Complex numbers WHAT ARE NUMBERS? ‘You should be familise with some umber systems such as the natural numbers, integers, rational mambers and veal numbers. Nenrmmbeen= 1, 2,3, 4 Integers: Z = 2-2-9042 ? Ratioral umber @= f Frachin , wine mt aye valor 80 Real numbers: R - Different mumber systems are useful for different purposes Number system | Useful for ufos ; +) x No shh b x13 2 7 lo mip = 4,5 v. Jad dr=l Rerde 7 nth o feck @ $y oe KS CPitlogsai tart) | eee rr : = And we wl oon se y Campion | ate aoe, mbes | FLUS None ofthe shove! quae root, lh 008 Salving polmomislequons Is thete any reason to stop at complex numbers? % Complermmbrs 1s‘But ate there other number systems beyond complex numbers? ROUGH IDEA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS Example 1: Solving x? + 1 = 0. Suppose wet to solve the equsion 2° +1 0, or equivalently, x? The menorea mmbersohins: yr on fo! x, «722 9 * #-] [Now we'lle botat ll ivert anew number and introduce ito the number system. ‘This new number is called {andi is defined to bea square root of ~1. Thats, So is solution of he equation x? + 1 = 0. ‘Are there any oer solutions tothe equation x2 + ‘What is (—i)??, Ci) = Fbxi)> Gl) «it = So thee ae wo square rots of~2, namely (and ~i ‘With complex numbers, the fre solutions ofthe equation 2 +1=0 are Solving x? —2x+5= 0. ‘we ute the quadratic formula Example ‘To solve the equation x? -2x+ So “Thorefore the solutions are xeLt21-2i Compl mambrs 158WHAT IS A COMPLEX NUMBER? Definition: A complex mamber iva number ofthe form xtyl ‘Note: The definition ofcomplex numbers uses the definition of real numbers. Complex numbers ae defined in terms ofreal numbers ‘The set of complex numbers is denoted €, Thus in set notation, Ez yxty uy ER We often write 2 to denote complex number, axtyh ‘We sy that x isthe real part of 2 andy is the imaginary part of Werwrite & Bamples + 2431 isa complex number with weal part 2 and imaginary part 3: ReQtIW=2, and Im+3)=3. 3.7 ~ 1, then 2 complex number such that Re (2 band im(@= ~ ‘+ The number LS 1s. complex number with rel part and imaginary part — | Re(-15)= C) and Im(-15)= 12, thee 2is« complex number such that Re()= | ad Im@)= Compl mumbars 3‘Things to note eshaps surprisingly, the imaginary par of a complex numbers not an imaginary ‘number! The imaginary part Im(z) of a complex number 2s «real number. For instance, lm (151) = ~1.5, not 1.5 The imaginary part doesnot include ‘Complex numbers 2 which have real part zero, ie. Re (2) = 0 ike are often called imaginary ot pure imaginary numbers. 15 Labove, Imaginary numbers area subset ofthe complex numbers ‘Complex numbers 2 which have imaginary pat 2r0, ie, Im (2) = O, like z= 12 above, sre alsoknowmat 1 ‘The eal numbers R form a subset of the complex numbers C, A remark on notation: ‘The number { is sometimes written differently. It is sometimes writen as j. This is more common in engincering. So 1-31, 1-3) both represent the complex number with ral part and imaginary part 3. Complex numbers 4GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION Since a complex number 2 = x + yl involves two real numbers x and y, we ean represent a ‘complex number graphically in1vo dimension, on the Cartesian plane, ‘The complex number z = x-+ yl eorresponds tothe point (x,y) in the plane. ‘When the planes sod to represent complex numbers in this way, itis often called the complex plane ore Argand plene.' Iti common to call he horizontal axisthe real evs, and the vertical ‘xis the Imaginary axis Imaginary axis & Represent graphically the complex numbers -1 +21, 053, ~4~3 and PA 35231 Properties of complex numbers now translate into geometric properties. For instance, the real 1umbers are precisely the complex numbers which correspond to points ‘onthe real axis! Similarly, the imaginary numbers corespond precisely to the imaginary axis. Complex mmber property Geomerie property “Relmumber R Timaginary number Relpet > "y-cooediae i eCOMPLEX CONJUGATES ach complex number ha a cosiugate complex