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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.1

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2. Micromechanics - Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.

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2. Micromechanics

2.1. Introduction
In the field of composite material, micromechanics
is about mechanics at the level of the constituents,
i.e. the fibre, the matrix and possibly the interface.
This can be used for example to study the stress-
strain situation around a fibre under different
loading conditions in order to understand the failure
behaviour of composites.
In our case, we will concentrate on fig. 2.1: Fibre-matrix scale
micromechanical models, which are built in order
to find a relation between the properties of the constituents and that of the
composite layer. These models allow the designer to evaluate the combination of
different constituents. Another important aspect is that of “understanding
composites”.
The first part of this chapter is dedicated to the relation between the constituents
volume and mass fraction. Then, two methodologies giving expressions for in-
plane mechanical properties are discussed. A numerical example is also given.
This chapter shows that although convenient and helpful, these models should be
used in conjunction with some experimental work. Experimental data of the
constituents is necessary as input to the models, but also to validate the model
results.

2.2. Weight and volume fraction.

The relative content of the constituents is mostly quoted as a volume content or
fraction (of fibres for example). Whatever the amount of constituents, we have:
n
Vi
∑v
i =1
i = 1 with vi =
Vc
(2.1)

where vi is the volume fraction of the ith constituent,

Vi is the volume of the ith constituent,
Vc is the total volume of the composite.
The constituents considered are fibres (subscript f), matrix (m) and voids (v).
Although micromechanics equations are mostly based on volume content,
measurement of constituent content is often based on mass fractions. The mass
content of matrix and fibres (weight of voids is neglegted) follow a similar rule as
the volume fractions:
n
M
∑
i =1
mi = 1 with mi = i
Mc
(2.2)

Substituting the product of density ρ and volume for mass for each constituents
gives:
n
ρ c = ∑ ρ i vi (2.3)
i =1

The density can also be obtained as a function of mass by substituting the quotient
of mass by density for volume in equation (2.1), this gives:
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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.2

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2. Micromechanics - Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.

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1
ρc = n

∑ (m
(2.4)
i / ρi )
i =1

Using the same substitution, it is possible to calculate the void fraction from
equation (2.1):
M f  Mm 
 ρ + ρ m 
 f  
vv = 1 − (2.5)
Mc
ρc

Typical values:
The packing (or distribution) of fibres within a
composite cannot be described. As shown in fig.
2.2, the distribution of fibres is unhomogeneous. In
order to build micromechanical models, simplifying
assumptions are made on the packing of fibres. The
most simple packing is the square packing as shown
in fig. 2.3.
fig. 2.2: Typical composite
cross-section micrograph

fig. 2.3: Square packing of fibre.

It is fairly straightforward to find an expression between the fibre volume fraction

vf of such a square packing, the fibre diameter d, and the distance between fibre s:
π d 
2

vf =   (2.6)
4s
An other typical packing is the triangular (fig. 2.4)

fig. 2.4 : Triangular packing of fibre.

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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.3

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2. Micromechanics - Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.

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The fibre volume fraction can then be written as:

π d 
2

vf =   (2.7)
2 3s
Maximum packing is obtained in both packing models for d=s. It gives in the case
of square packing vf-max=0.79, and for the triangular packing 0.91.
In the practice, fibre volume fraction for composite based on unidirectional layers
can be found in the range 0.5 to 0.8.
An other remark concerns the void content. Typical autoclave (pressure+vacuum)
cured composite products have voids content varying from 0.1 to 1%. Pressure
bag (no vacuum) cured composites can have voids content in the order of 5%.

2.3 Mec hanics of materi a l approach

As was quoted in the introduction, this insight into micromechanics for
composites will be restricted to unidirectional layers. The “mechanics of material”
approach provides the simplest micromechanical equations for the in-plane
elasticity moduli E1, E2 and G12. No attention is paid to the type of fibre packing.
The composite is therefore considered as homogeneous. A block of composite
containing fibre and matrix as show in fig. 2.5 is simplified to block containing
two volumes. These two
volumes are connected
together and represent f
m
the matrix (m) and the
3
fibre (f) with their
2
respective properties
1
and volume fractions.
An elasticity modulus is fig. 2.5: Representative matrix and fibre volume elements
then obtained by
performing a simple experiment, where the two representative volumes are
subjected to an average stress. Poisson effects are neglected.

