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    4 Limits Filledin PDF

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    askldhfdasjk

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 24
    Limits WHAT IS A LIMIT? ‘There are many situations where we want to observe the behaviour ofa funetionas itapproaches “limiting value”. For example: + If 0(0 isthe average velocity ofan object over atime period of ¢ seconds, the limiting value of v(¢) ast ~» 0 gives the abject’ instantaneous velocity. ‘+ IF p(¢) deserbes the population of a species at time ¢, then the limiting value as £ ‘becomes very large (¢~ 22) may give the long-term stable population size ‘An example ‘To begin, consider the function f(x) = 2 as x approaches 0. Consider very small postive real numbers x, approaching zero, What happens to f(x)? 3a “Vales ob sprout (2) becomes larger and larger —larger than any number you specify ~ arbitrarily lange. ‘Wesay tht he int sx aprostes rom abo f(s) ste ifn lim 2= o Similarly, asx approaches 0 frm below, /(2) become arbitarly large negative. ‘aking values ofx very close to 2 (above er below), we find f(x) approsches F(Z) = 1/2. tts 8 wnt ies oppo 2st ig t= So Sine both Jig $= 05d Jim 33 Since we obtained different answers as x -» 0* and x -» 0, however, we say tad des asl exist ‘Simily, ite think about very large postive values of, or very large negaive values of x, ‘we see that fx) approaches zero, We write this as met 0, amen O We write fm soo to denote thi, a5 approaches a from Below, f(*) approaches the limit L Werwrite Jig FO to denote that, 5 aproaches «from above, F(x) appreches the limit L Wewite im £9) to denote that, asx approaches arom ther direction, f(s) approaches he iit Here a can bea real number, or £09. Caution! This definition of limit snot very presse. ‘Werwill give a more precise definition of limits atthe end ofthe chapter. 2. Whon f(a) is defined itis sometimes true that lim. f(x) = f(@). But not always! 4. Limits donot alvay’ exist. Fora limit to exist asx > a, f(2®) must appreach a single value, as approaches a from above or below. Sf we consider only approaching a fom above, we write x ~ a {Ife consider only x approaching a fom befow, we waite x —+ a” Limi 4 Some cautionary examples: o x<0 u@)= 1472 x=0 cr rye a “The Heaviside step fection i a funtion Hf: R -»R defined piecewise by y° HG) Js 307 we fon YA) chy oud b O » im HQ) =O On th alr bod HA)>4 4 flew Q veneer 7 . . wee he bows lag, 30 S iN » aw emeste CONTINUITY AND SUBSTITUTION ‘Sometimes, inorder to calculate lin f(x), we ean just substitute x = For instance, we saw previously that im t= F but im W(x) # HO) Where #f(s) isthe Heaviside ste function. So substitution works forthe function f(x) = near x = 2, but not for H(z) near x = 0. ‘What isthe difference?) \e 3 tO tf —— + “The funtion f(a) = is continuous a x = 2, but H(x) isnot continucus atx ‘aif you can draw the graph of y = f(x) near Iniiely, a fnctin f(z) is continuous at 2'= a without taking Yur pen off he pape. In fact, function i defined to be continuous if you can find it limits by substitution. ints 85 A function f(2) is continuous atx = ait igs ‘That is, /(2) is continuous atx = aif asx approsches a, f(2) approaches f(a). [A function f(s) is continuous fit is continuous at every point in its domain, Which functions are continuous? any smn sn cs of ss nw a nin Tico an qa icon ae con. + nt yp etn cou {Any rato fnton (3) = #2, where ps) al Ce) ae poms conn aay oi wher g() 0 «The tina eon sn cons tan ae cots '¢ Any exponential function f (x) = a* (where a > 0) or e** is continuous. £-Ayloprin cn /) = ogee &> 0 ning ns, onions, ‘You can