number. Definition: The conjugate ofthe complex number x + yt ‘The conjugate of zis writen as © Examples + The conjugate of 2+ 3iis + Theconjugt of ~31is +The conugate of Sis Sie - 5 + The conjugate of 66 C Tn general, we can wate yw Equivalently. Iz=xtyl then ‘The conjugate ofa real number is ‘The conjugate of an imaginary numberis Comper manbersWe will see Inter haw somplex conjugates am important ‘What is the graphical lationship between 2 and #2 ‘Taking the conjugate of a complex number corresponds to pellecha in 4 ARITHMETIC WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS Addition / subtraction ‘The sum and difference of two complex numbers are defined by adding or subtract real parts and ther imaginary par ‘Treat the ike any other pronumeral. ga: GrHrQ+mH=e 26 QELS ZT > Qe + Gesn-@e7= (2 ‘What happens when we ad a complex number to its conjugate? G) Woaris (2430 + (=2FHY Se feast) + (Cd Qsde+ -2-, 4 QA f Bs x-y Comper mbox to4E bel!Multiplication ‘The product of complex numbers is defined sing the usual distributive hows ad he fae at Pea. ‘Treat {again like an ordinary pronumeral, but remember that = —1. > led = GHMRQK (— [RE + [OL - 36-8 Ifyou repeatedly multiply the mimber {by itself, something interesting happens... it repeats! & Finda rule for 1", 0,1,2,3, 450:‘When you multiply a complex number by is conjugate, what happens? Byres c-waru (5 4) BE4c)= BIE (V- EME = Tele = wll, (3-4) Be Fi)? 2 (4) = DA- Mb Gt + ys then whats 2 ? S% 22: (xty)G-y) 2X - gi ‘The produet of a complex number and its conjugate is areal number! Ite =x-+yi then a= xt+y? = [Re(e)l + (Im@P. Division ‘To divide two comples numbers we can use te above fet about complex conjugates af = [Ree)P + [ime P ‘To perform te diviscn of two complex numbers we multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator. “The proces is similarto “rationalising the denominator” Compl mumbors °4 THckior examples ‘Simplify the following expressions eee oe Compl mums 10EQUATIONS INVOLVING COMPLEX NUMBERS “Two complex numbers are equal oly if their corresponding eal and imaginary parts are equal So, foe real numbers o,b, c,d, a-bi = etd! ifandonlyi€ a=e and b=d Solve forthe real numbers x and y: (2-+3iX1+i)=: 3 By expandingthelefthand side wehave 3 6 OL = 4-3 + AH) a3 Now weequatethereal pats: and the imaginary pats: 2 Compl anders uWHY DO WE CARE ABOUT COMPLEX CONJUGATES? So far weve sen sme inten and sucsng propre of complex conjugates The sum of complex ninber and its conjugates lvays el mumbo ee @+s0+@rM= (203)4 (LP ID= 7 +The produ of complex munber nd is conjugatis vay real mambo. ee @san@F@= (243) (23) = Ve S- | ‘+ This propery of conjugates can be used to rationalise (“es you divide eomplex numbers Bede" op so oe ‘A further interesting property arses from solving equations, asthe next example shows Find all solutions tothe quadratic equation x? + 2x +5 = 0. Well curplee (% Gaps (a4 Sothetwosolutonsare: Ly | “The two solutions are complex conjugates. “This is nota coincidence, When you solve similar equations, you always get solutions which are complex conjugates. This isthe eonugate root theorem. ee a we wish to solve an equation pCR) = 0, where p@) is@ ‘Conjugate root theorem: Suppo polynomial with rea! number coefficients, {Cx isa complex nuraber solution ofthe equation, then Zs also a solution. o. _| Inthe above example, we solved x? + 2x +2 = 0,80 p(x) = x7 + 2x47. 4+ 21 sasolution, we know immediately by the conjugate root theorem, ‘ust also be a solution.COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM So far we have always writen a complex number z in the form 2 = x + by. ‘This is known as Cartan form, because x,y are like Cartesian coordinates. Indeed, inthe ‘complex plane, (x,y) atthe coordinates ofthe point corresponding to 2, Imaginary axis Real axis ‘But points in the plane can also be described in terns of polar coordinates, and similar, ‘complex numbers canbe written in polar form. Polar coordinates descbe a point inthe plane by giving ts ‘+ distance