pole and tower
As verbs the difference between pole and tower
is that pole is to propel by pushing with poles, to push with a pole or pole can be to induce
piezoelectricity in (a substance) by aligning the dipoles while tower is to be very tallWhat
are the different types of towers?
Towers, commonly used for wireless telecommunications, come in a variety of types:
Lattice Towers. Lattice towers are freestanding and segmentally designed with
rectangular or triangular base steel lattices. ...
Guyed Towers. ...
Monopole Towers. ...
Camouflage Towers. ...
Self-Support Towers. ...
Mobile Cell Towers
What are the different types of poles?
Electric Poles
Wooden Electric Pole.
Concrete Electric Pole.
Steel Tubular Electric Pole.
Rail Electric Pole.
What is the mean of poles?
When someone mentions the North or South Pole, they mean the points on either
side of the Earth that mark the ends of its axis of rotation. This kind
of pole comes from the Latin polus, "end of an axis" or "the heavens."
What is the distance between electrical poles?
They are typically spaced about 125 ft (38 m) apart in urban areas, or about 300 ft (91
m) in rural areas, but distances vary widely based on terrain. Joint- use poles are
usually owned by one utility, which leases space on it for other cables.
What are towers used for?
The principal function is the use of their height to enable various functions to be
achieved including: visibility of other features attached to the tower such as clock
towers; as part of a larger structure or device to increase the visibility of the
surroundings for defensive purposes as in a fortified building such .
What is the difference between 11kV and 33kV?
11kV lines have higher current component as opposed to 33kV lines that is why
11kV lines are usually for shorter distance transmission as
compared. 33kV feeders, at base station, usually connect load centers like one city
to anothe
Which type of connection is used in power transformer?
It is commonly employed for power supply transformers.
This type of connection is commonly employed at the substation end of the
transmission line. The main use with this connection is to step down the voltage.
The neutral available on the primary side is grounded
What is 11kV feeder?
11kV lines are more common in residential areas. This is the line that brings power
to your locality Transformer (11000/415V) which is distributed to consumers i.e.
homes and offices ................................... The power is then divided
in 11kV segments to the consumer areas, so the 11kV feeders connect further
to distribution centers
Why is 11kV 33kV 66kv?
Why transmission line 11KV OR 33KV, 66KV not in 10KV 20KV? The miss
concept is Line voltage is in multiple of 11 due to Form Factor. ............. In olden
days when the electricity becomes popular, the people had a misconception that in
the transmission line there would be a voltage loss of around 10%
What is HT & LT?
LT (Low Tension) vs HT (High Tension)
High tension or HT supply is applicable for bulk power purchasers who need 11
kilo-Volts or above. Most small consumers of electricity like individual houses,
shops, small offices and smaller manufacturing units get their electricity on LT
connection
What is the use of feeder in electrical?
In power engineering, a feeder line is part of an electric distribution network,
usually a radial circuit of intermediate voltage. The concept of feeder lines is also
important in public transportation. The term is particularly used in US air travel and
rail transport
What is dy11 in transformer?
Dy11 is the vector group of 3 phase transformer. D- stands for delta - in HV side.
y - stands for star- in LV side. 11 stands for arms of the clock at 11 position which
depicts LV side leads HV side by 30 degree
What is feeder protection?
Feeder Protection. Definition: Feeder protection is defined as
the protection of the feeder from the fault so that the power grid continue supply the
energy. The feeder injects the electrical energy from the substation to the load end.
So it is essential to protect the feeder from the various type of fault
What is main feeder wire?
Main Feeder Wires : Main power feeder wires are the wires that connect the
service weather head to the house. They're made with stranded or solid THHN
wire and the cable installed is 25% more than the load required
What is a primary feeder?
Primary Mains
Primary Feeders. Primary feeders are those conductors in a distribution system
that are connected from the distribution sub-stations and that transfer power to the
distribution centers (fig. 2-2). They may be arranged as radial, loop, or network
systems and may be overhead or underground
What is meant by Express feeder?
An express feeder is a distribution line drawn from a substation to a high priority
load, say a hospital. The express feeder, which serves only one consumer, is not
included in the load-shedding protocol as it is considered an essential service.
What is a substation feeder?
Distribution feeder circuits are the connections between the output

terminals of a distribution substation and the input terminals of primary circuits.

