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ER
39,5
626
Received 22 December 2016
Revised 9 May 2017
Accepted 25 May 2017
Employee Relations
Vol. 39 No. 5, 2017
pp. 626-642
© Emerald Publishing Limited
0142-5455
DOI 10.1108/ER-12-2016-0245
The HRM-performance
relationship revisited
Inspirational motivation, participative
decision making and happiness at work (HAW)
Andres Salas-Vallina
ESIC Business and Marketing School, Madrid, Spain, and
Rafael Fernandez
Department of Business Management, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between inspirational leadership,
participative decision making (PDM) and happiness at work (HAW).
Design/methodology/approach – The sampling frame consists of medical specialists in allergy of Spanish
public hospitals (n ¼ 167). The authors used structural equation modelling to verify if the relationship
between inspirational leadership and HAW is mediated by PDM.
Findings – Results suggest that PDM fully mediates the relationship between inspirational leadership and
HAW. Thus, PDM plays an essential role in explaining how inspirational leader behaviours.
Research limitations/implications – The authors put forward a cross-sectional research, which does not
guarantee similar results in the future. Future longitudinal studies may reveal further effects of inspirational
motivation and PDM beyond HAW. Also the authors focussed on a specific population of medical specialists
working in public allergy units. Future research might consider longitudinal analysis and other populations.
Practical implications – This research provides evidence of the direct and positive effect of inspirational
leadership on HAW. However, fostering inspirational leadership is not sufficient on its own to foment HAW,
and should be complemented by applying other organisational factors such as PDM.
Originality/value – In recent years, some studies have put forward different conceptual models to explain
the gap in the relationship between human resource management and performance, considering the effect
of mediating variables. This study proposes a theoretical model that attempts to develop this human
resource “black box” by empirically validating a conceptual proposal that links inspirational leadership,
PDM and HAW.
Keywords Human resource management, Inspirational leadership, Happiness at work,
Participative decision making
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Traditionally, much of the literature in the area of human resource management (HRM) has
focussed on the relationship between human resource (HR) practices and firm performance
(Wright and Boswell, 2002). However, the link between HRM and performance is a rather one-
sided perspective that ignores the human side of HR. The human factor is the key resource of
HRM, yet research has tended to neglect the impact of HR systems on the quality of employees’
working lives and their well-being. The real challenge is to understand how different working
conditions affect human resources. Researchers have recently begun to consider the effect of
diverse variables on employee attitudes (Walumbwa et al., 2005; Bailey et al., 2015), such as
happiness at work (HAW) (Fisher, 2010). According to Hills and Argyle (2001), happiness is a
multidimensional construct which involves emotional and cognitive factors. Although research
on how HR practices improve job satisfaction through participative decision making (PDM)
has received considerable attention, there is a surprising lack of research about this
relationship in health care. Only a few studies centring on nursing have explored the effect of
PDM on attitudes such as job satisfaction (Shwaihet and Nasaif, 2015). Far more striking is the
fact that few studies explore the relationship of HRM and positive attitudes in the field of
medical specialists. Medical specialists are a particularly pertinent population to study, as they HRM-
are knowledge-intensive workers. Knowledge-intensive jobs require autonomy and extensive performance
communication (Alvesson, 2004), and these aspects are promoted by PDM. Our research is relationship
framed in the area of medical specialists working in allergy units, who place considerable value
on professional independence and a supportive attitude from their superiors (Chivato Pérez
et al., 2011). However, allergy units are completely overloaded with patients entailing work-
related physical and mental strain for doctors. It is essential that allergists achieve good quality 627
of life in their profession, namely, HAW, as the quality of life of many people depends to a
large extent on the care these doctors provide. In addition, achieving suitable levels of HAW
could improve the physical and mental health of medical specialists, which could be considered
as an end in itself.
One of the first scholars to study positive attitudes was Seligman (1993), who identified the
need for more detailed studies into positive human strengths, in contrast to the negative
aspects of human psychology (burnout, lack of motivation, lack of communication). More
recently, concepts such as engagement (Schaufeli et al., 2002) and well-being (Hills and Argyle,
2001) have been understood as forms of happiness and literature has begun to show an
increasing interest in HAW (Salas-Vallina et al., 2017), understood as happy feelings towards
the job itself, the job’s characteristics and the organisation as a whole (Fisher, 2010). However,
research into how HRM and positive attitudes work is limited and sometimes presents
inconsistent findings. Despite people being a source of competitive advantage (Pfeffer, 1994),
with HRM playing a central role in developing this competitive advantage (Wright et al., 2003),
researchers still demand theories about how HRM and performance are linked (Paauwe, 2009).
In addition, a better understanding of mediating variables on the HRM-performance
relationship is also required. This existing gap is known as the “black box” (Boselie et al., 2005).
Different conceptual models (Becker et al., 1997; Purcell et al., 2003; Wright and Nishii, 2006)
aim to unmask the HRM-performance connection, considering the effect of mediating variables.
The aim of this paper is to explore the HRM-performance relationship by verifying the
effect of a mediating variable. In particular, we examine the impact of inspirational
leadership on an attitudinal outcome, namely, HAW, and the mediating role of certain
conditions that facilitate PDM. This introduction is followed by a brief review of the
theoretical background in which we present our research hypotheses. Second, we explain
the methodology followed in this research. We then present the results and close by
highlighting the implications and limits of our study and proposals for future research.