2.3.1 Longitudinal modulus

The longitudinal modulus is obtained by
considering the matrix (m) and fibre (f) σ1 f σ1
representative element in parallel, and by m
applying an average stress along the 1-axis as
shown in fig. 2.6 (model of Voigt). It can be 3
2
shown from strain energy approach that the strain
induced ε1 is uniform for both fibre and matrix 1
volume elements. If the areas of the fibre and fig. 2.6: Basic experiment for the
matrix volumes on which the stress is applied are longitudinal modulus.
(Voigt’s model)
called Af and Am respectively, the following
relation can be written:
σ 1 A = σ m Am + σ f A f (2.8)
Using equation (2.1) applied to areas, we obtain:
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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.4

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2. Micromechanics - Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.

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σ 1 = σ m vm + σ f v f (2.9)
It is now assumed that both fibre and matrix behave in a linear elastic way, and
that the matrix is isotropic and is characterised by the elasticity modulus Em. The
fibre is assumed orthotropic (important in case carbon or aramid fibre are
considered) and is therefore characterised by a longitudinal modulus Ef1 and a
transverse modulus Ef2. Poisson strains are neglected. With these assumptions, the
equation (2.9) can further be developed as:
E1ε 1 = Emε m vm + E f 1ε f v f (2.10)
It was earlier assumed that the strain was equal for both volumes and therefore:
E1 = Em vm + E f 1v f (2.11)
This relation is called the rule of mixture for the longitudinal modulus. As will be
shown later on basis of comparison with experimental data, the Voigt’s model
provides, and is generally known as an adequate prediction for predicting the
longitudinal modulus.

2.3.2 Transverse modulus

The transverse modulus is obtained by σ2
considering the matrix (m) and fibre (f)
representative element in series. An average f
stress is applied along the 2-axis as shown in
m
fig. 2.7 (model of Reuss). The total 3 σ2
deformation is the sum of the deformations 2
occurring on the two volumes. This can be 1
expressed in terms of strain: fig. 2.7: Basic experiment for the
transverse modulus.
(Reuss model)

ε 2 L = ε m Lm + ε f L f (2.12)
where L m and Lf are the lengths of the matrix and fibre volumes. Using equation
(2.1) applied to the volume lengths, we obtain:
ε 2 = ε m vm + ε f v f (2.13)
Here again we assume that the 1D Hooke’s law applies. Equation (2.13) can
further be developed as:
σ 2 σ m vm σ f v f
= + (2.14)
E2 Em Ef2
From the series volume arrangement, the stress in matrix, fibre and the composite
are equal, an expression for the transverse elasticity modulus E2 is obtained:
1 v v
= m + f (2.15)
E2 Em E f 2
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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.5

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2. Micromechanics - Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.

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This relation is often called the inverse rule of mixture. Note again that the fibre
transverse modulus should be used. This equation is generally known as being
inadequate for predicting the transverse modulus. This is due to the fact the
assumption made on the equality of the stress in the matrix and the fibre in the
volume-in-series model is not valid in a real composite. This can be shown on
basis of strain energy approach. A second reason for the inaccuracy of models for
the transverse modulus composite based on orthotropic fibre (carbon and aramid)
is that the fibre transverse modulus is difficult to measure (and has actually never
directly been measured). Quoted values for the transverse modulus of fibres are
actually derived from the comparison between micromechanical model results and
experiments. The same actually applies for the shear modulus of these orthotropic
fibres.

The Reuss model can be improved by simply σ2

adding a matrix volume in parallel to the series
model as shown in fig. 2.8. This geometrical
model is an approximation of a square fibre m
packing. This result in the following equation: f
3 σ2
2
1
fig. 2.8: Parallel-series model for
the transverse modulus.

v f Em E f 2
E 2 = (1 − v f ) E m + (2.16)
v f E m + v f (1 − v f ) E f 2

2.3.3 Shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio.

For the shear modulus, a similar approach similar to that, which led to the
expression of the transverse modulus, is used. Assuming equal shear stresses in
fibres and matrix, the following equations is obtained.
1 v vf
= m + (2.17)
G12 Gm G f 12
For the same reasons as for the transverse modulus, this equation is not very
accurate. The Poisson’s ratio can be derived form the following rules of mixture:
ν 12 = ν m vm + ν f 12 v f (2.18)
This equation is known to be accurate enough for design purposes.