The distribution feeder circuit conductors leave the substation from a circuit
breaker or circuit recloser via underground cables, called substation exit cables
What are the types of feeders?
TYPES OF FEEDERS: Commercial feeders come in four basic types: Hoppers:
Hopper feeders come in many different styles, but the old favorite looks like a little
barn or covered bridge. The sides are usually panels of Plexiglas or glass,
positioned in a V shape
 Power Systems: Why are ACSR conductors named after animals- like Moose, Dog, Peacock,
Hen, Zebra etc.?
Once upon a time British empire was so huge that they use to boast that Sun never sets on British
empire, meaning that their empire is so large, at one place or the other, the Sun would be
shining.

Naturally, such a wast empire would have people from various states, languages and different
measurements ( metric or Inches or hands etc.,). Moreover, most of the field staff were
uneducated and it would not be possible to educate them or to make them recall based on the
cross sectional area or construction of a conductor.

Therefore, it was decided by the British Standards Institution that name of an animal shall be used
in the sequence of small to big to denote small to largest ACSR conductor. This serves two
purposes -
Subsequently for AAC conductors too, the names of insects, as against animals was adopted.
( Ant, Gnat, Grasshopper etc.,)
Even today, these are the standard nomenclatures for ACSR / AAC Conductors and however,
for the recent developments ( means in the last 20 years) we are referring such as AAAC conductors
by its cross sectional area and some conductors by constructional reference
What does terminating cable mean?
Cable Termination is the connection of the wire or fiber to a device, such as
equipment, panels or a wall outlet, which allows for connecting the cable to
other cables or devices. The three main areas we will discuss are termination used in
Telecom, Datacom and Fiber Optic industries
What is the purpose of screening in cables?
Noun. screened cable (plural screened cables) Wire for the transmission of electricity or
electronic signals, protected by an enclosing web of earthed wire mesh to avoid
electromagnetic interference from (or to) other signals
identification and avoidance.
What is stringing of conductors?
A vehicle, to which the conductor is attached, is driven past each structure while pulling out
the conductor. At each structure, the conductor is lifted and placed into a stringing sheave.
A stringing sheave may also be referred to as a traveler, block, dolly, sheave, stringing
block, or stringing traveler
What is cable termination kit?
Heat Shrink Cable Termination Kits
For connection of Cable to Switchgear Terminal, Transformer Terminal, Poles etc.
termination kits are required. The Heat Shrinkable Termination kits can be
Indoor or Outdoor based on actual application. It can also be single core or 3 core /
3.5 core based on cable configuration
Do you ground both ends of a shielded cable?
Grounding both ends of the shield permits high-frequency currents to circulate in
the shield, which will counteract the currents flowing in the signal conductors.
What is shielding and grounding?
Grounding means over current or voltage and fault current or voltage in circuit it passing
through ground by low resistance. In shielding prevent from over and fault current or
voltage
What is string efficiency?
String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution
along the string. The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage
distribution. Thus 100% string efficiency is an ideal case for which the volatge across each
disc will be exactly the same
How many types of cable joints are there?
Three Types Of Cable Joints
There are three main types of electrical joints, also known as splices: The Western Union
splice, the tap splice and the fixture splice. The Western Union splice connects two
conductors together and is particularly useful in repairing a
broken wire.
What is cable joint? Electrical
power cable joints
The cable joints are used to connect low, medium or high voltage cables. ...
The joints provide electrical insulation as well as mechanical protection and strength. The
electrical connection is made in various ways and can crimping, or use of mechanical
connectors, soldering, etc
Who invented CD James Russell

Who is manufacturer of Play Station

Sony Interactive Entertainment
The brand is produced by Sony Interactive Entertainment, a division of Sony, with the
first console releasing as the PlayStation in Japan released in December 1994, and
worldwide the following year

What does the black hole mean?