2. Theoretical background
2.1 HAW
Past academic research reveals the importance of quality of life in the workplace for
individuals and organisations (Fisher, 2010; Wright et al., 2012). For example, job
satisfaction reduces absenteeism (Meyer et al., 2002) and improves job performance
(Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996). A positive mood at work improves job effectiveness,
cooperation (Harrison et al., 2006), creativity and results (Baas et al., 2008). However,
Fisher (2010) evidenced an important gap in the study of positive attitudes. She revealed the
lack of a sufficiently explanatory measure of positive attitudes, and suggested HAW needed
to be defined and measured. She understood HAW as “happy feelings towards the job itself,
the job characteristics and the organisation as a whole”, and Salas-Vallina et al. (2017)
conceptualised HAW by offering a new measurement scale for it. HAW is an attitudinal
broad-based concept that measures employees’ quality of life at work. This is the reason
why we focus on HAW, and not on engagement, involvement, job satisfaction or other
concepts related to HAW.
It was Paauwe (2009) who identified two perspectives to examine the link between HRM
and performance outcomes. These were a clear connection between HRM and performance,
ER and an unresolved association between HRM and performance. We follow the second
39,5 perspective, considering the diversity of theories that have tried to explain the
HRM-performance link, using different models. The people-performance framework
(Purcell et al., 2003) is based on two premises: all employees can act with discretionary
behaviour, and managers play an essential role because they can implement discretionary
HRM and can behave towards employees in a subjective way. This model also takes into
628 account the fact that employees can do their work because they have the necessary skills,
motivations and opportunities to participate (Boselie, 2010). Purcel et al.’s “black box”
considers job satisfaction, organisational commitment and motivation as HR-related
outcomes, and our work focuses on HAW as an HR outcome.
Our research examines the antecedents of HAW to help explain the open debate around
positive attitudes at work, and proposes that inspirational leadership might be a potential
antecedent of HAW.