2.4 Se mi-e mpi ric al models

These models are mostly based on a mechanics of material solution. However
they contain curve-fitting parameters in order to match experimental results or
elasticity solution. The Tsai-Hahn equations for example, use similar assumptions
as the inverse rule of mixture (2.15), but adds a "stress partitioning factor η" in
order to take into account the mismatch in stress in the fibre and in the matrix. The
Tsai-Hahn equation for the transverse modulus is:
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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.6

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1 1  v f η ⋅ vm 
=  +  (2.19)
E 2 v f + η ⋅ vm  E f 2 Em 

This equation gives for η=1 the inverse rule of mixture. A similar equation can be
written for the shear modulus.
Other widely used equations are the Halpin-Tsai equations, which for the
transverse modulus are:
E2 1 + ξ ⋅ η ⋅ v f E f 2 − Em
= , with η = (2.20)
Em 1 −η ⋅ v f E f 2 + ξ ⋅ Em
where ξ is the curve fitting parameter. It is worth noting that giving ξ the value 0
gives the inverse rule of mixture (2.15). It was shown that using ξ=2 gives similar
results as more complex elasticity solutions. Replacing Ei by Gi in equation (2.20)
gives the Halpin-Tsai equation for the shear modulus. A curve fitting parameter
of 1 is mostly used.

See also on the Production Technology web-site for a program (U20mm)

calculating the thermo-mechanical propoerties of unidirectional layers, as well as
different fabric types. Not only mechanics of materials based procedures are
included, but also elasticity solutions (CCA). A document reviewing this method
is also available on this site.

http://www.pt.ctw.utwente.nl/organisation/tools/

2.5 Examp l e:
An example is given, based on a unidirectional carbon reinforced Polyetherimide
(PEI) having the following constituents properties:

Ef1 Ef2 Gf12 Gf23 νf12 νf23 αf1 αf2 ρf

Carbon (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (m/m.oC) (m/m.oC) (kg/m3)

230 141 9 4 0.2 0.25 -0.7x10 -6 5.6x10 -6 1760

PEI Em Gm
νm αm ρm
(GPa) (GPa) (/ oC) (kg/m3)

3 1.1 0.35 57 x 10 -6 1270

table 2.1: Linear elastic thermomechanical properties of the Torayca T300 carbon fibre, and the
Ultem1000 PEI.
The matrix mass content of the composite obtained with these components is
mm = 41.4%, as measured by desolving the matrix of several composite specimen
in Choroform. The corresponding fibre volume fraction is vf = 51%, The measured
in-plane properties can be found in table 2.2. The measured longitudinal modulus
compares very well with the rule of mixture (119 GPa). The transverse modulus
according to different models are given in table 2.3.

1
Comes as well as Gf12 from R.F. Gibson's Principle of Composite Material Mechanics book.
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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.7

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2. Micromechanics - Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.

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carbon-PEI E1 (GPa) E2 (GPa) G12 (GPa)

Experimentally: 120 7.8 3.5
table 2.2: Measured unidirectional Carbon-PEI in-plane properties

carbon-PEI E2 (GPa)
Experimentally: 7.8
Inverse rule of mixture (2.15) 5.0
Parallel-series model (2.16) 7.7
Halpin-Tsai ξ=2 6.5
Halpin-Tsai ξ=10 7.85
table 2.3: Different models for the transverse modulus
The results obtained from the different models are set in graph form as a function
of the fibre volume fraction. The experimental value is also marked as a reference.
1.6E+10

1.4E+10

1.2E+10
experimental value
1.0E+10
E 2 (Pa)

8.0E+09

6.0E+09

4.0E+09

2.0E+09

0.0E+00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
vf
Inverse rule of mixture Parallel-series model
Halpin-Tsai x=2 Halpin-Tsai, x=10

fig. 2.9: Composite transverse modulus as a function of the fibre volume fraction.

It is clear from fig. 2.9 that the inverse rule of mixture does not apply to the
carbon-PEI considered. In a less extent, a similar conclusion can be drawn for the
Halpin-Tsai having ξ=2. The parallel-series model and Halpin-Tsai with ξ=10
both give a good approximation of the composite's transverse modulus. As
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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.8

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2. Micromechanics - Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.

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discussed earlier, these models are dependent on the value chosen for the fibre's
transverse modulus. One should therefore be careful when drawing conclusion.
An other remark is that the parallel-series model and Halpin-Tsai with ξ=10 do
not follow the same trend as a function of the fibre volume fraction.
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Composites Course 2008-2009 – University of Twente, Eng. & Tech. 2.9

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2. Micromechanics - Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.

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2.6 Proble ms:

2.1 Derive equation (2.16)
2.2 Find in the literature expressions for the longitudinal and transverse
coefficients of thermal expansion α1 and α2 as a function of de components
properties.