A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even light can not get out.
The gravity is so strong because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space. This can happen
when a star is dying. Because no light can get out, people can't see black holes. They are
invisible
Where is a black hole?
Black holes are a class of astronomical object that have undergone gravitational collapse,
leaving behind spheroidal regions of space from which nothing can escape, not even light.
Observational evidence indicates that nearly all large galaxies contain a supermassive black
hole, located at the galaxy's center
What is Red matter
Red matter was a substance that was created through the use of Decalithium. It was created
by the Vulcan Science Academy and took the form of a red liquid substance that collected in
the form of a sphere. A single drop of this compound was capable of creating a singularity.
What is called Aurora?
Aurora, luminous phenomenon of Earth's upper atmosphere that occurs primarily in high
latitudes of both hemispheres; auroras in the Northern Hemisphere are called aurora
borealis, aurora polaris, or northern lights, and in the Southern
Hemisphere aurora australis, or southern lights.
What causes an aurora?
Bottom line: When charged particles from the sun strike atoms in Earth's atmosphere, they
cause electrons in the atoms to move to a higher-energy state. When the electrons drop
back to a lower energy state, they release a photon: light. This process creates the beautiful
aurora, or northern lights.
What is an aurora and how is it formed?
The aurora borealis (northern lights) form when charged particles emitted from the sun
during a solar flare penetrate the earth's magnetic shield and collide with atoms and
molecules in our atmosphere. These collisions result in countless little bursts of light, called
photons, which make up the aurora.
Are Auroras dangerous?
The Northern Lights occur so high up in the atmosphere that they don't pose any threat to
people watching them from the ground. The aurora itself is not harmful to humans but the
electrically charged particles produced could have some potentially negative effects to
infrastructure and technology
What is the difference between a power transformer and a distribution transformer? Power
transformers are used in transmission network of higher voltages for step- up and step
down application (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV) and are generally rated above
200MVA. Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribution networks as
a means to end user connectivity
Why distribution transformers are rated at 25 KVA and 63 KVA?
why distribution transformers are rated exactly at 25 KVA and 63 KVA and 100 KVA?
It's a matter of standardization in engineering. As example, according IEC 60076-1 for
the transformers with rated apparent power under 10MVA, the preferred values are based
on the R10 series (R=Renard) , respectively: 10, 12.5, 16, 20, 25, 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80,
100, and multiples of 10^n. The numbers cover a decade (order of magnitude) in 10 steps
and they represent a geometric series with factor 1.26 (obtained from 10^0.1; finally the
values are rounded) 5.1.2 Preferred values of rated power
For transformers up to 20 MVA, values of rated power should preferably be taken from
the R10 series given in ISO 3:1973, Preferred numbers – series of preferred numbers:
(...100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 315, 400, 500, 630, 800, 1 000, etc.) kVA.
NOTE National practices may be different
It depends on IEC standard but different countries will have a range of rated power. In my
country:
1 phase: 25kVA, 37,5kVA, 75kVA, 100kVA
3 phase: 100kVA, 250kVA, 320kVA, 400kVA, 560kVA, 630kVA, 750kVA, 1000kVA,
etc
What percentage of voltage drop is acceptable?
The NEC recommends that the maximum combined voltage drop for both the feeder and
branch circuit shouldn't exceed 5%, and the maximum on the feeder or branch circuit
shouldn't exceed 3% (Fig. 1). This recommendation is a performance issue, not a safety
issue.
What is difference between UPS & inverter?
UPS is used on general only to backup your system .............. The main intention of it is to
provide backup only for small time so that you can save the programs and
data. Inverters purpose is to provide power backup to total home appliances, lights, fans.
Inverter uses flat plate or tubular battery to store electricity
Can we use UPS as inverter?
Combining UPS Units and Inverters
An inverter with energy storage can be used as a direct power source for less critical loads
such as lighting. UPS loads can remain connected during an extended blackout, and you
can simply recharge the UPS batteries with the inverter output What is UPS and its
function?
(Uninterruptible Power Supply) A device that provides battery backup when the
electrical power fails or drops to an unacceptable voltage level.
Small UPS systems provide power for a few minutes; enough to power
down the computer in an orderly manner, while larger systems have enough battery for
several hours
What are the two main types of uninterruptible power supplies?
There are two major types of online uninterruptible power supply systems: Double
Conversion: In this approach, often used above 10kVA, the AC input is converted to DC
power to charge the battery, and then flows through the inverter, which converts it back
to AC for output