2.2 Inspirational leadership and HAW

Perhaps because evidence shows that we still know little about the context that promotes
positive attitudes (Hackman, 2009), research has begun to centre on the importance of
examining antecedents of positive attitudinal constructs such as engagement (Ugwu et al.,
2014), We know that the major causes of happiness in organisations are related to the
characteristics of the organisation, the job or the supervisor (Fisher, 2010), and literature
reveals that more research is required to better understand how organisational
characteristics motivate employees (Moynihan and Pandey, 2007). Following the job
demands-resources ( JD-R) model, we can see that inspirational leadership as a work
resource might lead to positive attitudes, such as HAW. The JD-R model (Demerouti et al.,
2001) states that job resources are physical, psychological, social or organisational
characteristics of a job which induce a motivational process (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007)
that fosters positive attitudes at work, such as work engagement (Schaufeli et al., 2009).
Job demands and lack of resources (such as lack of support from supervisors) result in
negative states. Therefore, the potential antecedents of HAW may be those related to
leadership styles, since leadership styles include an emotional component (Bass, 1985) and
are important for positive attitudes (Breevaart et al., 2014). George and Jones (1997) revealed
the effect of transformational leadership on positive attitudes. Transformational leadership
includes inspirational motivation, but very few researchers have explored the consequences
of inspirational leadership. The consequence is that it is difficult to find studies that examine
the effect of inspirational leadership on employees’ attitudes (Rafferty and Griffin, 2004).
Although inspirational motivation has been considered as an important element of
transformational leadership, this construct has been defined in different ways (Barbuto,
1997). Bass (1985) argues that charismatic leaders use inspiration and emotional speech to
stimulate the motivations of followers to transcend self-interest for the good of the
organisation. Later, Bass (1999) affirmed that both charisma and inspirational motivation
are present when a leader predicts the future, plans how it can be achieved, suggests an
example to be followed, sets high levels of performance, and displays conviction. Downton
(1973) understood inspiration as the action or power of moving the intellect or emotions.
Bass (1985) understands that the process through which inspirational leadership influences
employees is related to affective aspects and emotional appeals at work. Correspondingly,
Yukl (1981, p. 121) suggested that inspiration refers to “the extent to which a leader
stimulates enthusiasm among subordinates for the work of the group and says things to
build subordinate confidence in their ability to perform assignments successfully and attain
group objectives”.
Inspirational motivation has been empirically connected with extra effort (Howell and
Avolio, 1993), ethical behaviour (Banerji and Krishnan, 2000), learning orientation
(Coad and Berry, 1998) and team trust ( Joshi et al., 2009). However, there has been little HRM-
clarification as to the effects of inspirational motivation on other relevant variables, such performance
as HAW. relationship
Our research is framed in the health sector, and examines an intensive knowledge sample
formed by allergists (physicians specialised in allergy). Muchiri et al. (2012) considered it
was essential to further explore the connection between leadership and followers’ attitudinal
outcomes in public-sector organisations. Intensive knowledge jobs employ predominantly 629
highly-qualified individuals who are involved primarily in work of an intellectual nature
(Alvesson, 1999). Leadership style is a strategic factor that facilitates knowledge
(Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995), and transformational leadership encourages good
communication, and enables sharing and knowledge generation (Slater and Naver, 1995).
Leaders concerned for the welfare of others are likely to create a climate of cooperation
and trust in which it is easy to feel happy at work. We suggest that the HAW dimensions of
job satisfaction, engagement and affective organisational commitment may arise as a
consequence of inspirational leadership.
Job satisfaction evaluates job characteristics, which could be more positively perceived
under favourable conditions. Along these lines, the work of Ozcelik et al. (2008), which
demonstrates a positive connection between particular leadership practices and a positive
organisational climate, thus encouraging a better perception of job conditions, is particularly
relevant. Negussie and Demissie (2013) demonstrated that inspirational motivation is strongly
related to job satisfaction, and Mohammad et al. (2011) found a statistically significant and
positive relationship between inspirational motivation and job satisfaction.
Engagement implies feelings of enthusiasm and passion at work. Inspirational leaders
enhance confidence (Malhotra et al., 2007), enthusiasm and optimism (Bass, 1985) and promote
emotional contagion (Haver et al., 2013). Inspirational leadership promotes a collective identity
orientation focusing on a collective message, energising teams and enhancing self-identification
between individuals and organisations, which results in greater commitment ( Joshi et al., 2009).
For all of the above reasons, the relationship between inspirational leadership and HAW
makes sense and, in line with the JD-R theory, we propose our first hypothesis:
H1. Inspirational leadership positively affects HAW.

