SOME ASPECTS OF PRIME GRAPH P G1 (Zn ) OF THE RING OF

INTEGERS

jvb
JOVI AL ENARIO HEBIA

UNDERGRADUATE THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY

OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, COLLEGE OF
ARTS AND SCIENCES, CENTRAL MINDANAO
UNIVERSITY, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE

jvb
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MATHEMATICS

JUNE 2018
 Republic of the Phillippines
CENTRAL MINDANAO UNIVERSITY
Musuan, Maramag, Bukidnon

College of Arts and Sciences

Department of Mathematics

APPROVAL SHEET

The undergraduate thesis attached hereto entitled, “SOME ASPECTS OF

PRIME GRAPH P G1 (R) OF THE RING OF INTEGERS” (Research No. 10757),
prepared and submitted by JOVI AL E. HEBIA, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree Bachelor of Science in Mathematics is hereby endorsed.

LONGRIO C. PLATIL, M.S.

Chair, Thesis Advisory Committee
Date:

SHIRLEY MAE A. GALINDO, M.S.

Member, Thesis Advisory Committee
Date:

ROLITO G. EBALLE, Ph.D.

Member, Thesis Advisory Committee
Date:

Recommending Approval:

ISAGANI S. CABAHUG JR., Ph.D.

Department Chair Date

ELISA L. GUIMBAO, M.A.L.E.

Research Coordinator Date

Accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Bachelor of

Science in Mathematics.

Approved:

ROLITO G. EBALLE, Ph.D.

College Dean Date

Noted:

ANGELA GRACE TOLEDO-BRUNO, Ph.D.

Director for Research Date
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

The auhtor, Jovi Al Enario Hebia, was born in Purok 17a Hagkol, Valencia
City, Bukidnon on the 20th day of January 1997. He is the eldest son of Mr. Jose
C. Hebia and Mrs. Luzviminda E. Hebia. He graduated his elementary education
at Valencia SDA Elementary School in 2010 and his secondary education at Central
Bukidnon Institute in 2014. In school year 2013 - 2014, he enrolled as a student
in Central Mindanao University at Musuan, Maramag, Bukidnon in the course of
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost, I would like to thank God Almighty for giving me the
strength, knowledge, ability and opportunity to undertake this research study
and to persevere and complete it satisfactorily. Without his blessings and
guidance, this achievement would not have been possible.
I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness and render my warmest
thanks to my thesis adviser, Prof. Longrio C. Platil, who made this work
possible. His friendly guidance and expert advice have been invaluable
throughout all stages of the work. And also for his support, patience, and
constructive criticism despite his busy schedule, he overviewed my thesis
progress, gave his valuable suggestions and made corrections.
I would also wish to express my gratitude to my panel members, Dr.
Rolito G. Eballe and Prof. Shirley Mae Galindo, for the time they alloted in
reading my paper, for extended discussions and valuable suggestions which have
contributed greatly to the improvement of the thesis.
To my classmates, for their valuable help and support, and for creating a
pleasant atmosphere.
To the faculty of the Department of Mathematics, for their kind support
and guidance throughout my undergraduate studies.
Lastly, and most importantly, I wish to thank my family, my parents,
Jose Cablinda Hebia and Luzviminda Enario Hebia, and my brother Joe Davinci
Hebia, for their endless moral and financial support, for providing me with
everything I need in this study. They bore me, raised me, supported me, taught
me, and loved me. To them, I dedicate this thesis.
And once again, to our Almighty God for giving me the knowledge and
wisdom to complete this thesis. I owe everything to them. Besides this, to
several people who have knowingly and unknowingly helped me in the successful
completion of this thesis.

Jovi Al E. Hebia
 ABSTRACT

SOME ASPECTS OF PRIME GRAPH P G1 (Zn ) OF THE RING OF

INTEGERS, by Jovi Al Enario Hebia, Bachelor of Science in Mathematics,

Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Maramag, Bukidnon, June 2018.

Thesis Adviser: Longrio C. Platil, M.S.

Given a ring R, P G1 (R) is a simple undirected graph with all the

elements of the ring R as vertices and vertices x, y are adjacent if x · y = 0 or

y · x = 0 or x + y ∈ U (R), the set of all units of R. In this paper we obtained few

fundamental important results related to P G1 (R); such as the size of P G1 (R),

the chromatic number of P G1 (R), the vertex independence and vertex covering

number of P G1 (R), the edge independence and edge covering number of

P G1 (R), and the domination number of P G1 (R), where R is the ring of integers

Zn .