Types of relays installed at

substation Buchle relay

Distance relay.
Distance relay
Which type of relay is used in substation?
Electric Power eTool: Substation Equipment - Relays. A relay is a low-powered device
used to activate a high-powered device. Relays are used to trigger circuit breakers and
other switches in substations and transmission and distribution systems.
What are the different types of relays?
Different Types of Relays
Electromagnetic Relays. These relays are constructed with electrical, mechanical and
magnetic components, and have operating coil and mechanical contacts. ...
Solid State Relays. Solid State uses solid state components to perform the switching
operation without moving any parts. ...
Hybrid Relay. ...
Thermal Relay. ...
Reed Relay
What are different types of substations?
Types of Sub Stations
The different types of substations mainly include Step-up Type Substation, Step-
down Transformer, Distribution, Underground Distribution, Switchyard, Customer
Substation, and System Station
What are the major equipments of a substation?
List of Electrical Substation Equipment :
Instrument Transformers.
Current Transformer.
Potential Transformer.
Conductors.
Insulators.
Isolators.
Busbars.
Lightning Arrestors
What is Relay in PLC?
A relay is used to energize the starter, which, in turn, switches the motor
voltage while the PLC controls the relay. Wired to provide a control sequence,
relays may also be used for simple control schemes where
a PLC would prove uneconomical. Troubleshooting relays can be handled in short
order, without having
What are the 4 main components of a PLC?
PLC components
processor or central processing unit (CPU);
rack or mounting;
input assembly;
output assembly;
power supply;

programming unit, device, or PC/software

Which earthing is used in substation?
The copper products are used typically to provide electricity substation
earthing to medium/high voltage grids containing electrical infrastructure,
cables, switchgear and transformers
What is a grounding grid?
 Grounding grids, also called multipoint grounding systems,
are grounding arrays that electrically ground structures. Applications for
grounding grids include pipelines, substations, transformers, large
motors, computer stations, and high-voltage power lines. .............. They also reduce
mains hum and minimize touch potential
What is the purpose of substation earthing system?
The functions of grounding systems or earth mat in include: To ensure safety
to personnel in substations against electrical shocks. To provide the ground
connection for connecting the neutrals of stat connected transformer winding to
earth ( neutral earthing )
What is the difference between earthing and grounding?
Key Differences Between Grounding and Earthing
In grounding the current carrying part like neutral of the transformer is
directly connected to the ground ...........The grounding balanced the
unbalanced load whereas the earthing protect the equipment and human from an
electrical shock
What is difference between earthing and lightning protection?
On a basic level, the lightning protection system protects the facility and
structure from direct strikes, while SPDs protect electrical equipment and
systems against surges or transients
What is earthing and lightning?
Thank you for your question regarding earthing systems
and lightning protection systems, it is our pleasure to help. ...
An earthing system is a below-grade conductor network designed to allow
electrical energy (from an above-grade network) to transition from the conductor
network into the surrounding native soil (earth)

How can you protect your device from lightning?