also put together continuous funetions to obiain more continuous funetioss, Jf f(2) and g(x) are continuows functions, then FC) £ 92) and f(3)9(x) are continuous functions + f+ 9(8) is «continuous function wherever itis defined £5 is continaous funetion at any point where g(x) + 0. ‘Once you have established that f(x) is continuous at x = a, you can find lim f(x)immediately by substitution! Qrio- eos tactnat, ond Yon (@ te expen tote be Yow Hair quoi fhs continuous function? Find li f(). PROPERTIES OF LIMITS ‘Suppose we have two functions f(x), 9(2), which both approach imi asx a Jims@)=2, ima) =3 ‘Then we might expect that, Jim f@) + 9(@) = fim f(8) - 9) dim 2f(2) ~ 902) Tinseas@= 6 f@) 2 maa" % ‘This tums ou tobe tue, summarised in he llwing es Tf fsa constant ond im F(@) and lim 9() both exist then 1. fim €fG) = 0% lim Fd 2. tim (F(@) #969) = lim (@) + Yim a) 3. Yim FG2)9(€) = lim £2) » lim oC) =H poe ain #0 In these rules, a can be any real number, o 6. TECHNIQUES FOR CALCULATING LIMITS Algebraic techniques Ofiena limit canbe simplified algebraically, until substitution can be used. Q Find the following limits tim = Limite a7 ums ES akon, ht ot alba! at x= 4. Sy —_ a Howeer we om cba x42 (BY= Fs (R-DUE #3) we = 1 ' ke © oa! ss a ie onped CHAE [Bhs HHL & (fat | MESO ogy aaa? 1 c hoe fn C=, fe 34 Me = 3 ok bow . bot ts ° een bk)” ar ‘One-sided limits Sometimes, to investigate a limit, we need to investigate the two one-sided limits separately ‘This happens often with piecewise defined funtion. ‘We saw eae that ling £ doce ot eit Show that my dos exis and find thetinit. - A aed, we, i ad 20°, 40 ale. Hee in Le emsls ond apeh oo Limits 88 AQ owes sere {E2 REPT ib meni nes int of coins? Bost Bains x4 3 ad at ae brew, Ave cochnwes & In $6) = In t=O sr Ae otto, Bide ln, x+3= 4. thr In ta % by fh, ® lin P6) ches act oust, ond . > £6) ix ad Gnhawen at och imaed conse its be ML fe & 225 ar ax AQ soon 00~ C5} RET rnin uo tenis me ont be tol a uot =3 S be fh) enh ont qual 3 See by #6) =3° 2, OF re Fu ee oe corer al 2° % Qi wrest ua bl = Whe» i poste, Blea Se Hd, ad oust Dealing with infinites tou knowin fe) = 2 andl 9 3 what ean yu sy about im (0) + (2)? ‘Asx approaches a, ‘© F(a) becomes arbitrarily large, + g(x) approaches 3, nen f(2) + g(a) becomes arbitral large too. So mf) +9) = OS similary, {in f@) - 902) = In shorthand we can express this dea by saying “eo 4 3 = <=" ‘This is nota well-defined equation, but itis a useful shorthand In genera: If im f() = co and lim g(x) = ¢, where esa el constant, then lim f(2) + 9(3) = =. In shorthand, "> 40 = Ina similar shorthand, we have 19", where cis a postive constant where ¢ isa negative constant “When calculating «limi itis best to think through the behaviour of the function 38 approaches the limiting value rather than trying to apply these rules lily. Q Find the following limits koan3 th ad fd" ae my poste 5 4 oe vy by Here Feat 09 = 00 As aol (low olve or bbe) 0 and x al iis Ra t “tlw : om x lee), sy ‘Some more cautionary example: Bab bee “E dbanl et R Find the following limits: ) om v As 2208 . ews Ho E+ - 20 th be + -£ 2-0 We say tht 2,0 2" and 0 ~ "ae determinate forms Trickier examples Find the following limit, or show that it does not exist, | sin, o(2) A azo, daw le fr lage te = ohh td de at appt ote Yenc whey C2) da mh ist, so lin 9G) cha ab oni esther. 