Keywords: chromatic number, vertex independence and vertex covering number,

domination number, edge independence and edge covering number, complete
graphs.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i
APPROVAL SHEET ii
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF NOTATIONS vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Review of Related Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.8 Organization of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS 4
2.1 Concepts on Abstract Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Concepts on Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Concepts on Prime graph of a ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 MAIN RESULT 11
3.1 Size and Subgraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Domination, Independence, and Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Vertex and Edge Colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 19
4.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
APPENDIX 21
BIBLIOGRAPHY 24
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTIC AUTHORSHIP 25
 LIST OF NOTATIONS

Notation Description

α(G) vertex independence number of graph G

β(G) vertex covering number of graph G

β 0 (G) edge covering number of graph G

α0 (G) edge independence number of graph G

γ(G) domination of G

A⊆B A subset B

dxe ceiling function of x

bxc floor function of x

χ(G) chromatic number of G

|A| cardinality of a set A

V (G) vertex set of G

E(G) edge set of graph G

a−1 multiplicative inverse

n−a additive inverse of the element a in Zn

 LIST OF FIGURES

Number Description Page

2.1 P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z4 ) 7
3.1 P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z7 ) 10
3.2 P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z16 ) 11
3.3 Subgraph generated by h24 i of P G1 (Z16 ) 12
3.4 Subgraph generated by h23 i of P G1 (Z16 ) 12
3.5 Subgraph generated by h22 i of P G1 (Z16 ) 12
3.6 P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z7 ) 13
3.7 P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z5 ) 14
3.8 P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z5 ) 15
3.9 P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z7 ) 17
3.10 P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z7 ) 17
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the background of the study, statement of the

problem, objectives of the study, scope and limitation, significance of the study,
review of the related literature, methodology and organization of the study.

1.1 Background of the Study

Graph theory is a significant area of mathematics due to its outstanding

applications in many fields such as biochemistry, electrical engineering, computer
science and operational research. Besides graph theory, ring theory is an abstract
area in Mathematics. A ring consists of a set equipped with two binary
operations that generalize the arithmetic operations of addition (+) and
multiplication (∗). Theorems obtained as a result of abstract study of rings can
be applied to solve problems arising in number theory, geometry and many other
fields.
The study of graph of a commutative ring began when Beck introduced
the notion of zero divisor graph in 1988. The notion of the prime graph of a ring
was first introduced by B. Satyanaranaya, et al [2] in 2010 as representation of
the graphs of rings and to create a bridge between abstract algebra and graph
theory. Prime graph of a ring is defined as graph whose vertices x, y ∈ R are
adjacent if and only if xRy = 0 or yRx = 0. In 2012 with the help of existing
concepts, K. Patra and S. Kalita [4] investigated some aspects of prime graph of
ring Zn for different values of n.
Another graph structure associated to a ring called the Prime graph
P G1 (R) of a ring was introduced by K. Pawar and S. Joshi [5] in 2017. This
prime graph P G1 (R) is a simple graph with all elements of a ring R as vertices,
and two distinct vertices x, y are adjacent if and only if either x · y = 0 or
y · x = 0 or x + y ∈ U (R), the set of all units of R. In this paper they got some
 2

results such as, the degree, eulerianity, planarity and the girth of P G1 (Zn ).
In this paper, we investigate some aspects of prime graph P G1 (R) of ring
of integers modulo n, Zn such as the size of P G1 (Zn ), the domination number,
the vertex independence and edge independence numbers, vertex and edge
covering numbers, and the vertex and edge coloring of P G1 (Zn ).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

This study investigates some aspects of prime graph P G1 (R) of the ring of
integers to obtain some important results in the area of graph theory.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

Specifically, this study seeks to obtain the following:

1. Chromatic number of P G1 (Zp ),

2. Size of P G1 (Zp ),

3. The vertex independence and the vertex covering numbers of P G1 (Zp ),

4. The edge independence and edge covering numbers of P G1 (Zp ),

5. The domination number of P G1 (Zn ).

1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study focuses only on the finite ring, the ring of integers modulo n,
Zn . For the part of graph theory, simple graphs are considered.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Algebraic graph theory have various applications in engineering and

computer science. Algebraic graph theory can be used in the design and analysis
of topologies of interconnection networks. The topologies that are used to
connect processors in a supercomputer have a high degree of symmetry and are
usually Cayley graphs. This study may provide valuable help to solve some
complex cases in engineering and computer science.
 3