2.3 The mediating role of PDM in the relationship between inspirational leadership
and HAW
2.3.1 Inspirational leadership and PDM. Our research also considers that allergists led by
inspirational heads of department in conditions that promote participation in allergy unit
decisions will be happier at work. Inspiration entails modifying the way people think about
themselves so that they want to take positive action. Purcell et al. (2003) stated that HR
practices (such as job challenges, communication and development) affect HR outcomes
(e.g. positive attitudes such as job satisfaction) through specific mediating variables.
Purcell’s model is based on an employee’s abilities, motivation and opportunity to
participate, namely, the AMO theory (Paauwe, 2009). One of these mediating variables is an
opportunity to participate, and we propose PDM as a mediating variable in our theoretical
model. PDM is defined as “the totality of forms, i.e. direct (personal) or indirect (through
representatives or institutions) and of intensities, i.e. ranging from minimal to
comprehensive, by which individuals, groups, collectives secure their interests or
contribute to the choice process through self-determined choices among possible actions
during the decision process” (Heller et al., 1998). While different approaches examine the
effects of different types of PDM in organisations, Scott-Ladd and Chan (2004) state that
employees who are given a “voice” in issues that are important to them are more likely to be
satisfied at work (Hunton et al., 1998) and committed (Greenberg, 1990). This is why
ER organisations need to implement accurate practices that include employee participation. Our
39,5 assertion is that inspirational leaders empower individuals to participate.
Delegation, flexible organisational structure and knowledge of the organisation are
factors included by Chiva et al. (2007) in the PDM dimension of a second order construct,
namely, organisational learning capability (OLC). Our research takes the PDM from Chiva
et al.’s (2007) OLC construct.
630 Inspirational leadership is focussed on how leaders galvanise followers into
participating actively (Bass, 1990). Inspirational leaders empower followers and set
challenging goals. Because inspirational leaders are willing to incur in great personal
risks and costs (Conger and Kanungo, 1987), they may facilitate members’ participation.
Quite the opposite, autocratic behaviour in powerful positions can restrain employees’
participation (Tost et al., 2013).
2.3.2 PDM and HAW. Positive attitudes at work is an important research field (Fisher,
2010), while the relationship between literature on PDM and positive attitudes, such as job
satisfaction, is relatively undeveloped. The people-performance “black box” considers that
HR practices lead to job satisfaction, organisational commitment and motivation, which
result in other performance outcomes. Such research provides insights into areas from
which organisations can create HR practices, such as participating in decision making, to
ultimately promote HAW. It was Herzberg who wondered “How do I get an employee to do
what I want him to do” (Herzberg, 1968), and concluded that job satisfaction consisted of two
separate independent dimensions: the first one related to job satisfaction (motivational
factors) and the second one related to job dissatisfaction (hygienic factors), representing two
distinct continua. Motivational factors are aspects of work which are intrinsic to the
employee and facilitate feelings of happiness. Hygienic factors are extrinsic aspects of work
related to the work environment that cause dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1959). Herzberg (1959)
suggested eliminating hygienic factors and instead promoting factors which motivate
employees through job enrichment. The first motivation for developing PDM programmes
was raising productivity levels (Greenberg, 1975). Participating in decision making can fulfil
employees’ higher-order needs (Maslow, 1943), which essentially raises job satisfaction
(Vroom, 1964). Since PDM practices help employees to design solutions to work-related
problems, they will promote flow (Miller and Monge, 1986) and higher levels of job
satisfaction (Black and Gregersen, 1997). Conversely, if employees are discouraged from
putting forward potential solutions to problems, their jobs will lose meaning. We suggest
that employees’ PDM affects both objective evaluations of job characteristics
(job satisfaction), feelings of energy and meaning at work (engagement) as well as
feelings of belonging to the organisation (affective organisational commitment), namely,
HAW dimensions. PDM implies benefits for the organisation, such as increased job
satisfaction and organisational commitment (Daniels and Bailey, 1999). Employees who can
take part in decisions affecting them are more likely to appreciate outcomes (Black and
Gregersen, 1997). These findings are consistent with the JD-R theory (Demerouti et al., 2001),
and show a direct link between PDM (job resources) and HAW (positive attitude).
On the basis of the above fact, our second hypothesis is proposed:
H2. PDM mediates the relationship between inspirational leadership and HAW.
Figure 1 represents the conceptual model.

3. Methodology
3.1 Data collection and analysis
To test the hypotheses, we addressed a questionnaire to the medical staff working in allergy
units in Spanish public hospitals across Spain. The questionnaire consisted of 15 items and
 Age
HRM-
IL1 ENG
performance
relationship