Here are four ways to protect your home from lightning:
1. Use a home lightning protection system. ...
2. Unplug electronics and appliances. ...
3. Install transient voltage surge suppressors. ...
4. Check your homeowners and renters insurance coverag
5. Do computers need surge protectors?
6. Although items like coffee pots or alarm clocks can feel like the most important
items to protect in your home, they do not need surge protectors. While it is
beneficial for all electronics to have the protection of a surge protector, only items
that have sensitive microprocessors need surge protectors
7. What is difference between neutral & earthing?
8. Earth is used for the safety of the human body in fault conditions
while Grounding (As neutral earth) is used for the protection of equipments. The
ground conductor provides a return path for fault current when a phase conductor
accidentally comes in contact with a grounded object
9. How can soil resistivity be improved?
10. There are various options to lower soil resistivity. One method is
to increase the moisture content of the soil. Topsoil resistivity may be
reduced 800 ohm-m by increasing the moisture from 5% to 10%. An
 additional reduction in resistivity, although much smaller, can be obtained by
increasing moisture from 10% to 20%
11. What is soil resistivity test?
12. Soil resistivity testing is the process of measuring a volume of soil to determine
the conductivity of the soil. The resulting soil resistivity is expressed in ohm-
meter or ohm-centimeter. Soil resistivity testing is the single most critical factor
in electrical grounding design.
13. How soil resistivity is measured?
14. ρ = the average soil resistivity to depth A in: ohm-cm ............... The
Fluke1625 earth ground tester generates a known current through the two outer
ground stakes and the drop in voltage potential is measured between the two inner
ground stakes. The tester automatically calculates
the soil resistance using Ohm's Law (V=IR).
15. What is the resistance of Earth?
16. The earth resistance mainly implies the resistance between the electrode and the
point of zero potential. Numerically, it is equal to the ratio of the potential of the
earth electrode to the current dissipated by it.
The resistance between the earthing plate and the ground is measured by the
potential fall method.
Earthing of grid
The substation earth grid is used as an electrical connection to earth at zero potential
reference. .... The GPR of a substation under earth fault conditions must be limited so that
step and touch potential limits are not exceeded, and is controlled by keeping the earthing
grid resistance as low as possible
What is step voltage?
"Step voltage" is the voltage between the feet of a person standing near an energized
grounded object. It is equal to the difference in voltage, given by the voltage distribution
curve, between two points at different distances from the "electrode"
Why gravels are used in grid?
But, the Stones or Gravels are used in the Switchyard to decrease the Foot Surface Area.
When the touch surface area decreases the resistance increases. So, the main purpose of
filling Switchyard with Stones/Gravels to provide an extra layer of high resistance and act as
an insulator between our foot and the ground.
Why are stones placed around transformers?
Reasons for using Stones in Substation :
Oil leakage takes place during operation or when changing the oil in
the transformer. This oil spillage which can catch fire is dangerous to the switchyard
operation. So Stones is provided to protect from fire when oil spillage takes place.
What is the purpose of a switchyard?
Switchyard main function is to transmit and distribute the power supply from
generating station at incoming voltage and switch the power supply through
swichgears including circuit breaker, busbar, isolator, relays etc
What is substation grounding?
Answered Jan 17, 2017. The substation grounding system contains of a grid (earth mat)
formed by a horizontal buried conductors. The grounding system
in substation is very important. The functions of grounding systems or earth mat is first to
ensure safety to personnel in substations against electrical shocks.
What does a substation operator do?
A Substation Operator's job is to inspect, operate, and maintain
electrical substations, which contain equipment that transforms electricity from one voltage to another so
that it can be safely used by customers. Put another way: An electrical grid is like a relay race
Do transformers need to be grounded?
Transformers themselves are not and do not have to be grounded. Grounding is mostly used for increased
safety when it comes to appliances utilizing the mains electricity.
You need to be aware though that since by using these transformers you forfit ground protection.
Do transformers need a neutral?
3 Answers. The transformer doesn't manifest neutral: the ground rod does. Or at least
it should, according to electric codes Because the "neutral" is the center tap
of the transformer, at any point the voltage at neutral will be exactly halfway between
the voltages of the "hots"
What does sf6 stand for?
SF6 GAS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SF6 Advantages (1, 2) The electric power industry has been using Sulfur Hexafluoride
(SF6) gas as a dielectric and. insulating material for many years. Its popularity is mainly
due to its unique physical and electrical
What is sf6 used for?
Sulfur hexafluoride, or SF6 as it's usually named, is a heavy, inert, nontoxic and incombustible gas. Its main
uses are as an insulation medium in electrical transmittance systems and electrical distributing devices,
making an inert cover, or simply for
displacing the gas mixtures in metals smelting
Is sf6 safe to inhale?
Higher exposures can cause a build-up of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema), a
medical emergency, with severe shortness of breath. * High exposure can cause
headache, confusion, dizziness, suffocation, fainting, seizures and coma. * Sulfur Hexafluoride may damage
the liver and kidneys.
Single phase and three phase Energy meter working principle?
Three Phase Energy Meter. Definition: The meter which is used for measuring the power
of three phase supply is known as the three phase energy meter. The three phase meter
is constructed by connecting the two single phase meter through the shaft. The total energy
is the sum of the reading of both the elements What is the principle of single phase energy
meter?
Principle: The basic principle of induction type energy meter is electromagnetic
induction. When alternating current flow though two suitably located coils produces
rotating magnetic field which is cut by the metallic disc suspended near to the coils thus
emf induce in the disc which is circulates eddy current in it