from te origin rand = lvetion fom ihe origin 6. “The angle 0 is advected angle, measured aniclockwise from the positive real axis to = he anticlockwise direction is aid to be the positive direction for this angle. ‘According to the diagram, the relationship between (xy) and (6) is given by ra mt ye 6 sah “The polar form of the complex number 2—x +i is z= (cos@ +isind) Itis common to abbreviate this expression 0 a=resé Inengineering the ntation 2 = r 0 is also used. Complermonbers 1B“The polar coordinates rand @ have special names and notations. ‘+r scaled the modulus o absolute value or length ofthe complex number = and is writen as [2 +O iscalled the argumentof the complex number z and i written as arg(z) or Arg(2) [Below we discuss the diference between arg and Arg. In engineering the notation ph(2) (phase of 2 is also used. “The argument of a complex numbers always measured in radians Converting complex numbers from Cartesian to polar form Above we saw tha to we can wite x,y in terms of 7,8 as x= rcos8, yersing. ‘We can also writer, 8 in terms of x, To do this, examine theright-angled triangle from the ‘Argand plane: Hence and tang = 2 © Examples Locate 1+ on an Argand diagram and waite iin polar frm. Complex mers “4“+ Write he complex mumber ~7 in polar form. ce [-al F & =9 oe tte eget of eomples umber ications ‘Theargunentof=7iew ..Orisit-n70r yp 7 Sv) 3 In fact, we can ad orsubtract 2 othe argument of «complex number z, andthe result still valid value for arg(z). Thus for example arg) =n Sm Bm Sw ‘To avoid ambiguity, the value of arg (2) in the interval (—.] is called the principal argument ofz It is written as Arg (2). So we have exg(z) = Arg (2)+2ne, where nis an integer. Ae (-1) 27° Compl umbers 15‘What's the best way'to calculate he argument ofa given complex number? Always drew a piture fist! ‘Remember argument is measured anttockwise from the reat axis! Locate the complex number and determine its quadrant. ‘Use trigonometty in an appropiate right-angled triangle (ote: Ifyou use arctan, emember than arctan x always lies between 1 and) 23 i, find find arg (z) and Arg (2), and write 2 in in polar form. wa ce feeanil = [lantConverting complex numbers from polar to Cartesian form ‘Converting ftom polar to Cartesian form is easier than the other direction: just remember that cis 8 = cos8 + ising [QY * Bote cweintom 208 (at eae onm Arden «Find the Catsian form of cis (~%8, and locate it onan Arzand diagram. (=)) , Multiplication and division in polar form “When we multiply together complex numbers in polar form, something suprising happens! # Let 2) = 7.088) and 2 = Ty 8, ‘What s the prodit ofthese two complex numbers? Bw=Hh GO ow & ‘ a) EG) coli ha eis Rf o | = ite ( ceslOrn) +i Sa (0,40) ) zng es (1 &) Therefor lads op, mda A=) tO v Compe manborsTherefore lzzel= C0 andarg (@aza)= Taare 0; and FT cs Oy then am = nines (8, + 8) Another way of understanding ti is that, when you multiply two complex numbers, lengths ‘multiply and angles ada. In other words: ‘The absolute value ofthe produet isthe product ofthe absolute values lel = Lal lel ‘The argument ofthe products ihe sum of the arguments arg (2:22) = arg (a) + arg (22) Na+ Fi and # = vs excaapl = 8 # Ifz = ris in polar frm, what is Notetnt Jat [= [2-4] [> 1 sowetave And ang @ +278(2)= 20 ( Let 2, = nets @, and 2 = rp cis. Whatis = in polar form? 18 Laas e 4 (& Tq =n 86, and % =F; 080, then Be Basa 0) Compl numbers 187) Given 2, = 2cis (8) and z= 3 cls (3) find 2.25 ands 2% 2 LaF 3a (3) 6 w(%-%) a = « (£-(%) xa(t) = % et on ein te le et me a(pa@- o (%2)= «(%) Lv BR Gis 5278 ea ao We chin tet lle kler ad ay @)+-ay 22-8 vn nu = rae) 19COMPLEX NUMBERS IN EXPONENTIAL FORM We have leamed the meaning of e* for eal values of x. Can we define &* for « complex number 2=1-+ 1? Using inex laws this shouldbe equal to © isalready defined, so itonly remains to define 97, where y is eal [gums out that 9! = cosy + isiny “Thus, is what we already know as cls y- The above is known as Euler's formula, So ety xy x Weve [et*2!]