Vectors WHAT IS A VECTOR? For the purposes of tis cours, a vector is a quantity that has length and direction, (Sometimes we say magnitude rather than length.) ‘We can represent a vector geometrically by an arows; ts length represents the vector's ‘magnitude, is direction represents the vectors direction Represent 3 vectors withthe same length: / ~ | Represent 3 vectors vith the same direction. ‘A vector is determined by its magnitude and direction. Two vectors wich have the same ‘magnitude and direction are equal. I does not mater were you put them! ‘Notation’ Tvs standard to use diferent notation to veferto numbers and vector Inprinted text, vectors ae often written a bod eters: a,b, ¢,, Inhandwriten ext ts common o refit vectors by writing an arrow over a ete, ora fide nde " 1a vector begin at point P and ends ats point, ti comman bo in ented and handwrten text to fer tthe vector as PG. ‘A quantity that has magnitude only (not direction soften called a sealar. The word “seal” {s usually synonymous with “number. ‘Many quantities measured in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and everyday Tif, ae salar or vectors Q CCassty cach ofthe following quantities as sealar or vector. wearer pt in mass ec field eociy re Yale Veer Vectors 35ADDING AND SUBTRACTING VECTORS [Negative fa vector: Given a vector a, the vector a is the vector with same magnitude as ‘a but opposite direction, Parallelogram law: Given two vestors a and b , these determine a parallelogram. The diagonals ofthis parallelogram correspon tothe addition andthe subtraction ofthe vectors: Equivalently, addition and subsraction can be defined explicitly a follows: ‘Adding vectors: To form a +b, draw the two vectors a and b “head-to-tail”, and follow ‘thom “from beginning to end” to give single vector: Subtracting vectors: To form a ~ b, draw the two vectors @ and b “tilo-til", and draw a vector fom the head of b to te head of a, A Stow geometiealy at a— b= a+) Spl 4 36Q ‘On the following diagrams, express the vector ain terms of the other vectors, THE ZERO VECTOR 7 1 ‘There is a unique vecor called the zero vestor, which has length zero, Its denoted 0 (ore: 0 is dierent from 0!) Q Let» be the vector shown, What is v + (—v) ? POSITION VECTORS Tn this course we consider vector in wo and sree dimensions, ‘Two-dimensional space is also known as the plane. A point in the plane can be given by 2 ‘teal number Cartesian coordinates (x,y), and fortis reason the plane is often denoted RE. Be Ply): YER I= th ab al pork Hl ‘Similarly, 3-dimensinal space is denoted IR. Points in space are given by 3 coordinates. Led ob of pont Vets 7Given a point P (in the plane Ror in dimensional space Rt), the position vector of P is the vector which pointe from th origi to P. Denoting the origin by 0, the postion vector ofP is therefore Inthvee dimensions, by conveston the x, and 2 axes form a right-handed coordinate ‘system: you can arrange your ight hand so that your first thre fingers poin respectively in the x, y and z directions. (Equivalently, ifyou rotate your fingers on your right hand from the to they direction, then yourright thumb points inthe z direction.) Veot+ by ‘The vectors of length I in the direction of the x,y, 2 axes are respectively called (J, k Another common convention i to write €,,€2,€. Any two-dimensional vector v ean be written as toy, ‘where @ and b are real mimbers Similarly, any three-dimensinal vector» canbe written as, veaitbjtck, ‘where a, b,¢ are real numbers. This is called the eomponent form of v, Another common notation forthe component form of a vector i to write (a ) instead of a+ bj and (a,b,c) instoad of at +b j +e. Thats, tab)= 0+ mt aba= ott l} tek 11 the point Pin R has coordinates (,,¢), then the position vector of Pis oh S B= att (Rrek = abcd ‘The component frm ofthe 2e0 vector in Ris simply 0= 01+ 0/+0k= (0,00). ects 38Let A = (1,~2) and B = (4,2) be points inthe plane. Draw the vector A and write thie sete a component form, 5 - OA VECTOR ARITHMETIC Addition and subtraction ‘Above we saw how to add and subtract vectors