What is single phase and 3 phase?

The definition of the three-phase power supply is, the power flows
through three conductors. The single-phase power supply has one distinct wave cycle
whereas; three phase has three distinct wave cycles. Single phase requires the single wire
to connect the circuit whereas; 3-phase needs 3-wires.
Lt Side pe t/f ki kya protection ti.. HT Side pe t/f ki kya protection ti?
HT
Overvtg/undervtg, Earth fault,Surge protection, differential protection
LT
Undervtg, REF protection,Buccholz relay, sudden pressure relay, Overcurrent protection
 What is difference between generator and alternator PDF?
The alternator takes input supply from the stator whereas the generator takes input supply
from the rotor. The armature of an alternator is stationary, and in the case of the generator,
it is rotating. The output EMF of the alternator is variable, and the output voltage of the
generator is constant
Alternator is always used for alternating current generator but Generator can be used for
both
type of generators, Direct current or Alternating currents
 What is the purpose of a capacitor bank?
A Capacitor Bank is a group of several capacitors of the same rating that are connected in
series or parallel with each other to store electrical energy . The resulting bank is then used
to counteract or correct a power factor lag or phase shift in an alternating current (AC)
power supply
 Can capacitor reduce electric bill?
Capacitors just do not contribute to KWH, they take reactors current , or
reactive power ........ In these loads, power capacitors can save energy
bills considerably by improving the power factor, as also reducing line and cable losses
 What is power capacitor?
Power capacitors are passive electronic components that provide a static source of reactive
power in electrical distribution systems. They consist of two conducting plates separated by
an insulating material called the dielectric. Power capacitors are used in: the aerospace and
automotive industries
 Transmission line star connected?why?
bcz less insulation require plus line and phase currents same ... how will u behave with your staff and
how would u set them on work. ................................................. ur management skills,power transformer ki
protection

 Why do transformers need a phase shift?