Inspirational
IL2 HAW JS
leadership
631

IL3 AOC

PDM

Figure 1.
PDM1 PDM2 PDM3 Conceptual model

was completed via the official website of the Spanish Society of Allergology and Clinical
Immunology (SEAIC). Doctor Olaguíbel, the Chairman of the SEAIC, backed our research by
including a support letter.
Allergists are a relevant population to explore, as they are knowledge-intensive workers.
As mentioned by Alvesson (2004), knowledge-intensive workers require sufficient
autonomy and communication (elements promoted by PDM). Additionally, allergists
belong to the public sector where there is a need to further explore the effects of leadership
style on followers’ attitudinal outcomes (Muchiri et al., 2012). The public sector, which is
subject to political scrutiny and to strict control (Hartley and Skelcher, 2008), produce
“public value” from the pressure of government policies, in contrast to the private sector,
which is subject to market pressures. However, Spanish allergists are heavily overloaded
with work and, in general, are not happy (Pérez et al., 2011). In fact, allergists have confessed
to not receiving much support from their leaders. They work in reduced units, operating in
coordination with other health services, such as the Medical Emergency Department, the
Respiratory Medicine Department and the ENT Department.
The profession of allergists is fully consolidated in Spain, with a recognised training
system and a relatively young population (8.82 per cent are older than 50, compared
with 19.29 per cent for doctors in general). From a gender perspective, 58.12 per cent of
allergists are women whilst when taking the profession as a whole, women only
account for 0.47 per cent of the total number of doctors (Pombo and Pérez, 2005).
Between 20 and 30 per cent of the Spanish population suffers from some type of allergy
(Pombo and Pérez, 2005).
A quantitative methodology was followed at individual analysis level. A general
report was offered to all doctors with the aim of achieving the maximum number of
questionnaires (Malhotra et al., 2004). We obtained 167 responses, which represented a
25 per cent response rate.
The empirical validation of the proposed model was carried out using structural
equations and EQS 6.1 statistical software. Structural equations allow for the estimation of
multiple and cross-dependence relationships considering the measurement error in the
estimation procedure (Hair et al., 2006).
Measurement of HAW. HAW was measured using a reduced version of the HAW scale
(Salas-Vallina et al., 2017). HAW is a higher-order construct that comprises three
ER dimensions: engagement, job satisfaction and affective organisational commitment. While
39,5 the original HAW scale included 31 items, we used a shortened version (S-HAW) of only
9 items (i.e. “At my job, I feel strong and vigorous”).
Measurement of inspirational leadership. The items corresponding to inspirational
communication from the scale adapted by Rafferty and Griffin (2004) taken from the
Podsakoff scale (Podsakoff et al., 1990), were used to measure inspirational leadership
632 (i.e. “Encourages people to see changing environments as situations full of opportunities”).
Measurement of OLC. The items corresponding to PDM from the scale validated by
Chiva et al. (2007) were used to measure OLC (“Managers in this organisation frequently
involve employees in important decisions”).

4. Results
4.1 Psychometric properties of measurement scales
Descriptive statistics were first analysed. Table I shows the means, standard deviations and
factor correlations. We analysed the psychometric properties of the measurement scales,
following accepted methodology (Gerbing and Anderson, 1998), namely, the evaluation of
dimensionality, reliability, content, and convergent and discriminant validity (Tippins and
Sohi, 2003).
All factor loadings were sufficiently high and significant. The correct fit of the IL and
PDM scales, and the second-order factor model of HAW were verified. The p-value of the χ2
statistic is below the 0.05 significance level for all the scales, and the other indicators show
the correct dimensionality of the constructs (Table II).
We ensured HAW discriminant validity by using confirmatory factor analysis
(Table III). We compared two models, one of which was estimated by constraining the
correlation to 1. The model fitted better for all pairs of constructs where the correlation was
not equal to 1, supporting the fact that the two constructs are different from each other,
although they may be significantly correlated (Bagozzi and Phillips, 1991). The results
indicate that correlation coefficients were significant and below 0.9 (Del Barrio and Luque,
2012), which also guarantees discriminant validity.

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. IL 3.000 1.358 0.993

2. PDM 3.694 1.500 0.344 0.985
3. ENG 3.702 1.670 0.223* 0.477 0.966
4. JS 3.750 1.751 0.266 0.415 0.810 0.951
Table I. 5. AOC 3.697 1.744 0.224 0.409 0.769 0.843 0.984
Descriptive statistics, Notes: Cronbach’s α appear on the diagonal. IL, inspirational leadership; PDM, participative decision
correlations and making; ENG, engagement; JS, job satisfaction; AOC, affective organisational commitment. Correlations not
reliabilities marked with an asterisk presented a significant correlation at p o0.01. *Significant correlation ( po 0.05)

Mod. Satorra-Bentler χ2 df p-value BBNFI CFI RMSEA NC ( ¼ χ2/df )