1.6 Review of Related Literature

B. Satyanaraya et al [3] they defined the prime graph of a ring. A graph

G(V, E) is said to be a prime graph of R (denoted by P G(R)) if V = R and
E = {{x, y}|x · y = 0 or y · x = 0, and x 6= y}. They have proven that when p is
prime P G(Zp ) is a star graph. K. Patra and S. Kalita [4] worked on the chromatic
number of the prime graph of a ring Zn for some different values of n. They got
some interesting results such as: if R = Zp , where p is prime, then χ(P G(R)) = 2.
In 2016 Sen Gupta [6] introduce a new notion of graph theory over abstract
algebra, he defined a graph Γ1 (R) over a ring R. Γ1 (R) is a simple undirected
graph having all the non-zero elements of R as its vertices and two vertices a, b
are adjacent if and only if either ab = 0 or ba = 0 or a + b is a unit in R. They
obtain some interesting properties like degrees, girth, eulerianity, and planarity.
Γ1 (R) is a subgraph of P G1 (R), that is, if we take the vertex 0 in P G1 (R), then
Γ1 (R) = P G1 (R). More on this related literature is discussed in the next chapter.

1.7 Methodology

The researcher deeply studied the concepts of P G(R) and P G1 (R). The
researcher also studied some concepts of graph theory such as the subgraphs of a
graph, the colorability of a vertex in a graph, and the size of a graph. By drawing
samples of prime graphs of ring R, some observable patterns emerged. From these
patterns, formulas were given through validated propositions. Both direct and
indirect methods of proving were employed to prove the propositions.

1.8 Organization of the Study

This paper consists of four chapters. The first chapter contains the
statement of the problem or the objectives of the study and its background. The
second chapter contains a brief review of some graph theoretic terminologies and
some concepts in abstract algebra. The third chapter is the presentation of the
main results. The last chapter contains the summary and the recommendations
for further study.
 CHAPTER 2

PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS

This chapter presents basic definitions and some results that can be used
in this study.

2.1 Concepts on Abstract Algebra

The following concepts are taken from [2].

Definition 2.1.1. A set B is a subset of a set A, denoted by B ⊆ A or A ⊇ B,

if every element of B is in A. The notations B ⊂ A or A ⊃ B will be used for
B ⊆ A but B 6= A.

Definition 2.1.2. Let A and B be sets. The set A × B = {(a, b)|a ∈ Aandb ∈ B}
is the cartesian product of of A and B.

Definition 2.1.3. A binary operation ∗ on a set S is a function mapping S × S

into S. For each (a, b) ∈ S × S, we will denote the element ∗((a, b)) of S by a ∗ b.

Definition 2.1.4. A binary operation ∗ on set S is commutative if a ∗ b = b ∗ a

for all a, b ∈ S.

Definition 2.1.5. A binary operation * on set S is associative if (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c)

for all a, b, c ∈ S.

Definition 2.1.6. A group hG, ∗i is set G, closed under binary operation ∗, such
that the following axioms are satisfied:

(i) For all a, b ∈ G, we have (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).

(ii) There is an element e in G such that for all x ∈ G, e ∗ x = x ∗ e = x.

(iii) Each a ∈ G, there is an element a0 in G such that a ∗ a0 = a0 ∗ a = e.

 5

Definition 2.1.7. If G is a group and a ∈ G, then

H = {an |n ∈ Z},

is a subgroup of G. This group is the cyclic subgroup hai of G generated by a.

Also, given a group G and an element a in G, if

G = {an |n ∈ Z},

then a is generator of G and the group G = hGi is cyclic.

Definition 2.1.8. A group G is an abelian if its binary operation is commutative.

Definition 2.1.9. A non empty set R is said to be a ring (or an associative ring)
if there exist two binary operations + and . on R satisfying the three conditions:
(i) (R, +) is an Abelian group;
(ii) (R, ·) multiplication is associative; and
(iii) a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c and (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c for any a, b, c ∈ R.

Example 2.1.10. Consider the cyclic group hZn , +i. If we define for a, b ∈ Zn
the product ab as the remainder of the usual product of integers when divided by
n, it can be shown that hZn , +n , ·n i is a ring.

Definition 2.1.11. A ring in which the multiplication is commutative is called a

commutative ring. A ring with multiplicative identity is a ring with unity; in this
case the multiplicative identity 1 is called unity.

Definition 2.1.12. Let R be a ring with unity 1 6= 0. An element u in R is a

unit of R if it has a multiplicative inverse in R. If every nonzero element of R is
a unit, then R is a division ring(or skew field). A field is a commutative division
ring. A non-commutative division ring is called a strictly skew field.

Definition 2.1.13. If a and b are two nonzero elements of a ring R such that
ab = 0, then a and b are called divisors of 0 (or zero divisors).