4 -.LULUmrmrmrmrmCm = cacy vole in [ui] nfoad oft! “he fling iis very fin, at filo ko AQ ves my Loni Lge By idebnnt We ue « qunetar egy! Conse ih hag ble hei a sehr of te wat cacle ol > Os th oy Az (10) Be (at x 0) C: (dee) Ms Aue AOAB € Ace of sehr OAR S fee AOAC Buh Hor tools doe be OA 4. Alor deft ae se > dex regarhel he, dates Bog dxtebx a . cane x © te Sue ae x ex me de Wet Ld S27 ase Tha oe al BE is Sebi be ‘Knowing that lim 2% = 1 enables you to calculate some further limits, a Find Jim #222 mt 1 pr S21 ale Sm by BEs| emt be be Gat al AQ 08 we We roriplh te btn oh carters wh, a ! afm)» S60) am 2 gs fm) ~ lL 27 * om 22 |, 3 ro Sate) & ez to seo & po coninsat <0 0 forx=0 Aso quis of Xo 8 Se 5 onteat fe ato We od, wot te check lehavour oF 220 We how ln m= b Bee oe -_~ * ki $l =o, 9 £ & ml Gorka of 220 ‘The Squeeze Theorem ‘The squeeze theorem say that if f(x) < g(x) < h(x) forx near a, then im £0) 5 lim 9(2) $ Yim ROD “Ifthe function g(x) is squeezed between f(x) and h(x) near x = a, then itis stil squeezed between (4) and MC inthe Limit” “The squeeze theorem can be used to calculate some otherwise difficult limit Qi) be AR ryote ; LIMITS AT INFINITY So far we have focused on limits im ‘where ais areal number, We now tum tothe case a = -ben, i, limits where x — en, “The behaviour of f() asx - +00 sometimes called the long-term behaviour of (8) Iinimits x + 02, we examine the behaviour of /(x), where x is avery large positve number. If, asx becomes larger and larger, F(2) approaches a value L, we write lim sfeo= be ‘Such behaviour is often sen in the graph y = (2) asa horizontal asymprote, \ i — be £6) 2 ‘Simiaely, if we find that, asx becomes very large negative, f(x) approaches L, we write nf) = be Lite 4 If both Kimits as x ~+ 09 and x ~» ~ as xe, and approaches co as x = ~en, In fact, any f(x) = x", where m i an odd positive integer, behaves in the same way. ints 9s + Thefnctin 2) = 2 also approaches 0 as x +0, and hence alsa In fact any function F(X) Behaviour of exponential functions «The function f(x) = e* approaches 29 asx + 02, and approaches 0 as x 1 —20 ‘Any function (2) e%, where ke > 0, behaves similarly Calculating limits at infinity “The long term behaviour of functions in general, and transformations of them, cane studied similarly tothe elementary ones above, Drawing a graph ofa fimetion always helps Q Use limits to describe the behaviour a infinity of the following funetiors: 2 fGjet—ae Oy Compl Spee! 9 Linas 96 Fe)=10{l-e#) = 10~ (Oe Dew gph: 42th) obwid bm gre” G B * Rallis in 2 ad yonts - "Dibtin Ge ol yoke fm” sonst 4 Translahn [0m grbeehn ee 2 = Ch eet om drat fer gabe 5.) egg As xa tm, x00 ad 2-9-4 00 We 0, od 97 Sh shits 4 Moe Od + lt) Ay x Lo de ~ be (£+2)u () = (ore) 4 = 2 Using the squeeze theorem with longterm behaviour sing. ‘What i. im ” ee +1 Whe am Hi a nro, 2 onl, bow Ag cael che .. Ms oy a de, alow © 2 0 € av = a ba pads | Ss Seb [alee bie oO pe Sos Im S2Z0, ok Im BQ. pat , od im Be In comology the ae simpiied mods ofthe wiv consistent white they of pc eatin some of tse modelled Priam oberon Talker ues here iss varabiea() which ves te sel of une a incon ime fae he Big Bang. ‘+ “Materdominied fat nivee” (= (2) ‘© “Radiation-dominated flat universe” a(t) = (2 Hy t)*/* ‘© “Cosmological-constant-dominated flat universe” a(t) = eM Here Hy is constant known a the Hubble constant Tindicse usuavlogval models, what sth eventual fats ofthe univeres? 