Table II.
Fit values for the IL 6.123 3 o0.01 0.975 0.989 0.069 2.041
second order factorial PDM 5.868 3 o0.01 0.968 0.990 0.052 1.956
model of IL, S-HAW 33.322 22 o0.01 0.990 0.997 0.056 1.515
PDM and HAW Note: All loadings for the second-order factors were significant at p o0.001
The procedure used to select the measurement scales provides support to content validity. HRM-
The inspirational leadership dimension items were taken from a previously validated scale performance
(Rafferty and Griffin, 2004), in which the inspirational leadership behaviour dimension was relationship
added as one element of transformational leadership. The items used to measure PDM were
introduced as one component of the validated OLC scale (Chiva et al., 2007), which has been
thoroughly reviewed by literature. The S-HAW scale is a short version of the HAW scale,
empirically validated by Salas-Vallina et al. (2017). The content validity of the three scales 633
can therefore be confirmed.
The results of the convergent and discriminant validity analyses are also satisfactory.
Convergent validity means that the measure used is highly correlated with other measures of
the same concept (Camisón, 1999). We applied three methods to assess convergent validity:
the Bentler-Bonet normed-fit index (BBNFI, Bentler and Bonett, 1980), the value of the factor
loadings, and the t-values (Bollen, 1989). The results show that the BBNFI index exceeded
0.9, the factor loadings were above 0.4 (Hair et al., 2006), and the t-values were greater than
1.96 (Anderson and Gerbing, 1982), confirming the convergent validity of the scales.
Following Gatignon et al. (2002), we used pairwise analyses using confirmatory factor
analysis between all dimensions to test for discriminant validity. Then we estimated another
model setting the correlation between these dimensions and unity. We found that the model
fitted better when the correlation between dimensions was different from unity, hence
demonstrating discriminant validity (Table III).
We also checked the reliability of HAW dimensions, verifying that composite reliability
was above the recommended value of 0.7 (Nunally, 1978). We also estimated the R2 of
indicators. Table II reports the pairwise confirmatory factor analyses, which produced high
correlations. Highly reliable scales were strongly inter-correlated, indicating that they
measured the same latent concept (Hair et al., 2006).
We used composite reliability values and R2 values to check reliability; all the R2 values
came in above 0.50, and composite reliability values were above 0.70. We can therefore
confirm the reliability of the measurement scales for each dimension of HAW (Table IV ).

Engagement Job Satisfaction

Ø df χ2 p Ø df χ2 p

Job satisfaction
0.710 7 11.168 0.131
1 8 14.478 0.070
Affective organisational commitment Table III.
0.619 7 10.538 0.160 0.743 7 15.586 0.029 Pairwise confirmatory
1 8 12.886 0.116 1 8 25.029 0.002 analyses

Dimension Composite reliability R2

Engagement 0.986 V30 V31 V32

0.942 0.956 0.937
Job satisfaction 0.994 V33 V34 V35 V36 V37 V38
0.864 0.888 0.918 0.934 0.941 0.939 Table IV.
Affective organisational Composite reliability
commitment 0.960 V39 V40 V41 V42 V43 V44 V45 V46 of HAW dimensions
0.912 0.871 0.884 0.890 0.907 0.935 0.926 0.959 and R2 of indicators
ER 4.2 Verification of the research hypotheses
39,5 We followed Tippins and Sohi (2003) methodology to verify: whether inspirational leadership
positively affected HAW (H1), and whether PDM mediated the relationship between
inspirational leadership and HAW. The results of the direct effect model, except for the control
variable “age”, show that all the standardised parameters were statistically significant
(t ⩾ 1.96, for a 0.05 significance level). Results indicated an excellent fit for the direct effect
634 model: RMSEA of 0.044, below the recommended value of 0.08 (Hair et al., 2006). The BBNFI,
BBNNFI and CFI values were above 0.90, and the normed χ2 was 2.271, which was within the
recommended range (Tippins and Sohi, 2003). We can conclude that the structural model has a
very good fit for the direct effect model. Figure 2 shows the estimate of the direct effect model.
In Table IV the parameter estimates and the t-values are presented.
The results of the mediating model reveal that all the estimated parameters were
statistically significant, with the exception of the control variable, showing t-values above
the 1.96 limit. As with the direct effect model, the fit was also excellent (RMSEA ¼ 0.019,
BBNFI ¼ 0.945; BBNNFI ¼ 0.930; CFI ¼ 0.963).
Following Tippins and Sohi (2003), four conditions are required for mediation to be sustained:
(1) The R2 values of the structural equation model (see Figures 2 and 3) show that the
total mediation model (0.720) explains a greater proportion of the variance of HAW
than the direct effect model (0.259).
(2) There is a direct and positive effect between inspirational leadership and PDM
( β2 ¼ 0.383, t ¼ 4.955, p o0.01).
(3) In the mediation model the significant relationship between inspirational leadership
and HAW disappears. While the relationship between these two variables is direct
and significant in the direct model (α ¼ 0.296, t ¼ 6.740, po0.01), in the mediation
model the direct effect is not significant ( β1 ¼ 0.067 t ¼ 0.301).
(4) A direct relationship between PDM and HAW was also observed ( β3 ¼ 0.405, t ¼ 5.610).
The RMSEA, BBNFI, BBNNFI and CFI results are above the recommended value of 0.90,
and the normed χ2 value is 1.323. It can undoubtedly be assumed, therefore, that the total
mediation model fits the data perfectly. Figure 3 shows the total mediation model.

