Week 11

Objectives:
● Describe the general features that are associated with the development of an
immune response
● Differentiate between a eukaryotic cell and a prokaryotic cell
● Describe the bacterial cell structures and some of their functions

MCQ
1. Which of the following is considered part of the secondary lymphoid organs?
a. Bone Marrow
b. Spleen
c. Thymus
d. Kidney
2. Why are lymph nodes important for the immune system?
a. They are where lymphocytes mature
b. They are where lymphocytes are produced
c. They give antigens and adaptive immune cells a better chance to meet
d. Because they are one of the primary lymphoid organs - they are part of the
secondary lymphoid organs
3. Which “flavour” of immunoglobulin is found beneath epithelial surfaces?
a. IgG
b. IgM
c. IgA
d. IgE - good way to remember is ‘E’ for ‘Epithelial’
4. Gram positive bacteria:
a. Have a thin peptidoglycan layer -thick*
b. Have lipopolysaccharide in their cell walls -characteristic of gram negative
bacteria
c. Become purple after gram staining -pink/red if gram negative
d. May not form heat resistant endospores -they may
5. Normal Flora:
a. Are pathogenic -only as opportunistic pathogens
b. Are found on internal tissues -found on surface tissues
c. Are commensalistic or mutualistic
d. Exclude the transient flora -includes transient and resident flora
6. What is the primary function of fimbriae?
a. Prevention of phagocytosis
b. Cell motility
c. Secretion of slime layer
d. Adhesion
7. Which of the following is FALSE about Prokaryotes?
a. Have a single circular chromosome
b. Haploid
c. Divide by binary fission
d. Have membrane bound organelles
8. Which is of the following is not a method of genetic recombination?
 a. Transformation -cell lyses and releases free DNA that is taken up by a
recipient cell
b. Sporulation -asexual reproduction like binary fission
c. Conjugation -chromosome or plasmid transfer through direct cytoplasmic
contact between the donor and recipient cell
d. Transduction -virus injecting DNA picked up from a previous host

SA

1. Fill in the table to compare the three major differences between eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells.

EUKARYOTIC PROKARYOTIC
Structure of ● several chromosomes prokaryotic nuclear material not surrounded by
nucleus ● diploid (2 copies of each a membrane
chromosome) ● single circular chromosome
● mitosis/meiosis (exceptions exist)
● haploid
● binary fission

Intracellular membrane bound cellular organelles no membrane bound organelles

organelles e.g. mitochondria, chloroplasts, golgi
apparatus

Cell wall plant cells have a cell wall made of many unique compounds in bacterial cell walls
structure cellulose ● peptidoglycan
● Lipopolysaccharides
● D-amino acids

2. What are the components of a bacteria’s flagella and what is its

function?
Flagella are appendages extending from a bacteria’s surface>
These enable the cell to flee from harmful chemicals or cells
and move towards favourable, nutrient rich environments. The
flagella consists of 3 parts:
Long thin filament – whip-like shaft (approximately 20nm in
diameter) that extends into the environment. Consists of
flagellin protein monomers.
Hook – Curved protein structure at the base of the filament
which consists of different protein subunits.
– A series of protein rods and rings which anchor the filament
and hook to the cell wall. Forms the molecular motor that drives
bacteria movement.
3. What are the direct and indirect forms of disease transmission?

4. How do bacteria evade phagocytosis?

 Secrete toxins to destroy the phagocytic cell EG Staphylcoccus aureus
release haemolysin
 Prevent opsonisation by:
o Blocking compliment activation
o Blocking antibody binding
o Coating themselves with a host protein
o Producing a protective capsule

 Survive in the phagocyte by preventing the maturation of phagolysosome.

This stops the phagosome from acidifying and allows the bacteria to escape
toxic lysosomal components. EG Salmonella Typhimurium
 Produce catalase to prevent respiratory burst EG Salmonella Typhimurium
prevents assembly of NADPH oxidase
 Survive in the phagocyte by escaping into the cytoplasm before toxic
lysosomal contents are released EG Shigella spp.