geometrically, Itcan also be done ‘algebraically. Just 2d the components, and treat je as ordinary algebraic pronumerals. Bg. GL+)+@t-3) =51-2 Orequivatently (3,1) + (2-3) = (5,-2) Let p= ij and q= i+). Find p + q and p ~ q, both geometrically and algebraically.Scalar multiplication ‘Vectors ean be multiplied by scalars (numbeis). The result of multiplying a scalar by a vector is another vector. For example, multiplying th vector vby the scalar 3 gives 3v. Again, v canbe treated asa pronumeral, and 30 =v 4942. So 3v isa vector which pointsin the direction of v and is 3 times as long, af ya ‘So ~2v is a vector which points inthe opposite direction tov, and is twice as lon. 7 ft L% (We have already implicitly wed sealar mutiplieation in writing vectors in component form, eg. 3+2)) Geometrically, scalar multiplication can be defined as follows, Fora scalar k and vector , ‘+ TF > 0, then kis times as long as v and points in the same direction as v. ‘© IF <0, then kis [k|smes as long as v and points inthe appasite direction tov. ¢ < 2? (Ox3 - 2-4) rox - ° -- 14 be S Yesors 46Properties of the dot product Property Way? ab=be (Dot product is commutative) (Disebutivie) (ea) b= k (eb) Perpendicular vectors “The dot product’ defisiton involves the cosine ofthe angle between the two vectors: ab al [bl cos 6. 5, the vectors are perpendicular, we have cos = 0, x0 @- b= 0. In fact, provided a and b are both nonzero, if b= O then they mus be perpendicular Fortwo vector @ #0 and beO a and b areperpendicular © ab =0 ‘Determine ifthe following pir of vectors are perpendicular: 31-4) +2kand b= t-j-2k LD =Bel + Lax GO * Ila) = -4jtk md ge ititk a7Finda vestorperpendkularto 1 = 2) ~ ke te teed bp fed 0 tube Gs EEED % ceyk —cogp , Ip = GET 7 tl Note: The component of « vecarb paral! to another vector may point inte oposite Siem oa In ise compyb emai, R Find the salar projecton of (+ inthe direction of # -j vey oo = / We om copd th python dell, , using cong, T= IE] co & Now fergte TE od He anfe belo > ei EL.» lise wkeo wast: ne tris & @ BS oy 2 try h #2) +k and B= 31-4) 42K 3 & Consider a = «+ Padtescdmpincono & inte eof» Bl [ea Fer on s + Findthesetlarprojection of inthe direstion of ey, 5. ES 2‘Vector projection ‘The vector projection of Bin the direction oF w is te vector component of Din dee iretion of tis dexoted proj,b. ‘We find this by muliplying the scalar projection of B inthe diection of a by the unit vector in the direction of a: ats P projeb= (compeb)@= 2 — = a Bl shi, 12435 ib compom perl a py ae b Z we ge jh conponnt pool & & Ps Rr 3p = Ae Miembue, oy Tu frudaFind the vector projection of @ = -21-+ 2] + k inthe direction of brainajeak rt, * = A swimmer swims oss arver. The river is straight, 100 metres wide, and flows at 4 kv. The swimmer swims at 2 kv, and aims directly across the iver. (@)—_Atwhat speeds the swimmer travelling relative to the land ? (@) In what direction doos the swimmer travel, relative tothe land? (©) Whatis the component ofthe swimmers velocity in the dieeton perpendicular to the iver (@ How long does it take the swimmer to cross the river? a em Let $= suinmes velras (ors ka/tr) Gi carat relay Conk n/t) We rey chose conelinck onet 05 ita ana 0) oeCROSS (VECTOR) PRODUCT OF VECTORS ‘The effectiveness ofa force in easing an objet to rotate or twist is measured by its torque (or moment). As on asce-sv,a force produces more torque when itis applied further away from the fuera, A #1 kc ke pbiy Race F hese proces wie 117 isthe vector from the fulrum tothe point wiere force F is applied, then the rorque © hhasmagnitude fr] F, = [rl [FI sind, where @ isthe angle between rand F. (As usual, the angle is measured by puting r and F“ Ch poptdiodie copral “wisn is esrb ty vector ‘Then the torque t + isperpendicularto both and F + thevectors r, F and moment form aright hand set of vectors, A vector with these properties is called the eross product or veetor prodiet ot rand F. [Forany two vectors and b, their eross products the vector, denoted a B, whichis J+ perpendicularto and B J+ has magnitude ja [b| sin@, where @ istheangle