Basic Principle of Application. Because of the predominantly inductive character of the
power system, an active power flow between source and load must be accomplished with
a phase lag between the terminals. Phase-shifting transformers are a preferred tool to
achieve this goal
Why do we use Delta Star in transformer?
Delta-star connected transformers are widely used in low power distribution with the
primary windings providing a three-wire balanced load to the utility company while the
secondary windings provide the required 4th-wire neutral or

earth connection
 What is tapping and how does it work?
Tapping is a combination of Ancient Chinese Acupressure and Modern Psychology that
works to physically alter your brain, energy system and body all at once. The practice
consists of tapping with your fingertips on specific meridian points while talking through
traumatic memories and a wide range of emotions.
Tapping is done on high voltage side
 What are the tapping points?

Finding the Right Tapping Points

Top of the Head (TH) With fingers back-to-back down the center of the skull.
• Eyebrow (EB) Just above and to one side of the nose, at the beginning of the eyebrow.
• Side of the Eye (SE) ...
• Under the Eye (UE) ...
• Under the Nose (UN) ...
• Chin (Ch) ...
• Collar Bone (CB) ...
• Under the Arm (UA)
• Why tap changer is connected on the HV side?
• The tap changer is placed on high voltage side because: ...
2) Because of high voltage the current through the HV winding is less compared to LV windings, hence
there is less “wear” on the tap changer contacts.
Types of tapping changers There are two types of transformer tap changers: an on-load tap
changer (OLTC) and a deenergised tap changer (DETC). Note that not all transformers
have tap changers. An OLTC varies the transformer ratio while the transformer is energized
and carrying load
Back emf in dc motor? When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the
driving torque, the armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence emf is
induced in them as in a generator. The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied
voltage V (Lenz's law) and is known as Back EMF or Counter EMF (Eb)
 Why back EMF is used in DC motor?
Answer: The induced emf developed when the rotating conductors of the armature
between the poles of magnet, in a DC motor, cut the magnetic flux, opposes the current
flowing through the conductor, when the armature rotates, is called back emf. Its value
depends upon the speed of rotation of the armature conductors
 Is back EMF AC or DC?
This is called the “back emf”. It does not matter whether the motor is an AC or DC
motor, a back EMF is generated that opposes the applied voltage
 What is the use of back EMF?
Back EMF is important for DC motors . During starting , the back emf is zero and very
large current flows through the motor (limited by armature resistance which itself is very
small) , however as the motor picks up speed , the back emf opposes and limit the current
to safe value

 Why Motor is represented by HP?

It is the amount of power that is equivalent to lift a weight of 75Kg to 1 metre in 1 second.
The output power of the motor is mechanical in nature and is measured in HP. In case of a
electric motor, the input power is measured in terms of watts and output power is measured
in terms of HP
 What is HP in motor?
The horsepower (hp) is a unit in the foot-pound-second ( fps ) or English system, sometimes
used to express the rate at which mechanical energy is expended ......... A power level of
1 hp is approximately equivalent to 746 watt s (W) or 0.746 kilowatt s (kW). To convert
from horsepower to watts, multiply by 746
Why induction motors are generally used industries?
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because
they are self-starting, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction
motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans
What is farranti effect,how to reduce it?
Ferranti effect can be reduced by installing shunt compensation devices at receiving end.
The compensation device is a shunt reactor which is connected in parallel with the
transmission line. It reduces the voltage level by absorbing the reactive power. Running the
transmission line with higher load
Ferranti Effect is an increase in voltage occurring at the receiving end of a long
transmission line, above the voltage at the sending end. This occurs when the line is
energized, but there is a very light load or the load is disconnected. What is the cause of
Ferranti effect?
Definition: The effect in which the voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is
more than the sending voltage is known as the Ferranti effect. Such type of effect mainly
occurs because of light load or open circuit at the receiving
end. Ferranti effect is due to the charging current of the line. How
can Ferranti effect be reduced?
Shut Reactor compensation at the receiving end might help
to reduce the effect of Ferranti Effect. Shunt Reactor absorbs the excess reactive power
generation during no load / light load condition and thus helps in stabilizing the voltage of
Transmission Line