Definition 2.1.14. An integral domain D is a commutative ring with unity 1 6= 0

and containing no zero divisors.
 6

Definition 2.1.15. Let R be a commutative ring with unity. Let Z(R) be the set
of all zero-divisors of R. For x ∈ Z(R), annR (x) = {y ∈ R : y · x = 0} is called
annihilator of an element of a ring.

Definition 2.1.16. For any integer n > 1, we define a function φ(n) to be the
number of positive integers less than n and relatively prime to n called Euler’s
totient function. If p1 , p2 , p3 , ..., pn

Theorem 2.1.17. Let G be a cyclic group with n elements and generated by a.

Let b ∈ G and let b = as . Then b generates a cyclic subgroup H of G containing
n/d elements, where d is the greatest common divisor of n and s. Also has i = hat i
if and only if gcd(s, n) = gcd(t, n).

Theorem 2.1.18. In the ring Zn , the divisors of 0 are precisely those elements
that are not relatively prime to n.

Corollary 2.1.19. If p is prime, then Zp has no zero divisors.

Theorem 2.1.20. The cancellation laws hold in a ring R if and only if R has no
zero divisors.

Theorem 2.1.21. Every field is an integral domain.

Theorem 2.1.22. Every finite integral domain is a field.

Corollary 2.1.23. If p is prime, then Zp is a field.

2.2 Concepts on Graph Theory

The following concepts are taken from [1].

Definition 2.2.1. A graph G = (V, E) consists of finite non-empty set V = V (G)

together with a set E = E(G) of unordered pairs of distinct elements of V . Each
element of V is called a vertex of G. If the pair e = {u, v} is in E, then e is an
edge of G, and e is said to join u and v. A graph that has neither self-loops nor
parallel edges is called a simple graph.
 7

Definition 2.2.2. If uv is an edge of G, then u and v are adjacent vertices. Two

adjacent vertices are referred to as neighbors of each other. The set of neighbors
of a vertex v is called the open neighborhood of v (or simply the neighborhood of v)
and denoted by N (v). The set N [v] = N (v) ∪ {v} is called the closed neighborhood
of v. If {u, v} and {v, w} are distinct edges in G, then {u, v} and {v, w} are
adjacent edges. The vertex u and the edge {u, v} are said to be incident with each
other.

Definition 2.2.3. The number of vertices in a graph G is the order of G and the
number of edges is the size of G. A graph of order 1 is called trivial graph. A
nontrivial graph therefore has two or more vertices. A graph of size 0 is called
an empty graph. A nonempty graph then has one or more edges. At the other
extreme is complete graph in which every two distinct vertices are adjacent.

Definition 2.2.4. The degree of a vertex v in a graph G is the number of vertices

in G that are adjacent to v. The largest degree among the vertices of G is called
the maximum degree of G and is denoted by ∆(G). The minimum degree of G is
denoted by δ(G).

Remark 2.2.5. The size m of a complete graph of order n is given by,

n(n − 1)
m= .
2
Definition 2.2.6. A graph H is a subgraph of a graph G if V (H) ⊆ V (G) and
E(H) ⊆ E(G), in which case we write H ⊆ G. If H is a subgraph of G, then G
is a supergraph. A subgraph H of a graph G is called an induced subgraph if there
is a nonempty subset S of V (G) such that H = G(S).

Definition 2.2.7. An m-coloring of a graph is a function f : V (G) → {1, 2, ..., m}

such that f (a) 6= f (b) whenever {a, b} ∈ E(G).

Definition 2.2.8. The chromatic number of G denoted by χ(G) is defined as the

minimum m for which G has m-coloring.

Definition 2.2.9. An edge coloring of graph G is an assignment of colors to

the edges of G, one color to each edge. If adjacent edges are assigned distinct
 8

colors, then the edge coloring is a proper edge coloring. An edge coloring that uses
colors from a set of k colors is a k-edge coloring. A graph G is k-edge colorable
if there exists a k-edge coloring of G. The chromatic index (or edge chromatic
number ) χ0 (G) of a graph G is the minimum positive integer k for which G is
k-edge colorable.

Theorem 2.2.10. If G is a graph of size m, then

X
deg(v) = 2m.
v∈V (G)

Theorem 2.2.11. If G is graph of size |E(G)| ≥ 1, then

|E(G)|
χ0 (G) ≥ .
α0 (G)

Remark 2.2.12. For any nonempty graph G

χ0 (G) ≥ ∆(G).

Theorem 2.2.13. (Vizing’s Theorem) [2] For any non empty graph G,

χ0 (G) ≤ 1 + ∆(G).