4 Bad oe oe ee qll dee - oe RATIONAL FUNCTIONS ‘Weta sen that atonal fans re fans ofthe fora 2) ee sere pe) nd gs) ar polynomial inetons “There are some specific methods usefil for limits of rational fantions. a Find the long-term behaviour ofthe following functions. fee Pe ints 98 + 9G) = Bets hatte 2 Solem is & jou gle 3 tied ip 1p) as does mand g(x) hs deren, then viding bo numerator and ‘denominator by x™™"™") can help to find long-term behaviour, Eampllee cep! lee 3) =0 So dae “The behaviour ner thes two points is analysed with one-sided limits Ae ee ee a | J —6 507 on 3 Me a -2", a Reo eee - A xagt, va-bs0t ow 2 Fx Phew oe bs fb) ne fe)e =e was at The veicalaympttsae: “The long-term behaviour i analysed with limits at infinity: 7 of: bho asd, oF Slim ble - ‘The axesinteceps ae: aeinlagh:« BY 420 4 yop: FO Y So the graph of this function is Limite Qa 10) ratte vi oh Domain: 4470 b gl a» dome R Vertical asymptotes: Long-term behaviour Aaa tao So Ge 0 Interoepss: z-idlaupd: Moe yateset Pras & COMPARING LONG-TERM BEHAVIOUR OF FUNCTIONS Power functions vs. exponential functions For large x, how how do 2 and 2* compare? “As x becomes large, 2¥ overtakes 24, In fat 2* becomes much larger than 24, ard mn pre mt ie ie 100 _Any exponential function a, with a > 4, grows quicker than any power function 2?, with p> O,once xis suicintly large, and Inthe same way, dereasing exponential functions decrease quicker thun decreasing power tunctions. Power functions vs log functions For large x, how do-V = x*/* and loge x compare? ‘Although power fantions grow slower than exponential functions, logarithmic functions {grow even slower so much slower that again ther ratio approaches 2em. Any logavithmie funetion ofthe Form logg, with a > 1, grows slower than any power fametion x, with p > 0, once x is suficenly large, and Joga A Investigate the following limits to describe the long-term behaviour ofthe funtion, stm (Me worm ¢ wh ma dhinink ) lin 0 Limts 101 Fim abot, we expt @° sleddl gar onck Basler Ya th drawincle, Gl bh dmaasink us we un os fe rahod Rech sie F000 bras, Bae aw (Fo $f Seo + am We pat be x shall gras sel slr is hk et 3 b+ apn we ned tee hace, Boo a 2 a ae fo eom PRES) tate ~ B-ai)a~= O MORE ON CONTINUITY Different types of discontinuity , is 4g: 10) din J) ent docs notcie with fe) foe =— Ey B= FL ai dled ob ve Jump 5 ee ee im fon desert lh fash ohm Lb ———|_ _., ~ 102, tits — Hage ile Pole ‘F(2) isnot continuous at x=a as ‘| (|= and he funtion isnot ind at =a & fhe & a aco Not: Not every pont of dicot soe ofthese the types Ths ae just examples ‘common types of hehavionr. ie a " Q Determine the types of discontinuities in the following funtions 2-1 = b-6A1) é (x cos(x?) x <0 2 xz0 x wt) ol Geo x 3-2-l=3 8 IVT, the « a pelusil Ps orhivos gre x leben 0 od | rel dhe Ha)=0, i@ a sibtn hg, -#12-l=0 A ‘Ave the functions (x) =oosx and g(x)=2e2 ever equal on the interval [0]? Mh axx Qs tums a x DP =O. Slt Ab)? {d= 9h) ox A ho» Cochineas gad Al0)= Ga 0-0 I, Ali)> eo 1-2 <0 SG IVT the 4 Sm x efor] edi) =0 ie axe ae Mabe th Ector $81 od oft) mtb gut rade on He ake Dui imi 104 WHAT IS THE PROPER DEFINITION OF A LIMIT? ‘The statement tim FG) = b means that as x gets very else to a, f(x) gets very clase to “To make this precise, we should talk about how lose we mean by “very close"! ‘ey mathematical idea: I'you specity how efose you want f(x) must be“ L, you can make (2) that close, by taking x sufieiently close to a. Ifyou want f(2) tobe within 0.1 of Z then lm F(X) = 1 says tat one x is suffcenly close toa, then f(x) will be within 0.1 of, i. |f(8) ~ Ll < 0.1 Lat f(a) = 2x +1, Show that when x is within 0.05 of 3, f(s within 0. of7. ( (oa ee or ager Sos be Cie RIS HL edit c © Rao F 1 general, 0 say tha ig f(2) = L means tat however close you wast f(s) to be to Lit is possible to find x suliciently close to a, within a distance of 6, and wken x is within distance 6 ofa, f(x) is within distance € of L , : ' fle) < Lae ben a-ScxcarS, Ee < fl) Definition: im (2) = means that, for ny positive number 2, there exists positive number 5 so thet whenever |x —al <6, then |f(x) - 1]

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