______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

CHAPTER 17

PLASTICITY. THE FINITE ELEMENT APPROACH

17.1 INTRODUCTION

The structural plastic behavior is described by the presence of irrecoverable

strains on load removal. This is equivalent to a non-unique stress - strain
relationship, which is also path-dependent. The plasticity theory provides
mathematical relationships that characterize the elastic-plastic response of
materials. For rate-independent plasticity (i.e. when loading or unloading
velocity is neglected), the mathematical background has three main features:
the yield criterion, the flow rule and the hardening rule.

σ σ y = σ y (ε p )

σy
σ <σy - linear-elastic
σ >σy - non unique stress-strain relationship

ε
εp
Fig. 17.1 Elastic – plastic material behavior

The yield criterion determines the stress level at which yielding is initiated.
For multi-component stresses, this is represented as a function of the
individual components and a "hardening" parameter p:

F (σ , p ) = 0 (17.1)

The yield criterion can be visualized as a surface in the n-dimensional space

of stresses, while the position of the surface depends on the state parameter
p. For any stress state inside the surface, F (σ , p ) < 0 and the material has an

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elastic behavior (no plastic strains occur for σ < σ y in figure 17.1). For
stress levels beyond σ y , F (σ , p ) = 0 during plastic deformation and
irrecoverable strains ε p occur.

Some typical examples of yielding criteria used for modeling the non-linear
behavior of materials involved in civil engineering are the Tresca and von
Mises criteria, usually applied for metal (steel) plasticity and the Mohr-
Coulomb or the Ducker-Prager criteria, applied for granular-frictional
materials as soil, earth and rock-fill. Special yielding criteria are also
defined for materials as concrete or reinforced concrete, oriented stratified
rock masses and others.

σ2
F (σ 1' ,σ 2' , p + ∆p ) = 0

dε p F (σ 1 ,σ 2 , p ) = 0

F <0
elastic
behavior

σ1
Fig. 17.2 Plastic region expansion drawn in the space of principal stresses

The Tresca yielding surface is defined by the following relationship

F = 2 I 2 cos θ − σ y ( p ) = 0 (17.2)
1

I 2 =  (σ x − σ y ) + (σ x − σ z ) + (σ y − σ z ) + 3τ xy2 + 3τ xz2 + 3τ yz2 

1 2 1 2 1 2 2
with
2 2 2 
1  3 3 I3 
the second stress invariant and θ = sin −1  −  the Londe angle,

3  2 I 2 

where I 3 is the third invariant and σ y ( p ) the yielding stress. The

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relationship defines a prismatic-shape surface in the principal stresses

coordinate system (see figure 17.3.a).

σ3 σ3

σ2 σ2

a. b.
σ1 σ1

Fig. 17.3 Graphic representations on yield criteria in 3D space of principal

stresses a. Tresca; b. Von Misses

The von Mises criterion is a simplified version of the previous one, defined
by

F = 3I 2 − σ y ( p ) = 0 (17.3)

and represents a cylindrical surface in the principal stresses coordinate

system.

The Mohr-Coulomb criterion is based on the shear resistance parameters,

the cohesion c and the angle of internal friction ϕ , both as functions of the
hardening parameter p. The yielding surface is defined by

1 I
F = I1 sin ϕ + I 2 cos θ − 2 sin ϕ sin θ − c cos ϕ = 0 , (17.4)
3 3

a hexahedral pyramid in the principal stresses coordinate system (see figure

1
17.4.a), where I1 = (σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 ) is the first stresses invariant.
3

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Chapter 17 Plasticity. The Finite Element Approach_______________________________

σ3 σ3

=σ =σ
3 3

=σ =σ
2 2
σ1 σ1
gϕ
3ct 3c tgϕ

σ2 σ2
a. b.
σ1 σ1

Fig. 17.4 Graphic representations on yield criteria in 3D space of principal

stresses a. Mohr-Coulomb; b. Drucker-Prager

The Drucker-Prager criterion is an approximation of the Mohr-Coulomb

criterion, a cone inscribed in the hexahedral pyramid. The yielding surface
is defined by

F = αI 1 + I 2 − K = 0 (17.5)

2 sin ϕ 6c cos ϕ
with α= and K = .
3 (3 − sin ϕ ) 3 (3 − sin ϕ )

The flow rule determines the direction of plastic straining once the plastic
stage of behavior is reached ( F (σ , p ) = 0 ). Specifying a "plastic potential"

Q = Q(σ , p ) , (17.6)

the plastic strains are defined as

∂Q
dε p = λ (17.7)
∂σ

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where λ is a plastic multiplier which determines the amount of plastic

straining and Q a function of stress which determines the direction of plastic
straining. If Q is (equals) the yield function F (as it is normally assumed),
the flow rule is termed associative and the plastic strains occur in a direction
normal to the yield surface. The condition Q = F is also known as the
∂F
normality principle because ε = can be interpreted as the normality of
∂σ
the plastic strain increment on the yield surface.

The hardening rule describes the changing of the yield surface with
progressive yielding, so that the conditions (i.e. the stress states) for
subsequent yielding can be established. Two hardening rules are usually
available: the isotropic hardening and the kinematic hardening. In isotropic
hardening, the yield surface remains centered about its initial centerline and
expands in size as the plastic strains develop. The isotropic hardening is
shown in figure 17.5.a. Kinematic hardening assumes that the yield surface
remains constant in size and the surface moves in the stress space with
progressive yielding, as shown in figure 17.5.b.