between a and b [+ the vectors a,b and ab forma righthanded set of vectors Hereby rigi-handed et of vectors we mean Vecers 3‘The eros product is so-called because it is denoted by a cross X ! tis also called the veetor produ because the results a vector, not a scalar. Important note! The cross procuct is ony defined for 3-dimensional vectors. Q Calculate vector prodvet of pairs ofthe unit vectors i,j and: te Inte —k dxke 2 Clogh ‘ Aron 4 teu 23 j j i 3} 3 keke O We note thatthe cross product of any vector with itself isthe zero vector. Why is this? [Notice the “eyeli” way that eress multiplication of J, k works! W=¥ ka log lela fal ° at jk jake be “To calculate the vector product of any par of vectors a,b, we assume that the distebutive law applies: @X b= (ayst03) X (by baba) = (825 ~Asbz, aby — Qabs, aby ~ abi) ‘(We wil give mother Formula ater) Vectors 4Find the crs productof a = 24-2) - axG= <2 Clad — ND, = 4-3) be 619 <-7,-5, -4> ond be i-3j+2h “> « FHlt Flo +t =0 & aT ad 2 ae paprialer + Check that xb seperpendeular to 49° C4-3 2D = a at Too t+ 8-8 Jraler anf prs Properties of cross product For any vectors Dan clark we ave Property axb= ~(bxa) (Cross product is anicommuarive) ax0=0xa=0 (ha) xb =k (axd) ax (B+) = (axb)+ (@xO) isibaviy) (axb)ena: (Oxo) (Sometimes called te wpe produ) Wa and b are paral then a x b = 0. Vectors 5sCross product and determinants ‘A concept knovi as the deferminan gives ancther method to compute the cross product. Determinants are important in many otber areas of mathematics ‘Any square eray of numbers (asquare matrix) has adeterminant, N= ‘The determinant of ¢mattx is anumber. tis denoted by enclosing the mati in vertical brs. mm ere is one way to calelate a dtersinant: © A/1x 1 matrix jus consis of single number. This number i its deeminat! Eg b= -7. © Fora 2 x 2mattx, the dteminant is given by the formula le glad be + Forany bigger max ‘© wile out the terms in the top row of the matrix next to each topow term, write the matrix obtained by eossing out the row ‘and columa of tat top-oW term inthe original matrix (© make the terms into an altemating sum with +,—,+, So, for a3 x 3 matrix jo 7 be Re RET bg ef a cal holy feels al ons Find dhe determinant of the matries fal Vecrs 56ove Aculy e2%2 ade umes, [| il= 2! What does a deterinen mean? Determinants re uot great dealin near algebra and other seas of mathematics. They give trea and volumes, Ifyou read the columns of smi vectors, then he determina ies theare ofthe poallengran ox poralllpipedfomed b hese vectors Be Arm = low x haut = fx 3 "Now we saw thatthe cross product is given by @Xb = (ashy Asbo, Gaby — aby, aybs— arbi) = UGB gba) +f (abs ~ a) +K (a ~ a2b1) ‘These components resomble determinants! rele] at Vecors 7& Find the eross productof a= 21-2)—k and b= i —3) + 2kaguin,now singe determinant ant [i Cross product and areas ‘We have seen that the eross product Xb has length given by Jaxb|= lal [bl sing ‘This is very similar to a know “ormule forthe area ofa rangle. ABC sang with ide legs bc and ag a shown, then 1 1 area sac = 4 adsing = 5 [AB x A] Find the area ofthe triangle determined bythe points (1,1,~1), (00,1) and (0,12). Cu) 2 (00,9 D> -b> = 44d > Cae Kand - 4442 = fz 3] +t]tee ARC COMPLEX NUMBERS VS VECTORS Complex numbers aren some ways very similar to 2-imensional vectors, ‘Compute and draw graphically the veetor ation <485 a4 (12)4 Ga} (22)B.1) = aaa) (+20-G40= 9, Vectors 9(CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1. Trueor false? There is exactly one unit vector parallel toa given non-zero vector a 2, Truc or false? The displacement vector from 4 to isthe same as the displacement vector from B 10 A. 5, Teor false? The vector a+ is aways larger in magnitude than vectors a and B, 4, True or false? The trang in 3D space with vertices (1,1)-D)y (11,2) and (0,11) basa right angle. 5. True or false? If a. <0 then the angle between a and bis greater than 90° 6, Trweorfalse? For any vectors aandb, a.b=b.a. 7. Twweorfalse? Forany vectors aandb, ax b= bx a 8, Tiueorfalse? Porany vectors @ and B, [projg bl = compa b.