5. What are the stages of the bacteria pathogenesis process?

1) Exposure
2) Adherence
3) Penetration/Invasion
 4) Colonisation and growth
5) Cell and tissue damage

6. What is the Baltimore virus classification system?

The Baltimore classification system is used to categorise viruses based on their
genetic contents (DNA or RNA).

7. What are the steps of Influenza A replication?

1) Attachment via haemagglutinin (HA) to sialic acid receptors on the host cell
2) Entry into the cell within endosomes and release of genome
3) Synthesis of +ssRNA from genetic -ssRNA
4) Synthesis of viral proteins
5) Synthesis of new copies of -ssRNA
6) Assembly of new virions at the plasma membrane
7) Neuraminidase (NA) triggers release of virions by cleavage of sialic acid.
8. What are the steps of HIV replication?
1. Attachment of
the virus to the
host cell
2. Entry into the
host cell
3. Synthesis of
viral genomes and
proteins (using
reverse
transcriptase)
4. Assembly of
new viral particles
(virions)
5. Release of
virions from the
host cell

9. Draw the bacterial cell

structure and describe the
functions of its features…
 ● Cell wall — maintains shape, provides strong structural support, attachment,
contribute to pathogenicity, protect from toxic substances, site of action of some
antibiotics, imposed of peptidoglycan
● Flagella — propels the cell and enables motility, made up of 3 parts (long thin
filament, hook, basal body)
● Plasma membrane — selectively permeable (controls passages of substances
into and out), composed if lipids and proteins, absolutely requirement, functions
in energy production by harvesting light energy in photosynthetic prokaryotes
● Cytoplasm
● Nuclear material — DNA = chromosomal (some have 1 linear chromosome,
some have more than 1, carries the necessary genes required for bacterial
maintenance and growth) and plasmid (linear, circular, double-stranded DNA
molecules capable of independent existence and replication quite separate from
the chromosome, inherited by progeny)
● Ribosomes
● Spores and endospores
● Capsule
● Granular structures
● Fimbriae — shorter and more numerous than flagella, not involved in motility,
not in all bacteria, primary role is adhesion (allow bacteria to adhere to
mammalian cells)
● Pili — longer than fimbriae, shorter than flagella, typically only 1-10 present in
bacteria that have them, conjugation pilus (sex pilus)

10. Describe the role of normal flora using examples.

● They prevent colonisation by potential pathogens through competition.
○ For example, gut bacteria ferment unused energy substrates, preventing
potential pathogens from settling in. Vaginal lactobacilli are another example;
they create an acidic environment providing growth of other potential
inhabitants.
● Metabolism of nutrients in GIT - can aid in digestion
● Metabolism of drugs - enterohepatic recycling/metabolism
 11. Compare bacteria and archaea…
Similarities Differences

● Vary in shape and size ● 16S rRNA shows distinct differences

● Nucleoid material is not membrane
bound (there are exceptions)
● Common cell organisation
● Single celled
● 4 basic shapes:
○ Spheres
○ Rods
○ Spirals
○ Commas
● Conserved genes for replication,
transcription and translation
● Common metabolism genes
● Archaea are capable of
methanogenesis (bacteria are not)
● Different plasma membrane
structures
● Bacteria have a cell wall which
contains peptidoglycan (archaea
lack peptidoglycan and have unique
membrane lipids)

Extension Qs

1. List all of the domains of organisms, and then the kingdoms of eukaryotes. Provide
an example for each category.
EUKARYA
● Includes all eukaryotic organisms
● Contains four kingdoms of organisms:
○ Animalia : multicellular animals
○ Plantae : multicellular plants
○ Fungi: multicellular fungi and unicellular yeasts
○ Protista: unicellular algae and protozoa
BACTERIA
● So called “true” bacteria
● Includes all bacteria that cause human disease

ARCHAEA
● Diverse group of organisms that often live under extreme environmental conditions
● E.g. high salt/temperature

2. Explain gram staining – both positive and negative.

● Preparation of smear
● Heat fixing
● Initial staining
● Formation of complex
● Decolourising
● Counterstain
● Observation under oil immersion

+ve bacteria = purple

-ve bacteria = pink