5. Discussion
The aim of this study is to extend the understanding of the HR Black box, examining the
relationship between leadership practices, HR practices and positive attitudes. In particular,

Age

IL1 0.719 0.631 ENG

0.934 Inspirational 0.296 0.840

IL2 HAW JS
leadership
0.766
0.876

IL3 AOC

Notes: Structural equation HAW = 0.296 × IL; R2 = 0.259 (t = 6.740); goodness-of-fit statistics
2 =118.092 (p<0.01); df = 52; normed 2 = 2.271; Bentler-Bonnet normed fit index
Figure 2.
Direct effect model (BBNFI) = 0.963; Bentler-Bonet non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.950; comparative fit
index (CFI) = 0.921; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.044
 Age
HRM-
IL1 ENG
performance
0.019 ns
0.733 0.670
relationship

0.929 Inspirational 0.067 0.855

IL2 HAW JS
leadership
0.882 635
0.782

IL3 0.383 0.405 AOC

PDM

0.814 0.720 0.934

PDM1 PDM2 PDM3

Notes: Structural equation HAW = 0.067 × IL+0.405PDM; R2 = 0.720 (t = 0.301) (t = 5.610);

PDM = 0.383 × IL; R2 = 0.290 (t = 4.955); goodness-of-fit statistics 2 = 218.450 ( p<0.01); df = 85;
normed 2 = 2.570; Bentler-Bonnet normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.945; Bentler-Bonet non-normed
Figure 3.
fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.930; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.963; root mean square error of Mediation models
approximation (RMSEA) = 0.019

this research suggests and empirically explores a model of the relationship between IL and
HAW, considering the mediating role of PDM. This study was conducted in the health care
sector, where few studies have examined the connection between leadership styles,
HR practices and positive attitudes.
The results of this study contribute to the literature in different ways. The findings
confirmed the proposed model and the research hypotheses. The results add significant
implications for both PDM literature and leadership literature. First, our research has
empirically demonstrated that the three measurement scales overcome the psychometric
properties in the public sector. Few works (Wright et al., 2012) include the IL dimension of
transformational leadership in the public sector. In addition, there is scarce evidence of PDM
and HAW in the public sector, and consequently we strengthen the validity of all these
measurement scales in the public health care sector.
Second, our research reveals that IL increases HAW. Although there is previous evidence
for a direct and positive relationship between transformational leadership and positive
attitudes, such as commitment and job satisfaction (Walumbwa et al., 2005), no previous
studies have been performed using Chiva et al.’s (2007) PDM dimension of OLC, and Salas-
Vallina et al.’s (2017) HAW construct. The results are in line with the findings in
Breevaart et al. (2014), who revealed that leadership style enhances positive attitudes, and in
Joshi et al. (2009), who evidenced a link between inspirational leadership and commitment.
Our research has confirmed that inspirational leadership positively and directly affects
HAW, thus supporting H1.
Third, PDM is a source of value in the IL-HAW relationship. In the literature on
leadership, the context is regularly neglected (Fairhurst, 2001). Sashkin et al. (2004)
evidenced that very few studies consider context as part of the leadership practice. On the
one hand, inspirational leadership directly affects PDM. Leaders that inspire and motivate
promote participation among followers, creating a climate in which employees feel
comfortable giving opinions even though they might make errors. Errors are a source of an
ER original and indispensable learning process as the literature on PDM has demonstrated
39,5 (Barile et al., 2014; Calabrese et al., 2016). On the other hand, PDM has a positive and direct
effect on HAW, confirming the mediating role of PDM and therefore H2. An organisation
that pays attention to an employee’s HAW should promote the value of making errors as
part of the learning experience and of the freedom to explore.