= and mec y= 6 g Express in por and in Cartesian form: ‘A-complex number re"® is said 1 be in exponential form. “Important: When using the exponential fom of a complex umber, the argument must always ‘be measured in radians. Camps murs 20“Important: When using exponential form, the argument must always be measured in radians. [Express the number —1 in exponential form: “This result a famous formula: “Express the fllowing complex numbers in exponential fo + mie Relee™ | 2 fe fee (ood +i) | comple mubersQ Bepress 2 in exponential form and find its real part. Free peaies aap oper Bd tas Wee ) t (2-1) J. ( et a ee fin te [S| Pe be POWERS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS iehociem iat mare, md tence ten name, OD So if z=reis0 webave Benz= rap xe Barer ceuOx ro ~ FOU © fereers ct cy 4 andi genera, . , ce” cs (ne) 712,364 ED " + themodules of =is p= theargumentof zis. > ‘This result is known as De Moivre’s theorem: S os (4%) A + (Gees! = 1 os % ‘tis much easier to find powers of complex numbers if these ae expressed in polar form. 2 ComplerrunbersTn &Q Find (14 i)* and express it in Cartesian form. a First wk iin pal fom gl First ee jes. [ode oO) 2% wk hoe wk An nits (& 0%) = (BY oF) 4a 2 t lexis t) AQ vind (GE) ant exrssitin casino Negative powers Iz =rels@ and = 1,2, 3,4. what is 2" 7 Cpls rumbrs 2Graphical interpretation of integer powers of complex numbers Given 2= 144, draw 2, 2%, 2, 24, onthe complex plane and observe the pattem. @ ew emp od bys bs me df . a (#) on the complex plane, Do you observe pattern? Saw b: [His BosROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS How do we calculate ¥/F fora complex number 2? For example, how do we find YIFT ? ‘We need to find a complex number w so that Graphically: [Now symbolically: ¥v ‘Weknow that if w isexpressed in polar form, that is, 2= ris @, then w* = 7? cis (2) ‘So we need to find ard @ such that Ae Pas@yaiti = J2 ‘therefore both modulus and argument mst be the same: ym ‘So we obtain the square root_w =r eis = However this is nt the only square root! Remember the argument i ambiguous, so infact aomargtied= | eee gre a agnet = 4h. Inconsusion, 1+1 tas) distne sgn roois, namely 2 conplammics §— HS us Kd TYR wsTnconclusion, 147 has 2 xine queereciyneely “fi ce Tod ‘The graphical location ofthese roots Q Find the square oots cf = = 4/, and position them on an Argand diagram. Fis! unk 2 1 ply fim 2-4a % ts and beyond ‘Gabe roots of complex nurabes can be found by a similar method. However, as the following ‘ramps demonstrate, a complex number has ree distinct eube rots This is very diferent fom feal mumbers Ina similar way, complex number has four fourth rons five ffl roots, and in general .7"th roots, for any positive integer a. They ean be found by the same method. Comptes mambersIna similar way, «complex number ha fou fourth roots, five fh root, and in general rth roots, for any poitve tegen. They aa Be found by the stme meth! Find the eube roots of 1, draw them on an Argand diagram, and express them in Cartesian and polar form. de tao pus Ge sw ke wera © ea Bret fo ere) va, wee on 5 om idlerLOCI AND SUBSETS OF THE COMPLEX PLANE ‘Atocus is set of points which satisty a certain property. The plural of lous i oc. ‘Sometimes iis useful to consider regions or curves inthe complex plan, For example, the circle centred tthe origin! zero with radius 3 can also be deseribed asthe fet (or locus) of all complex numbers z such that [2] = 3. We write this as («ll = 3) ‘Sketch the following loc of the complex plane {e}2- M3) Complex runbers 2B(2: 2 , ? 6. ‘True or false: the complex mumber 1~ 31 lies in the third quadrant of the complex plane 7 1, Tre or fle: fr any complex number z,ifyou write dawn powers of zie zz! 2 2h, the sequence eventually peat Fale “Tuy ome] 8, Truc or false ifyou write down the powers of. (0209, the sequence eventually repeats oo as 9, Tras or fle ery complex umber has 3 ce rots Tie,[ guided gu cut Ke ak . — melee Lie fecal Comper monbers a