σ2 σ2
Initial yield Initial yield
surface surface

σ1 σ1

Subsequent Subsequent
yield surface yield surface
a. Isotropic hardening b. Kinematic hardening

Fig. 17.5 Graphic representations of the hardening rule

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17.2 THE ELASTIC-PLASTIC MATRIX

The relationship between the stress field and the total (elastic and plastic)
strain field can be expressed by a new matrix E ep , which, by analogy with
the elasticity matrix E is called the elastic-plastic matrix.

During an infinitesimal increment of stress, the strain changes are assumed

to be divisible into elastic dε e and plastic dε p components:

dε = dε e + dε p (17.8)

The elastic strain increment is related to the stress increment by means of

the elasticity matrix dε e = E −1dσ , while the plastic strain increment is given
by the flow rule:

∂Q
dε p = λ = λa (17.9)
∂σ
where
 ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q 
aT =  ...  (17.10)
 ∂σ x ∂σ y ∂τ yz 

Separating the elastic strain increment and substituting in the elasticity

relationship, the stress increment becomes

dε e = dε − dε p (17.11)
dσ = E(dε − λa ) (17.12)

During the plastic flow the stresses correspond to the yielding surface which
modifies itself according to the hardening parameter p. This condition can
be written as follows: if F (σ , p ) = 0 then F (σ + dσ , p + dp ) = 0 , or, in
explicit form

∂F ∂F ∂F
dF = dσ x + dσ y + ... + dp = 0 (17.13)
∂σ x ∂σ y ∂p

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Introducing the vectors b and c,

 ∂F ∂F ∂F  ∂F
bT =  ...  and c =
 ∂σ x ∂σ y ∂τ yz  ∂p

the yielding condition in condensed form is:

b T dσ + cdp = 0 (17.14)

For isotropic hardening, the hardening parameter variation dp depends on

the plastic strain increment dε p , for instance

dp = σ x dε x , p + σ y dε y , p + ... = σ T dε p (17.15)

which can be considered as the increment of the plastic work.

Substituting dσ and dp in the yielding condition, the plastic multiplier λ

can be calculated:

b T E(dε − λa ) + cσ T λa = 0 (17.16)
T
b Edε
λ= (17.17)
b Ea − cσ T a
T

Substituting (17.17) in (17.12), an explicit relationship between the stress

increment and the total strain increment can be withdrawn:

dσ = E ep dε (17.18)
where:
 b T Ea 
E ep = E1 − T 
T 
(17.19)
 b Ea − cσ a 

Remarks:

1. The elastic-plastic matrix is a function of the stress level, E ep = f ( σ ) .

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∂F
2. For ideal plasticity = 0 , that means c = 0 and the strains are
∂p
undefined.
3. For associated plasticity F = Q and a ≡ b; consequently, the elastic-
plastic matrix is symmetric.
4. For Q ≠ F the elastic-plastic matrix is unsymmetrical and consequently
the stiffness matrix will be unsymmetrical. This implies significant
difficulties in the F.E. solution.

17.3 THE FINITE ELEMENT PROCEDURE

The main difficulty of elastic-plastic problems is due to the impossibility of

defining an explicit relationship σ = σ (ε ) . Various algorithms are available,
most of them based on the tangent stiffness matrix method associated with
an incremental applying of loads.

The main steps are the ones used in any finite element process. For a load
increment ∆R , the algorithm follows the subsequent steps:

- at element level, assuming an elastic behavior, the stiffness matrices

are calculated and assembled in the global stiffness matrix

k = ∫ B T EBdV and K = ∑ k (17.20)

V

- at structural level, the corresponding displacement increment ∆δ is

calculated

K∆δ = ∆R (17.21)

- again, at the element level

∆ε = B ∆δ
∆σ = E∆ε (17.22)
σ i = σ i −1 + ∆σ

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Assuming that the material has a well-defined yielding surface F (σ , p ) = 0 ,

each finite element in the mesh is checked regarding its status:

- if F (σ , p ) < 0 ) , the element remains in the elastic range;

- if F (σ , p ) > 0 , the element is in the plastic range, but the stress level
exceeds the yielding surface; consequently, the constrain to return on
the yielding surface should be applied:

F (σ i −1 + β∆σ , p ) = 0 (17.23)

from which the actual “acceptable” stress and strain increments β∆σ and
β∆ε is calculated.

σ i = σ i −1 + β∆σ (17.24)
ε i = ε i −1 + β∆ε (17.25)

From this stress level the element’s behavior is defined by the tangent
elastic-plastic matrix, and the stiffness matrix

k ep = ∫ B T E ep BdV (17.26)
V

is recalculated for each load step. The residual stress (1 − β )∆σ has to be
redistributed within the structure, taking into account the plastic state of the
element. The nodal forces corresponding to the residual stress are

r p = − ∫ B T (1 − β )∆σdV (17.27)

which remain unbalanced over the structure.

At structural level, the global stiffness matrix is assembled from the

stiffness matrices of the elements remained in elastic state and the stiffness
matrices of the elements in plastic state

K = ∑ k e + ∑ k ep , (17.28)

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while the load vector contains the unbalanced forces over the structure

∆R p = ