IMMA-National Summit, 15-16 Dec.

2017 Nagpur

Recent Developments in Rock Bolts and Monitoring Tools

Dr. M. N. Bagde
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, Nagpur Research Center, 17/C,
Telankhedi, Nagpur, India 440 001 (email: mnbagde@gmail.com)

Abstract
Mass production technologies are being now-days planned at greater scale in Indian Coal
Mining Industry with introduction of longwall mining, continuous miners, road-headers for
faster and mechanized drivages including others. There are growing concerns of environment
and land availability on the surface for opencast mining, hence future lies in opening of
underground mines that too going to deeper depth with complex geological structure. World-
over mass production technologies are being practiced in adverse geological and in-situ
stress condition successfully with introduction of modern extraction technologies in tandem
with modern type of rock bolting support system and monitoring for its efficacy during the
actual mining. In the present paper, keeping in view next generations’ need of the country,
emphasis laid here is on available modern type of support systems particularly recent
advances took worldwide in rock bolting and on its monitoring front, which will go long-way to
help us to introduce mass production technologies for its sustainable growth in adverse and
difficult mining conditions.

1. Introduction
Considering given circumstances and world-over mining scenario at the present, in
underground mines rock bolting as a permanent as well as temporary support has gained the
more importance and become now-days an integral part of the any mining operations. From
the local and overall ground control point of view as well as to the mass production mining
technologies and environmental considerations. The substantial research has already been
carried out and reported which helped towards the better understanding of the mechanisms
involved in the case of rock mass behavior with various types of rock support installed in
different and complex mining conditions. This recent work mostly involves developments of
modern type of rock bolts including bonding materials for better rock-bolt and rock-mass
interaction and monitoring to study overall behavior in the case of complex conditions like
rock-burst, difficult in-situ stress conditions including deeper strata problems. The recent work
mostly includes analytical, experimental including in field and laboratory conditions and
various types of numerical studies including FEM and DEM based in various mining
environments at different scales including two- and three- dimensional. Accordingly, this has
helped at developing suitable rock-support design guidelines for actual working conditions
with better safety achievement, optimization of production and productivity etc.
However, in this paper focus is only on recent developments undertook world-over recently on
modern type of rock-bolts and its monitoring to study efficacy of the installed support for better
rock mass and rock bolt interaction in given rock mass conditions. The reason is presently
most of the underground coal mines works on intermediate technology and introduction of
mass production technologies in our country is very low due to the various reasons. Mass
production technologies is being now-days planned at greater scale in Indian Coal Industry
91
and mostly involves introduction of longwall mining, continuous miners, road-headers for
faster and mechanized drivages including others. There are growing concerns of environment
and land availability on the surface for opencast mining, hence future lies in opening of
underground mines that too going to deeper level with complex geological structure. Deeper
coal mines means introduction of new problems on the safety front including rock-burst, strata
control including others, which Indian mines never faced severely earlier due to the shallow
depth cover, favorable rock mass and geological conditions. World-over mass production
technologies is being practiced in adverse geological and in-situ stress condition successfully
with introduction of modern technologies in tandem with modern type of rock bolting support
system and monitoring for its efficacy during the actual mining. In the present paper, keeping
in view next generations’ need of the country, emphasis laid here is on available modern type
of support systems particularly recent advances took worldwide in rock bolting and on its
monitoring front, which will go long-way to help us to introduce mass production technologies
for its sustainable growth in adverse and difficult conditions.

2. Recent Developments in Modern Type of Rock Bolts

Special types of bolts are used as energy absorbing elements in rock support systems
exposed to dynamic loading, e.g. from blasting, earthquakes or rock bursts caused by high
rock stresses. Rock bursts are a particular problem in deep mining, where violent and rapid
ground movements occur due to poor ground conditions, cracks and high stresses within the
rock. The movements occur at velocities as high as 1–3 m/s, sometimes causing
displacements of rock of the order of 100 mm or more. Underground shelters and installations
designed to withstand stress waves from exploding bombs are often expected to survive
impact velocities in the vicinity of 10 m/s. Energy absorbing rock bolts of steel must thus be
able to yield plastically under high loading velocities.
According to their performance, the rock supports were classified into three types: i) a
strength bolt, ii) a yieldable bolt and iii) an energy-absorbing bolt. The strength bolt was
essentially elastic and provided a support load equal to the intrinsic strength of the bolt
material such as rebar which had a high stiffness and small deformations prior to the failure.
The yieldable bolt was essentially plastic but with low stiffness which was able to
accommodate large rock deformation, such as the Split Sets. The basic requirement for the
energy-absorbing bolt was the intrinsic “plastic” nature that could yield at high strength with a
large elongation (at least 200–300 mm) so as to adapt to the deformation of the surrounding
rock mass. The different types of rock bolts including the yieldable rock bolts, Split Set and
Swellex; the Garford bolt, Durabar bolt, and Roofex bolt are available in market. True energy-
absorbing bolts were developed in the recent past, such as the Garford Solid Dynamic Bolt,
Roffex, energy-absorbing rock bolt; cone bolt; MCB cone bolt (modified cone bolt with
elongation as much as 180 mm); and D bolt with large load-bearing and deformation
(elongation as long as 400 mm) (He et al. 2014). According to Raju et al. (2011), split set
bolts, yielding Swellex or cone bolts, yield lock bolt, D-bolt might behave as ductile or yielding
elements under high stress or deformation conditions. The dynamic characteristics of some of
the support systems are shown in Fig. 1. However, the focus of the present paper is not
exhaustive one in nature but to present few latest developments undertook in rock bolts and
monitoring which will particularly be applicable in the case of underground coal and metal
mines with complex as well as adverse rock mass conditions.

2
 Fig.1. Load-displacement characteristics of different support elements (Raju et al. 2011)
2.1 Cone Bolt (Tannant and Buss, 1994)
As reported in the literature, Jager (1992) was the first who provided more sophisticated
solution in the form of the cone bolt which he developed and tested in South Africa. The bolt
consisted of a high-tensile steel bar with a flattened conical flaring at the inner end while the
outer end often was equipped with a nut. The smooth section between nut and cone was
coated with wax to minimize resistance through friction and cohesion between grout and bolt.
The bolt was mounted with a load carrying disc, which, when loaded transferred the load to
the steel bar, forcing the cone to shear its way through the grout. The cone bolt thus absorbed
energy through a combination of friction between grout and cone and the force required to
compress the grout. For the final design of the cone bolt, as reported displacements up to 600
mm was applied. Tannant and Buss (1994), conducted in situ pull-out tests to compare the
load–displacement capacity of cone bolts and fully grouted smooth steel bars. The smooth
bars were manufactured by modifying standard tubular rock bolts. The cone bolt was
originally designed for use in cement-grouted holes, but tests were also conducted with holes
injected with quick-setting resin grout to investigate the possibility of achieving load-carrying
function as early as a few minutes after placement. During the tests, the cone bolt was not
sheared through the higher strength resin and failed after only about 100 mm of
displacement. Also, the cement grouted cone bolts failed prematurely with pull-out forces
exceeding the load capacity. The fully grouted smooth bars performed as expected and
reached their full pull-out capacity.
Gillerstedt (1999) tested cone bolts in tension and shear in soft rock conditions and for low
loading rates. Those results indicated that the cone bolt was insensitive to reasonable
variations in grout strength and that the pull out strength was much lower than for a rebar.
The deformation capability of the cone bolt up to 40 mm before failure was well compared
with fully grouted rebars. While, conventional 1.8–2.4 m long end-anchored mechanical rock
bolts were elongated up to 60 mm (Tannant and Buss, 1994). The energy absorption capacity
of conventional rock bolts was thus limited. While, a rock bolt capable of absorbing a
reasonable amount of kinetic energy should yield up to 200–300 mm. A design philosophy for
energy absorbing bolts as reported in the literature should yield and slide with the ground
movements and also deform plastically over large distances (i.e. at high displacement rates).
He et al. (2014) in the recent past have presented an innovative work on the development of
a novel energy-absorbing bolt characterized by an extraordinarily large elongation and high
3
constant resistance as shown in Fig. 2. The bolt was a compound structure consisted of a
cone-like piston sliding inside an elastically-deformable sleeve pipe. The frictional resistance
generated by the sliding of the cone body relative to the internal surface of the sleeve pipe
was mathematically formulated which was dependent on the elastic property of the sleeve
pipe, the geometry of the cone and the frictional properties of the sliding interface, and
independent of the external loads under the static loading conditions. The working principle of
the He’s bolt in actual field condition is demonstrated in Fig. 3. The results from the static pull
test were compared very well with the predicted working resistance, energy-absorbing
capacity and elongation. The time-marching scheme of the bolt's impact load from the weight-
dropping tests was evolved with the pulsation response in the initial phase, stick-slip
oscillation in the subsequent regime over which the dynamic energy was consumed, and a
quasi-linear attenuation in the later phase. It was demonstrated that this bolt was robust in
damping the dynamic load. The analytical work from their study had provided solution in the
assessment of the large deformation (Fig. 4) and establishment of the fore-warning
precursors associated with deep mines.

Fig. 2. Schematic of the three-dimensional view of the He bolt (He et al. 2014).

Fig. 3. Working principle of the He bolt in stabilizing the surrounding rockmass: (a) installation
of the He bolt; (b) working state when rockmass undergoes deformation; and (c) retaining
rockmass deformation at full elongation (He et al. 2014)

4
 Fig. 4. Analytical load–elongation curve of He bolt (He et al. 2014).
2.2 Energy Absorbing Rock Bolt (Ansell, 2005; 2006)
A new type of energy absorbing rock bolt (Fig. 5) was developed and tested in the laboratory
by Ansell (2005, 2006). The bolt was without a casing and consisted of a steel bar that had an
inner ribbed-like anchorage section and outer nut that transferred the load from the rock via a
circular disc. When subjected to a dynamic load e.g. an explosive load, the lengthening of the
steel bar thus decreased in diameter whereby the adhesive bond between bar and grout was
lost and the bolt was able to absorb the energy by plastic lengthening - the outer end of the
bolt was free to yield. For the principle to work the anchorage must hold and the bolt must be
allowed to yield freely along the length between the inner anchorage section and the outer
end, where the load was taken by a fixed nut and a circular disc. No critical sections of the
bolt was allowed, i.e. sections where necking and other failure types caused by e.g. screw-
thread tapping were most likely to occur.

Fig. 5. Energy absorbing rock bolt with 150 mm curved circular disc (Ansell, 2006)
5
In a laboratory, rock bolts in concrete cylinders were subjected to free fall tests to achieve a
loading velocity of 10 m/s. The aim was to investigate the performance of the new rock bolt
when subjected to yielding at about 10 m/s. The design load velocity often used for
fortifications and underground constructions in rock that must withstand stress waves from
detonations and explosions. Two alternative lengths of the bolt were tested, both types made
from soft steel bars with a diameter of 16 mm. The smooth sections were either 1000 or 2000
mm, followed by an anchorage section achieved through impressions made over 1000 mm
length. First, the new bolt was tested statically. The tests demonstrated that the distribution of
plastic strain along the length of a grouted rock bolt was not constant when dynamically
loaded. As shown in Fig. 6, the sections where plastic yielding was allowed were not fully
utilized in any of the cases, opposite to that in previous static tests which show almost
constant elongation of the bolts. The tests also verified that the load-carrying components of
the bolt, the nut and the anchorage, were reliable when dynamically loaded. Elastic and
plastic waves were started to propagate through the rock bolt as it was suddenly loaded,
resulting in permanent deformation along the section of the bolt. This yield process was
demonstrated through a combined laboratory and numerical studies by Ansell (2005, 2006).
From the literature (Ansell, 2006), it was reported that a dynamic tensile test of a free steel
bar resulted in an unstrained middle section of the bar while both ends were deformed, as for
a steel rivet during compression. This yield process was illustrated in Fig. 6, where the
measured strains were approximated by three triangular areas. The two triangles of 2.5% and
3.5% corresponded to the yield during the dynamic phase, giving an elongation of 24 mm.

Fig. 6. Approximation of the strain distribution: 3.5% and 2.5% total elongation was from the
dynamic loading and 4% from the following quasi-static phase (Ansell, 2006)

The tests showed that the soft steel of the rock bolts, with a yield stress of 300 MPa, was
strain rate sensitive. The dynamic yield stress corresponding to the initial load velocities of 5
and 10 m/s were 400 and 450 MPa, respectively. Also the dynamic ultimate stress was
probably higher than the statically determined strength of 440 MPa. During testing, the strain
rates were initially 25 and 12.5 s−1, respectively, and approximately 0.1 s−1 towards the end of
each test, which was comparable to that of an ordinary quasi-static tensile test. The initial
strain rates and their effect on the yield stress were in good agreement with previous works
6
summarized in the reviewed literature by Ansell (2005, 2006). For further research, the rock
bolt in situ was tried during a small project in the Kiirunavaara mine in northern Sweden
(Ansell, 2005, 2006). These tests showed that explosives close to bolts cause cracking of the
surrounding rock and thereby inadequate loading of the bolts, only reaching impact velocities
of 1–2 m/s. Thus, the test set-up must be refined to more closely simulate for example the
effect of a bomb impact on an underground facility in rock. It means loading velocities of up to
10 m/s must be achieved without the loading process being disturbed by fragmented rock.

2.3 Hydraulic Expansion Bolt (Qingliang et al. 2013)

According to Qingliang et al. (2013), the floor heave of the surrounding rock and its control
was a major problem which sometimes stopped the mine production in the case of soft rock
roadway. Over the years, many researchers proposed few methods such as reinforcing
method, releasing method, reinforcing combined with releasing method and so, to control the
floor heave. Among these, the reinforcing method using the resin bolt, which was the most
frequently-used, was making use of increasing the strength of the floor rock and preventing
plastic flow of the floor rock to control floor heave. Comparing with the resin bolt, the hydraulic
expansion bolt had different anchoring mechanism and application advantage. The various
accessories and mechanisms associated of this bolt are shown in Fig. 7. The hydraulic
expansion bolt was manufactured from a seamless steel pipe to a rod body with a double-
deck bizarre section. When the pressure of the injected water in the rod body was larger than
the yield strength of the seamless steel, the rod body expanded along the radial direction.
Then the extrusion force was imposed on the surface of the surrounding rock of the roadway.
The accessories included end sleeve, retainer ring, liquid injection mouth, pallet, etc. Working
principle of the hydraulic expansion bolt was based on anchoring force of four types: support
anchoring force, tension anchoring force, expansion anchoring force and tangent anchoring
force. Among them, the expansion anchoring force, which was the unique of the hydraulic
expansion bolt, provided confining pressure to increase the strength of rock. The problem of
stability control in the soft rock roadway in Jinbaotun Coal Mine in China was not able to
provide enough resistance to control floor heave. The study conducted by Qingling et al.
(2013) revealed the mechanism of floor heave in the soft rock roadway, and designed the
reasonable support parameters of the hydraulic expansion bolts. The recorded floor
convergence indicated that the hydraulic expansion bolts prevented the development and flow
of the plastic zone in the floor rock. Based on their field studies, they provided the enriched
control technology related to the soft rock roadway floor heave problem.

7
 Fig. 7. Hydraulic expansion bolt (Qingliang et al. 2013)

Through the comparison of the once-forming method and the multiple-forming method for
stability control and excavation speed of the roadway, the mining roadway was excavated by
the once-forming method, then the resin bolts, the cables, the hydraulic expansion bolts and
the double layer 40 U-type sheds were installed. Among them, the diameter of the hydraulic
expansion bolt was 30 mm and the length 2.4 m. When the hydraulic expansion bolt was fully
expanded its diameter reached 48 mm. The technical parameters of the hydraulic expansion
bolts used are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Technical parameters of hydraulic expansion bolt (Qingliang et al. 2013)

External Wall Yielding Tensile Injection Elongation Frictional Breaking

dia thickness strength strength pressure rate (%) resistance force
(mm) (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (kN) (kN)
30 2.0 300 275 20-25 37 80-160 98

The deformation observation of the mining roadway was carried out during the excavation as
shown in Fig. 8. After the hydraulic expansion bolts were used to control floor heave for 20
days, the floor was gradually became stable. The final convergence of the floor was at about
95 mm and finally the roadway satisfied the operating requirement of the mine. When
compared with the other mining roadway working face, where the hydraulic expansion bolts
were not applied, the application effect on the floor heave control of the hydraulic expansion
bolts was good. This not only reduced rebuilding quantities but also improved excavation
speed of the roadways.

8
 Fig. 8. Recorded convergence in the floor (Qingliang et al. 2013)

2.4 D–Bolt: An Energy Absorbing Bolt (Chen and Li, 2015)

The performance of two types of rock bolts, fully encapsulated rebar and D-Bolt (energy
absorbing bolt), under combined pull and shear loading were studied in the laboratory by
Chen and Li (2015). A rebar bolt was with tightly-spaced small ribs on its cylindrical surface,
which enhanced the bonding between the bolt and the grout (Fig. 9). It was usually fully
encapsulated in a borehole with either cement mortar or resin grout. The bolt was integrated
to the grout/rock along its entire length through the mechanical interlock between the ribs and
the grout. The rebar bolt was characterized by its high load capacity and small deformation,
which generally found in the case of a stiff bolt because of its small deformation capacity. The
D-Bolt was a type of energy-absorbing bolt developed recently in China (Li, 2010, 2012; Li
and Doucet, 2012). It was made of a smooth steel bar with a number of deformed sections
that acted as anchor points along its length (Fig. 9). The D-Bolt was characterized by both
high load and large deformation capacities. Both the rebar bolt and D-Bolt specimens were 20
mm in diameter and 2 m in length with a thread section of 150–200 mm at one end. The D-
Bolt specimens were with two anchor points that were spaced by a distance of 1 m.

Fig. 9. Bolt specimens: Rebar bolt (above) and D-Bolt (below) (Chen and Li, 2015).

The ultimate load and ultimate displacement of the D-Bolt specimens were presented in Fig.
10. The bolts failed at a load level between 200 and 219 kN no matter what the displacing
angle was. The ultimate displacement of the D-Bolt decreased with the increase of the
displacing angle until 400. It dropped to a level of approximately 50% of the maximum ultimate
displacement under pure pull (140 mm) afterwards. The ultimate pull load of the D-Bolts (the

9
pull load at bolt failure) slightly decreased from 209 kN to 175 kN with the increase of the
displacing angle from 0 to 600. This implied that a high pull load was induced in the bolt even
when it was subjected to shearing. The ultimate shear load, however, increased
approximately linearly with the displacing angle. The ultimate pull and shear loads of the rebar
bolts varied similarly to the D-Bolts i.e. the pull load slightly decreased with the increase of the
displacing angle until 600 and then quickly dropped to zero at 900, while the shear load,
however, increased approximately linearly with the displacing angle. The displacement
capacity of the D-Bolt, however, was dependent on the displacing angle. The ultimate
displacement of a 1-m long D-Bolt section varied from 140 mm under pure pull (00) to
approximately 70 mm when the displacing angle was larger than 40 0. The ultimate
displacement of the rebar slightly increased from 29 mm under pure pull to 53 mm under pure
shear. In general, the displacement capacity of the D-Bolt was larger than that of the rebar
bolt. It was approximately 3.5 times the rebar under pure pull and 50% higher than rebar
under pure shear. The test results showed that the displacing angle of the bolt was larger
than its loading angle, which was also confirmed by them through the analytical solutions.

Fig. 10. Ultimate load and displacement for the D-Bolt and rebar (Chen and Li, 2015)

3.0 Recent Developments in Rock Bolt Monitoring

At the present, the set of sensing techniques exist which were employed for the assessment
of rock mass support systems. Two ways in which a support member was monitored: i)
extrinsically using methods such as extensometers, inclinometers, and surveying to infer
support member behavior, and ii) intrinsically, whereby instrumentation was coupled directly
with the support member. In regards to a fully grouted rock bolt, the response to shear
movements of the rock mass was mostly influenced by the many physical and interface
variables of the host rock medium, the encapsulating grout, and the bolt material and typology
including others. The maximum number of measurement points along the entirety of the bolt
was ultimately limited by the economic and spatial requirements of using additional sensors.
The success of such a technique to capture shear in situ would, therefore, be contingent on
the loading mechanism occurring within the location of one of these discrete measurement
points on the bolt. This was similarly be true for comparable load cell techniques (Rodger et
al.1996) and methods which considered monitoring the exposed head of bolt at the
excavation periphery (Mitri, 2011).

3.1 Rock Bolt Strain Sensing Technique: Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometer
(OFDR) (Forbes et al. 2017)

In addressing limitations of conventional ground support measurement, Forbes et al. (2017)

developed a novel optical strain sensing technique that was capable of measuring strain with
10
least count of 0.65 mm along the entirety of an optical sensor affixed to a support element.
The technique considered monitoring three sensing lengths along the profile of a fully grouted
rock bolt element using a single optical fiber, which allowed the derivation of both the principle
strain and principle strain direction along the bolt. The experiments comprised of symmetric
bending, combined axial load and bending, and double shear loading were presented by them
and highlighted the potential of the technique to capture bolt behaviour under such loading
conditions. Analogized as a distributed strain rosette, the optical technique could distinguish
both the coaxial and bending induced constituents of the total strain in the bolt regardless of
load orientation. Citing various published works, Forbes et al. (2017) have reported that
monitoring the dowel effect of a rock bolt subjected to shearing between planes was a
particular challenge due the locality of its effect on the bolt; often within 2.5–6.25 bolt
diameters from the intersection with the discontinuity. In this regard, it might not be realistic to
assume that an array of conventional discrete stress and/or strain measuring techniques
could be used to capture localized shearing mechanisms, especially without a prior
knowledge of discontinuity locations and corresponding movement vectors. The ability to
capture the potentially complex and highly variable load distribution of a fully grouted rock bolt
would, therefore, require a sensing technique with the capability to: i) measure the
reinforcement response at a fine spatial resolution, ii) distinguish between coaxial and lateral
components of reinforcement, and iii) derive the orientation of the reinforcement vector, which
in turn allowed the true magnitude of reinforcement to be resolved. They have described the
development of an innovative rock bolt strain sensing technique using a Rayleigh based
optical frequency domain reflectometer (OFDR) to measure a distributed strain profile across
the entirety of a reinforcement member at a millimeter scale. The technique was developed
within the framework of providing a research and industry solution for capturing the three-
dimensional response of loaded rock bolts, and most notably, the response to shear. The
potential of this optical technique to accurately capture the behaviour of a fully grouted rock
bolt under generalized in situ loading conditions was demonstrated through a series of
laboratory tests.
The determination of the two-dimensional state of strain along a support member would
almost always require a minimum a three individual measurement points. When considering
the two sensing length technique using ROFDR, the most obvious improvement was
therefore to implement an additional sensing length, and correspondingly, an additional loop
of the optical fiber sensor. It was chosen to embed a single optical fiber sensor within three 2
x 2 mm machined out grooves which extend the entirety of the bolt’s length and were
orientated at 120° from each other in a clockwise manner around the bolt (Fig. 11). The
optical sensor was encapsulated in the grooves using a proprietary adhesive which both
bonded the sensor to the bolt and provided a protective barrier. Additionally, a milled loop
provided a protected enclosure for the optical sensor to connect to succeeding sensing
lengths. The 120° orientation, commonly referred to as a delta arrangement, provided the
maximal spacing between sensing lengths which in turn minimized measurement noise
associated with sensor positioning and handling uncertainties. A re-percussion of the
grooving process was a decrease in the cross sectional area of the bolt. For bolt diameters of
19 mm and greater, this process decreased both the yield strength and flexural rigidity by a
maximum of 10%. Similar to conventional strain gauge rosettes, the optical technique
monitored only longitudinal strain along the three sensing lengths. However, a comparative
analysis of these three sensing lengths allowed for the determination of the principle strain
and principle strain direction of the bolt.

11
Fig. 11. Symmetric bending experiment. Top – Optical sensor configuration and approximate
orientation in section view. Bottom – Measured strain profiles at an applied bending load of
50 kg along the entirety of the optical sensor (Left) and along the bending span of the first
sensing length (Right) (Forbes et al. 2017)

However, the unique distinction of the optical technique was the spatial resolution of this
analysis. In comparison to conventional strain gauge rosettes, the optical solution allowed the
determination of principle strain and principle strain direction every 0.65 mm along the entirety
of the rock bolt. This three optical sensing length approach was therefore analogized as a
distributed strain rosette. In this regard, both the loading orientation and loading location(s)
along the fully grouted rock bolt was not necessary to be known prior to the bolt installation.
Hence, it was an ideal solution for resolving complex ground conditions in situ. Two validation
experiments were initially conceived in order to verify the competency of the proposed rock
bolt optical sensing technique and accompanied analysis of the principle strain and principle
strain direction. The experiments considered a symmetric bending as well as combined axial
and bending loading apparatus. The bolt specimens used in these experiments consisted of a
commercially available 22 mm diameter, 413 MPa minimum yield strength rebar from
JENNMAR Canada Ltd. The rebar specimens were modified in accordance to the three
sensing lengths discussed in the above. Tests were performed within the elastic limits of the
rebar elements, which in turn, allowed multiple tests to be conducted with a single
instrumented specimen. Referring to their various findings, Forbes et al. (2017) reported that
the magnitude of strain mobilized in the rebar at the left discontinuity was notably more than
that of the right discontinuity. This effect was considerably more pronounced when examining
the deflection profile of the rebar. A post inspection of the rebar and encapsulating grout
further confirmed non-symmetrical deflection of the rebar. It was therefore very important that
a study aimed at a more rigorous investigation of the shear mechanisms of fully grouted rock
bolts utilized an apparatus which could both restrain and confine the surrounding host
material. However, the application of the presented optical sensing technique, allowing both
the strain and deflection profile of the support specimen to be observed, provided an
unprecedented opportunity to ascertain the true bolt behaviour. This also suggested that the
optical sensing technique could be used to infer rock mass movement vectors in situ.

12
3.2 Monitoring Based on Displacement Sensors (Spearing et al. 2013)
In early days, rock bolt instrumentation mostly comprised of resistive strain gauges, however,
the new instrumentation described by Spearing et al. (2013) was based on an array of small
diameter displacement sensors that directly measure the induced displacement (i.e. stretch)
of the bolt over its entire length. Upon dividing the measured displacement by the base-length
of the sensor, an average strain was determined, which based on the material properties of
the bolt, was related to the load. The design and development of the instrumentation was
influenced by the requirement to provide both: i) a tool that can validate existing experimental
and theoretical research, and ii) a commercial and cost effective rock bolt monitoring solution.
Results were presented from two initial field trials in room-and-pillar coal mines. Theoretical
understanding provided the foundation for the design, implementation and interpretation of
any successful instrumentation project, especially one relating to a problem as complex as
the rock bolts and rock mass interaction. As mentioned above, for a fully grouted bolt the rock
displacement profile had a major effect on the load distribution induced along the bolt.
A novel rock-bolt instrumentation strategy using long base-length strain gauges as shown in
Fig. 12 was introduced and based on two case studies the following conclusions were drawn.
The long strain-gauge based roof bolt instrumentation appeared to provide a satisfactory
performance while covering almost the entire length of the roof bolt. The stretch along the bolt
was accurately measured and contour patterns indicated well known geotechnical
characteristics such as: i) arch formation, and ii) wedge formation. A staggered long gauge
configuration provided an enhanced axial distribution profile. Also, it compensated errors
introduced in magnitude. From an engineering perspective, it might be more informative to
measure where the bolt was being strained, rather than by how much. When subjected to
continuum behaviour classical symmetrical rock bolt loading patterns were measured and the
results were easily interpreted (Case Study 1). In contrast, when rock bolts became loaded by
a discontinuous rock mass behaviour (Case Study 2), then radically different results were
reported by bolts in close proximity. For the latter, it was essential to have a critical spatial
density of instrumented bolts to capture the geo-mechanical behaviour in three dimensions.
Thus in general it was more informative to deploy an array of low cost instruments rather than
fewer, more expensive units. From a geo-mechanical perspective, the derivation of failure
mechanisms was a major justification for the installation of instrumented rock bolts (Fig.13)
and accordingly preventive measures were undertaken.

Fig.12. The two strain gauge configurations used for the field trials: (a) Stacked configuration
and (b) Staggered configuration (Spearing et al. 2013)
13
 Fig.13. The proposed mechanism for instability in the roof of intersection based on the data
obtained (Spearing et al. 2013)
3.3 Monitoring of Bolt Axial Load: Instrumented Coupler Load Cell (U-Cell) (Mitri, 2011)
The most practical method for the estimation of roof bolt axial loads in the field to evaluate
rock support performance in underground mine openings was presented by Mitri (2011). The
method was based on attaching an instrumented coupler to the bolt head prior to installation.
Once installed, the coupler load cell enabled the measuring and monitoring of the bolt axial
force exerted on the face plate. According to Mitri (2011), previously developed load cell
technologies for rock anchors and their design were having few identified deficiencies for
applications in underground mining and they have tried to overcome with this new
development. According to him, the instrumented coupler technique was found to provide a
simple and practical means for the evaluation of rock support performance in mine openings
through their tested and demonstrated field trials and obtained results.
The need to measure the rock bolt load with instrumentation methods were recognized by
many researchers and new measurement techniques were successfully developed and
became commercially available. One of such products was the vibrating wire hollow load cell
technology used widely. As the load cell was sandwiched between the face plate and the
reaction plate, it measured the axial strain inside the cell, from which the axial bolt load was
calculated. According to him only, the disadvantages of this technology were numerous: i) the
vibrating wire strain gauge was fragile and often breaks prematurely as it reached its limit of
2500 to 3000 μs, which was often not enough to ensure the measurement of the bolt yield
load; ii) the face and reaction plates must be placed perfectly perpendicular to the bolt to
capture the correct reaction force, which was not always possible in mining applications; iii)
the hollow load cell reduced the headroom of the gate road by 15 cm and, iv) surface
preparation was required to make the surface and reaction plates perfectly parallel.
While the design concept of the instrumented rock bolt offered unique advantages over the
traditional hollow load cell technology, it was nevertheless not practical for mining applications
because of the various design deficiencies mentioned in the above and pointed out by him-
self in his paper. To overcome such deficiencies, Mitri (2011) had proposed a new concept for
monitoring axial load on the bolt head. The new concept, illustrated in Fig. 14 was made of a

14
coupler instrumented with a metal strain gauge that was placed in the blind borehole along
the axis of the coupler. The coupler load cell was fitted onto the rock anchor, which, once
installed in the rock, permitted the monitoring of the anchor head axial load. The coupler was
designed so that its yield load was greater than the ultimate breaking strength of the rock
anchor. This design ensured a complete load path monitoring of rock support performance
until failure. The coupler design offered the advantages of light weight in shipping and
handling as well as ease of installation in the field. The upper end of the coupler load cell had
a threaded hole that was tapped to fit the desired thread diameter of the rock anchor.

Fig. 14. Rock bolt new coupler load cell design concept proposed by Mitri (2011)

The new coupler load cell was applied to a variety of rock anchors in different mining
applications. It also referred as the U-cell coupler was a load cell device that could be
routinely coupled to the threaded end of a bolt prior to installation. Fig. 15 shows a typical load
cell used to monitor No. 6 (3/4 inch) rebar. The outer nut served as a jamming nut to enable
the bolt spinning to puncture the resin cartridges and allow for mixing. Once the fast resin
sets, the outer nut was removed and the bolt was tightened.

Fig. 15. The U cell: typical dia 31 mm for 16/19 mm and 35 mm dia for 22 mm rock bolts
(Mitri, 2011, Mitri et al. 2012)

15
As presented in the above, Mitri (2011) proposed and successfully tried in field a new method
of monitoring axial loads in rock anchors like rock bolts and rebars used as rock supports.
According to him, conventional hollow cell load technology was not found suitable for mining
applications with numerous disadvantages. He developed an alternative method that
instruments the bolt head directly. However, such method deemed not practical due to the
need to ship and handle the instrumented bolt from and to the mine. Then new method,
based on a coupler load cell concept was developed by him and found to be simple, practical
and efficient. The instrumented coupler load cell technique developed by him was found to be
universal in the sense that it could be adapted to any type of rock anchors.
According to Mitri et al. (2012), almost all previous instrumented rock bolt studies have used
core technologies based on resistive strain gauges according to two scenarios: i) load cells
positioned at the head of the bolt, and ii) resistance strain gauge arrays recessed into grooves
along the length of the bolt. Both approaches were complimentary with the selection criterion
for each depending on factors such as whether the rock-bolt was fully grouted or end-
anchored. Two new products, one for each of the afore-mentioned approaches, were
presented by them. Firstly the U-cell coupler was a load cell device that could be routinely
coupled to the threaded end of a bolt (Fig. 16) prior to installation as discussed in the above.
It measured the ‘series’ load at the head of the bolt. Secondly the d-REBAR (Distributed
Strain Measurement along the Length of Rockbolt) involved an array of small-diameter long-
base-length displacement sensors recessed into grooves along the entire length of the bolt
(Fig. 17) and also discussed earlier by Spearing et al. (2013). Both new instruments were
interfaced with on-board digital signal conditioning and telemetry. They have presented
methodologies for the deployment of the new instrumentation and guidelines for the
interpretation of results obtained based on data obtained from the field trials. The results
demonstrated the viability of these new technologies and moreover provided important insight
into rock bolt/rock mass interaction as shown in Fig. 17.

Fig. 16. Two new technologies: U-Cell and d-REBAR (Mitri et al. 2012)

16
 Fig. 17. Spatial contoured plots of the axial displacement (upper plot) and axial strain (lower
plot). In the lower plot 153 is equivalent to 1 tonne, so that the maximum load on bolt #73 was
around 13 tonnes (Mitri et al. 2012)

4. Conclusions
Presently, specially developed bolts i. e. energy absorbing are being used in conditions
exposed to dynamic loading like from blasting, earthquakes or rock bursts caused by high
rock stresses. Rock bursts are a major problem in deep mining, where violent and rapid
ground movements occur due to poor ground conditions, cracks and high stresses within the
rock. In the present paper, brief review of available and recent developments in rock bolts
specially energy absorbing bolts, cone bolts, hydraulic expansion and D-Type of bolts along
with recent developments on monitoring front is presented and discussed. The purpose of this
paper is not exhaustive in nature, but to highlight its significance and applications with
presented field as well as laboratory based test results, through available literature. At the
present, most of the underground coal mines works on intermediate technology and
introduction of mass production technologies are being now-days planned at greater scale in
Indian Coal Mining Industry with introduction of longwall mining, continuous miners, road-
headers for faster and mechanized drivages including others. With the help of new
developments undertook in the area of rock bolts and its monitoring, it will be possible to plan
new extraction mass production technologies in complex, difficult and deeper level with ease
and with improved production, productivity and enhanced safety etc. However, indigenous
effort is needed towards the development of the same under Government of India initiative
“MAKE IN INDIA” for its wide suitability, applicability and feasibility with economics
consideration in Indian Coal Mining Industry.

Acknowledgement
The special thanks are due to the Director, CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel
Research, Dhanbad, for his kind permission to publish this paper. The views expressed
therein are of that author and not necessarily of the Institute he belongs to.

17
References
Ansell A. (2006). Dynamic testing of steel for a new type of energy absorbing rock bolt.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research. 62:501–512.
Ansell A. (2005). Laboratory testing of a new type of energy absorbing rock bolt. Tunnelling &
Underground Space Technology. 20:291–300.
Chen Y. and Li C.C. (2015). Performance of fully encapsulated rebar bolts and D-Bolts under
combined pull and shear loading. Tunnelling & Underground Space Technology. 45:99–106.
Forbes B., Vlachopoulos N., Hyett A. J. and Diederichs M. S. (2017). A new optical sensing
technique for monitoring shear of rock bolts. Tunnelling & Underground Space Technology.
66:34-46.
Gillerstedt P. (1999). Full scale pull and shear laboratory test of yielding rockbolts. In: Papers
presented at Rock Mechanics Meeting in Stockholm, March 10, 1999, pp. 105–119.
He M., Gong W., Wang J., Qi P., Tao Z., Du S., Peng Y. (2014). Development of a novel
energy-absorbing bolt with extraordinarily large elongation and constant resistance.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences. 67:29–42.
Hyett A.J. and Mitri H. (2012). Two new technologies for measuring the in situ performance of
rock bolts. In: Abstract Volume of Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on
Rock Bolting and Rock Mechanics in Mining. Aachen,Germany: AIMS, abstract number -036.
Jager A.J. (1992). Two new support units for the control of rockburst damage. In: Rock
Support in Mining and Underground Construction. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Rock Support, Sudbury, pp. 621–631.
Li C.C. (2010). A new energy-absorbing bolt for rock support in high stress rock masses. I J
Rock Mech Min Sci. 47:396–404.
Li C. C. (2012). Performance of D-bolts under static loading. Rock Mech Rock Eng. 45:183–
192.
Li C.C. and Doucet C.(2012). Performance of D-bolts under dynamic loading. Rock Mech.
Rock Eng. 45:193–204.
McCreath D.R., Kaiser, P.K. (1995). Current support practices in burst-prone ground. Mining
Research Directorate. In: Canadian Rockburst Research Project, GRC, Laurentian University.
Mitri H., Hyett A.J. and Guntumadugu D. R. (2012). New monitoring technologies for
measuring the in situ performance of rock bolts. In Proc 31st International Conference on
Ground Control in Mining. Peng S., Mark C. & Khair W. (Eds), West Virginia University, USA.
Mitri H. (2011). Evaluation of Rock Support Performance through Instrumentation and
Monitoring of Bolt Axial Load. In 11th Underground Coal Operators' Conference, University of
Wollongong & the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 136-140.
Qingliang C., Huaqiang Z., Zhihong X. and Shiping S. (2013). Anchoring mechanism and
application of hydraulic expansion bolts used in soft rock roadway floor heave control.
International Journal of Mining Science and Technology. 23:323–328.
Raju D., Mitri H. and Thibodeau D. (2011). Mine safety enhancement by designing dynamic
rock supports. In Proc First International Symposium on Mine Safety Science and
Engineering. Procedia Engineering, 26:1591–1602. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.2343.
Spearing A.J.S., Hyett A.J., Kostecki T. and Gadde M. (2013). New technology for measuring
the in situ performance of rockbolts. Int J Rock Mech & Min Sci. 57:153–166.
Rodger A. A., Littlejohn G.S., Xu H. and Holland D.C. (1996). Instrumentation for monitoring
the dynamic and static behaviour of rock bolts in tunnels. Proc. Inst. Civ.Eng. – Geotech. Eng.
119 (3):146–155.
Tannant, D.D. and Buss, B.W. (1994). Yielding rockbolt anchors for high convergence or
rockburst conditions. In: Proceedings 47th Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Halifax, p. 10.

$$$
18
109