Definition 2.2.14. A vertex v in a graph G is said to dominate itself and each of

its neighbors, that is, v dominates closed neighborhood N (v). A set S of vertices
of G is a dominating set of G if every vertex of G is dominated by at least one
vertex of S. The minimum cardinality among the dominating sets of G is called
the domination number of G and is denoted by γ(G).

Definition 2.2.15. The vertex independence number of a graph G denoted by

α(G) denoted by α0 (G), is the maximum number of vertices, no two of which are
adjacent. The edge independence number is the maximum number of edges, no
two of which are adjacent.

Definition 2.2.16. A vertex cover in G is as set of vertices that covers all the
edges of G. An edge cover in a graph G without isolated vertices is a set of edges
that covers all the vertices of G. The minimum cardinality of a vertex cover in
 9

a graph G is called vertex covering number of G and is denoted by β(G). As

expected, the edge covering number β 0 (G) of a graph G (without isolated vertices)
is the minimum cardinality of an edge cover in G.

Theorem 2.2.17. (Gallai’s Theorem) If G is a graph of order n having no

isolated vertices, then

α(G) + β(G) = α0 (G) + β 0 (G) = n.

Lemma 2.2.18. Let U be an edge cover of an n, m-graph G for n is the vertices

lnm
and m is the size. Then, ≤ |U | ≤ m.
2
2.3 Concepts on Prime graph of a ring

Definition 2.3.1. [4] Let R be a ring. A graph G(V, E) is said to be a prime

graph of R (denoted by P G(R)) if V = R and E = {{x, y} : x · y = 0 or y · x = 0,
and x 6= y}.

Example 2.3.2. Consider the ring of integers modulo n, Zn .

Let us construct the graph P G(R), where R = Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. So
V (P G(R)) = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Now P G(R) is given in Figure 2.1.

1 2
3

Figure 2.1: P G(R) = P G(Z4 )

Definition 2.3.3. [3] The prime graph P G1 (R) of a ring R is a simple undirected
graph with V (G) = R and two distinct vertices x, y are adjacent if either x · y = 0
or y · x = 0 or x + y is a unit of R.

Remark 2.3.4. [3] Since 0 · x = 0 for all x ∈ Zn , {0, x} ∈ E(G) for all x ∈ V (G).

Theorem 2.3.5. [3] For any n ∈ Nn the degree of vertex zero in P G1 (Zn ) is n−1.
 10

Theorem 2.3.6. [3] P G1 (Zn ) is not eulerian for any positive integer n.

Theorem 2.3.7. [3] P G1 (Zn ) is planar if and only if n = 4 or n is a prime

number.

Theorem 2.3.8. [3] Let z be a nonzero zero divisor in a ring R = Zn , for any
n ∈ N and n = pq, where p and q are distinct primes, then the degree of z in
P G1 (R) is
deg(z) = φ(n) + 1.

Theorem 2.3.9. [3] Let z be a nonzero zero divisor in a ring R = Zn , for any
n ∈ N such that x2 ≡ 0(mod n) then the degree of z in P G1 (R) is

deg(z) = |ann(z)| + φ(n).

 CHAPTER 3

MAIN RESULT

This chapter presents the results obtained in the study.

3.1 Size and Subgraphs

Lemma 3.1.1. Let G = P G1 (Zp ), where p is prime. Then, {a, b} ∈ E(G) if and
only if a + b 6= p, for all distinct elements a, b ∈ Zp .

Proof. Let a, b ∈ Zp \{0} and assume that a + b = p. Since p is not a unit and
a · b = b · a 6= 0 by Corollary 2.1.19, it follows that {a, b} ∈
/ E(G). Hence,
{a, b} ∈ E(G) implies a + b 6= p . Conversely, Let a, b ∈ Zp \{0} and a + b 6= p. By
Corollary 2.1.19, Zp has no zero divisors. Hence, all distinct elements in Zp \{0}
is a unit. Thus, for any nonzero elements a, b ∈ Zp with a + b 6= p, a + b ∈ U (Zp ).
Therefore, {a, b} ∈ E(G). 