636 6. Conclusions
Research interests into the study of HAW have grown in recent years. However, one
essential point for organisations that has not received sufficient attention is how to enhance
HAW by managing leadership behaviour. Along these lines, Paauwe (2009) suggested the
need for further theoretical models that explain the undetermined link between HRM and
performance. Little research has addressed the concept of HAW (Fisher, 2010; Salas et al.,
2017), despite its importance as a main, widespread attitude that overcomes the
compatibility principle, and the capacity to predict behaviour (Harrison et al., 2006).
Our study aims to better explain how to enhance HAW by considering the effect of
inspirational leadership behaviour. Previous research has also failed to explain why PDM
produces intended outcomes. Black and Gregersen (1997) suggest that two main causes are
responsible for this failing: how PDM is defined, and the implementation of PDM.
Our research focuses on a broad definition of PDM (Heller et al., 1998) and argues that PDM
should be implemented by an inspirational leadership style, which promotes motivation and
encourages followers to participate actively (Bass, 1990). In addition, following the people-
performance “black box” (Purcell et al., 2003), PDM may increase HAW. Therefore, we state
that PDM may mediate the relationship between inspirational leadership and HAW.
The theory about how HRM and performance interact needs to be developed (Paauwe,
2009), and in line with the people-performance model developed by Purcell et al. (2003), we
suggest a new theoretical perspective that confirms an ignored connection, namely,
inspirational leadership and HAW. Burns (1978) suggested that the transformational leader,
involving a type of leadership that comprises inspirational motivation, creates a relationship
“of mutual stimulation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into
moral agents” (p. 4). Emotional talks that transcend self-interest (Bass, 1985) are able to
facilitate positive attitudes. We argue that managers have an essential role to play in HRM,
as they can provide employees with the necessary skills, motivations and opportunities to
participate (Boselie, 2010). Our research has revealed that inspirational motivation promotes
HAW, and this is closely related to Downton’s (1973) definition of inspiration as the action or
power of moving the intellect or emotions. In our study, IL was directly and positively
associated with PDM. We selected inspirational leadership as a separate dimension of
transformational leadership, consistent with Van Knippenberg and Sitkin’s (2013) reflection
on why transformational leadership dimensions of idealised influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration should co-exist.
Expressing positive and encouraging messages about the organisation was positively
associated with increased participation of employees in decision-making processes. This may
be explained by the increased attachment of employees to the organisation and the enhanced
confidence of the individuals in their capacity to carry out a range of proactive tasks. It is also
interesting to observe that PDM promotes HAW, and as a consequence, the mediating effect
that PDM exerts on inspirational leadership and HAW. The heads of health services should
consider inspiring followers in order to improve their quality of life, as this could result in a
wide variety of organisational outcomes, such as positive attitudes (Fisher, 2010).
Additionally, we aim to offer practical contributions. Organisations should be aware of
the need to promote inspiring traits in leaders which, in turn, would improve PDM and
HAW. HAW is a challenging and unusual concept in the business and academic world,
and we offer a tool that aims to improve HAW attitudes.
 Notions of happiness are central to organisational research (Fisher, 2010). For instance, HRM-
engagement promotes customer loyalty (Salanova et al., 2005); job satisfaction improves job performance
performance (Ng et al., 2009); affective commitment is strongly related to job performance relationship
(Meyer et al., 2002) and being happy is a fundamental human need and is crucial to business
performance (Simon, 2012).
Our research also aims to contribute to HRM literature. The theory about how HRM and
performance interact needs to be developed (Paauwe, 2009), and in line with the people- 637
performance model developed by Purcell et al. (2003), we suggest a new theoretical
perspective that confirms an ignored connection, namely, inspirational leadership and
HAW. Burns (1978) suggested that the transformational leader, involving a type of
leadership that comprises inspirational motivation, creates a relationship “of mutual
stimulation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents”
(p. 4). Emotional talks that transcend self-interest (Bass, 1985) are able to facilitate positive
attitudes. We argue that managers have an essential role to play in HRM, as they can
provide employees with the necessary skills, motivations and opportunities to participate
(Boselie, 2010). Our research has revealed that inspirational motivation promotes HAW, and
this is closely related to Downton’s (1973) definition of inspiration as the action or power of
moving the intellect or emotions.
To conclude, we believe that our research is simply a first step in studying the HDR
“Black box” from the positive attitude perspective.

7. Limitations and future research directions

Despite our results, our research has certain limitations that should be considered.
We tested transversal relationships gathered at a specific point in time. There are no
guarantees that the conditions in which the data were collected will be the same in the
future. Future longitudinal studies may reveal further effects of inspirational motivation
and PDM beyond HAW.
Our results are also limited by a particular population, namely, medical specialists working
in public allergy units. However, our research used a sample that represents 25 per cent of the
total population, which represents a good response rate. Future research may consider
conducting this study in private organisations. Another interesting line of research for the future
could be to perform this analysis on similar samples in other countries.
Future studies should also consider the antecedents of inspirational leadership attitudes
or contextual conditions that promote inspirational attitudes, in order to develop knowledge
on this literature.
Qualitative research or case studies could also add pivotal variables, such as
organisational facilitators, or compassion and humour at work.

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Corresponding author
Andres Salas-Vallina can be contacted at: andres.salas@uv.es

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