Theorem 3.1.2. Let Zp be a ring where p is prime with p ≥ 3 and G be the prime
graph P G1 (Zp ). Then
(p − 1)2
|E(G)| = .
2
Proof. Let a, b ∈ Zp with b = p − a. By Lemma 3.1.1, a is adjacent to all
elements in Zp \{b}. Thus, deg(a) = |Zp \{a, b}| = p − 2. Since {a, 0} ∈ E(G) for
all a ∈ Zp \{0} by Theorem 2.3.5, it follows that deg(0) = |Zp \{0}| = p − 1. By
X
Theorem 2.2.10, deg(v) = 2m where m = |E(G)|. Hence, for all a ∈ Zp \{0},
v∈V (G)

2m = deg(0) + (p − 1) deg(a)

= (p − 1) + (p − 1)(p − 2)

= (p − 1)2 .
(p − 1)2
Therefore, |E(G)| = . 
2
Example 3.1.3. Let R = Z7 . Then |E(G)| is given by
(7 − 1)2
m= = 18.
2
 12

Observe in the Figure 3.1, deg(0) = 6, and deg(i) = 5, for i = 1, 2, ..., 5.

0
1 6

2 5

3 4

Figure 3.1: P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z7 )

lmm
Theorem 3.1.4. Let k, m, n ∈ Z+ with ≤ k ≤ m. Then the induced
2
subgraph H of P G1 (Znm ) with V (H) = hnk i is a complete graph of order nm−k .
lmm
k
Proof. Let H ⊆ P G1 (Zn ), where V (H) = {hn i, for some
m ≤ k ≤ m}. If
2
k = m, then hnm i = {0} and the induced subgraph is Knm−k = Kn0 = K1 . If
lmm m lmm
< k < m, then k = + c, for some c < m − . Thus, for all a, b ∈ hnk i,
2 m m
2 2
a = k1 n 2 +c and b = k2 n 2 +c , for some k1 , k2 ∈ Z+ . Hence,
m m
a · b = k1 n 2 +c · k2 n 2 +c = k1 k2 nm+2c = k3 nm

where k3 = k1 k2 n2 c. This implies that nm |(a · b) that is, a · b ≡ 0 mod nm , for all
a, b ∈ hnk i.
lmm m m
Let k = . If m is even, then k = . Thus for all a, b ∈ hnk i, a = k1 n 2 and
m
2 2
b = k2 n 2 , for some k1 , k2 ∈ Z+ . Now,
m m
a · b = k1 n 2 · k2 n 2 = k1 k2 nm ,

implies that nm |a · b and a · b ≡ 0 mod nm .

m+1 m+1 m+1
If m is odd, then k = . Thus, for all a, b ∈ hnk i, a = k1 n 2 and b = k2 n 2 ,
2
for some k1 , k2 ∈ Z+ . Now,
m+1 m+1
a · b = k1 n 2 · k2 n 2 = k1 k2 nm+1 = k3 nm ,

where k3 = k1 k2 n. Hence nm |(a · b) and a · b ≡ 0 mod nm .

Moreover, by Theorem 2.1.17, the number of elements of hnk i is given by,
nm nm
|hnk i| = m k
= k
= nm−k .
gcd(n , n ) n
 13

Thus, in any case {a, b} ∈ E(G). Therefore, the induced subgraph of P G1 (Znm )
with V (hnk i) is a complete graph of order nm−k . 

Illustration 3.1.5. Let n = 2 and m = 4 then P G1 (Znm ) = P G1 (Z16 ). The

graph is shown in Figure 3.2,

5
6
4
7
3

8 2

9 1
0
15
10

11 14
12 13

Figure 3.2: P G1 (R) = P G1 (Znm ) = P G1 (Z24 ) = P G1 (Z16 )

lmm
k
The induced subgraphs with vertex set hn i where ≤ k ≤ m are given
2
below:
k=2
V (H) = hn2 i = h22 i = h4i = {0, 4, 8, 12}
|V (H)| = |h22 i| = 4

12 8

Figure 3.3: Subgraph generated by h22 i of P G1 (Z16 ).

 14

k=3
hn3 i = h23 i = h8i = {0, 8}
|V (H)| = |h23 i| = 2

0 8

Figure 3.4: Subgraph generated by h23 i of P G1 (Z16 )

k=4
V (H) = hn4 i = h24 i = h16i = h0i = {0}
|V (H)| = |h24 i| = 1

Figure 3.5: Subgraph generated by h24 i of P G1 (Z16 )

The induced subgraphs generated by hnk i are complete graphs.

Remark 3.1.6. The subgraph generated by hnk i of P G1 (Znm ) is not a complete

lmm
graph when k < . As shown in the following example.
2
Example 3.1.7. From the previous illustration P G1 (Z24 ), the subgraph H with
V (H) = hn1 i = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14} is not a complete graph. As shown in the
figure below.

2 14

4 12

6 10
8

Figure 3.6: Subgraph generated by h2i of P G1 (Z16 ).

 15

3.2 Domination, Independence, and Coverings

Theorem 3.2.1. Let R = Zn and G = P G1 (Zn ). Then γ(G) = 1.

Proof. By Remark 2.3.4, 0 is adjacent to x for all x ∈ V (G) such that x 6= 0.

Hence γ(G) = 1. 

Example 3.2.2. For the ring Z7 , γ(P G1 (Zn )) = 1.

0
1 6

2 5

3 4

Figure 3.7: P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z7 )

Lemma 3.2.3. Let G = P G1 (Zp ) where p is prime. Then α(G) = 2.

Proof. By Lemma 3.1.1, {a, a∗ } ∈

/ E(G) for all a ∈ Zp . Hence, {a, a∗ } is the only
vertex independence in V (G). Thus, α(G) = 2. 

Example 3.2.4. For ring Z5 , {1, 4}, {2, 3} ∈

/ E(G). Then, |{1, 4}| = 2 and
|{2, 3}| = 2. Hence, α(G) = 2.

1 4

2 3

Figure 3.8: P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z5 ).

 16

Theorem 3.2.5. Let R = Zp and G = P G1 (Zp ). Then β(P G1 (G) = p − 2.

Proof. By Gallai’s Theorem and Lemma 3.2.3, we have

β(G) = p − 2.

Example 3.2.6. For ring Z5 , H = {0, 1, 4} covers all the edges of P G1 (Z5 ).
Hence, β(G) = |{0, 1, 4}| = 3.

1 4

2 3

Figure 3.9: P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z5 )

p+1
Theorem 3.2.7. Let R = Zp and G = P G1 (Zp ). Then β 0 (G) = and
2
p−1
α0 (G) = .
2
  
p+1
Proof. Let U = {1, p}, {2, p − 1}, ..., , p . By Lemma 3.1.1, U ⊆ E(G).
2
p+1 0 p+1 lpm p + 1
Note that |U | = . Hence, β ≤ . By Lemma 2.2.18, |u| ≥ = .
2 2 2 2
p+1 p−1
Therefore, β 0 (G) = . Moreover, by Gallai’s Theorem, α0 (G) = . 
2 2
Proposition 3.2.8. If H is the induced subgraph of G = P G1 (Zp ) with
V (H) = Zp \{0}, then α0 (G) = α(H).

Proof. Let U be an edge independence set of G with

α0 (G) = |U |.

By Remark 2.3.4, {0, x} ∈ E(G) for all x ∈ V (G). Hence, {0, x} ∈

/ U . Thus,

α0 (G) = α(H).


 17

3.3 Vertex and Edge Colorings

Theorem 3.3.1. Let R = Zp and G = P G1 (Zp ). Then for all prime p,

 
p+1
χ(G) = .
2
∈ Zp . By Lemma
Proof. Let i   3.1.3{i, p − i} ∈
/ E(G). Define
p−1 p+1
f : V (G) → 1, 2, ..., , as follows,
2 2
p−1

 i
 if x ∈ {i, p − i} for i = 1, ...,
f (x) =  p + 1  2

 if x = 0.
2
Note that for all a, b ∈ V (G) with f (a) 6= f (b), a 6= b, implying that f is
well-defined.
  Thus, f (a) 6= f (b) whenever {a, b} ∈ E(G). And f is a
p+1 p+1 p+1
-coloring of G. Hence, χ(G) ≤ = .
2 2 2
p+1
Assume that χ(G) < . By Lemma 3.1.3 and Remark 2.3.4,
2
{a, b} ∈ E(G) and {0, a} ∈ E(G) for all a, b ∈ V (G)\{0} with b 6= p − a. This
implies that f (a) = f (p − a) and f (0) 6= f (a). Hence, the required number of
distinct colors is given by,
     
+1= p−1 +1= p+1 ,
 V (G)\{0} 

 2  2 2
 
p+1
which is a contradiction. Hence χ(G) = . 
2
Example 3.3.2.
 LetR = Z2 and
 G = P G1 (Z2 ).
p+1 2+1
Then χ(G) = = = 2. The is graph shown in Figure 3.10.
2 2

0 1

Figure 3.10: P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z2 )

Example 3.3.3.
 LetR = Z7 and
 G = P G1 (Z7 ).
p+1 7+1
Then χ(G) = = = 4. The is graph shown in Figure 3.11.
2 2
 18

0
1 6

2 5

3 4

Figure 3.11: P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z7 )

Theorem 3.3.4. Let R = Zn and G = P G1 (Zn ). Then

n − 1 ≤ χ0 (G) ≤ n.

Proof. Note that ∆(G) = n − 1, by Theorem 2.2.11, χ0 (G) ≥ n − 1. And by

Theorem 2.2.13, χ0 (G) = n. Hence, n − 1 ≤ χ0 (G) ≤ n. 

Example 3.3.5. For the ring Z7 , χ0 (P G1 (Z7 )) = 6. The graph below shows a
proper edge-coloring of P G1 (Z7 ).
|{green, blue, red, yellow, violet, orange}| = 6

0
1 6

2 5

3 4

Figure 3.12: P G1 (R) = P G1 (Z7 ).

 CHAPTER 4

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Summary

The following results were discussed in the study:

1. Let G = P G1 (Zp ). Then, {a, b} ∈ E(G) if and only if a + b 6= p, for all

distinct vertices a and b in Zp .

Lemma 3.1.1

2. Let Zp be a ring where p is prime with p ≥ 3 and G be the prime graph

P G1 (Zp ). Then,
(p − 1)2
|E(G)| = .
2

Theorem 3.1.2
lmm
3. Let k, m, n ∈ Z+ with ≤ k ≤ m. Then the induced subgraph H of
2
P G1 (Znm ) with V (H) = hnk i is a complete graph of order nm−k .

Theorem 3.1.4

4. Let R = Zn and G = P G1 (Zn ). Then γ(P G1 (G) = 1.

Theorem 3.2.1

5. Let R = Zn and G = P G1 (Zn ). Then γ(P G1 (Zn )) = 1.

Theorem 3.2.1

6. Let R = Zp and G = P G1 (Zp ). Then β(G) = p − 2.

Theorem 3.2.5
 20

p+1 p−1
7. Let R = Zp and G = P G1 (Zp ). Then β 0 (G) = and α0 (G) = .
2 2

Theorem 3.2.7

8. If H is the induced subgraph of G = P G1 (Zp ) with V (H) = Zp \{0}, then

α0 (G) = α(H).

Proposition 3.2.8

9. Let R = Zp and G = P G1 (Zp ). Then for all prime p,

 
p+1
χ(G) = .
2

Theorem 3.3.1

10. Let R = Zn and G = P G1 (Zn ). Then

n − 1 ≤ χ0 (G) ≤ n.

Theorem 3.3.4

4.2 Recommendations

The following are recommended for further study:

1. Investigate the chromatic number of P G1 (Zn ).

2. Find the size of P G1 (Zn ).

3. Study the vertex independence and vertex covering numbers of P G1 (Zn ).

4. Study the edge independence and edge covering numbers of P G1 (Zn ).

5. Investigate the cartesian product, normal product, and tensor product of

P G1 (R).

6. Study some other properties of P G1 (R).

 APPENDIX

P G1 (Z1 )
V (P G1 (Z1 )) = {0}

P G1 (Z2 )
V (P G1 (Z2 )) = {0, 1}

0 1

P G1 (Z3 )
V (P G1 (Z3 )) = {0, 1, 2}

1 2

P G1 (Z4 )
V (P G1 (Z4 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3}

1 3

2
 22

P G1 (Z5 )
V (P G1 (Z5 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

1 4

2 3

P G1 (Z6 )
V (P G1 (Z6 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

1 5

2 4
3

P G1 (Z7 )
V (P G1 (Z7 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

0
1 6

2 5

3 4
 23

P G1 (Z8 )
V (P G1 (Z8 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

1 7

2 6

3 5
4

P G1 (Z9 )
V (P G1 (Z9 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

1 8

2 7

3 6

4 5
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Gary Chartrand, Linda Lesniak, Ping Zhang, (2015), Graphs and Digraphs,
Sixth Edition, CRC Press.
[2] John B. Fraleigh, (2010), A First Course in Abstract Algebra, Sixth Edition.
Pearson Education Asia.
[3] Kishor F. Pawar, Sandeep S. Joshi (2017), The Prime Graph P G1 (R) of a
Ring, Palestine Journal of Mathematics. 6.1(1), 153-158.
[4] S. Bhavanari, S. P. Kuncham, Nagaraju Dasari (2010), Prime Graph of a
Ring, J. of Combinatorics, Information & System Sciences. 35(1-2), 27-42.
[5] Sanjoy Kalita, (2014), Chromatic Number of Prime Graph of Rings,
International Journal of Combinatorial Graph Theory and Applications,
522012, 145-158.
[6] Sen Gupta, (2013), The Graph Γ2 (R) over a ring R, Int. J. of Pure and Appl.
Math.86(6), 893-904.
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I also declare that the intellectual content of this manuscript is the

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is acknowledged.

JOVI AL E. HEBIA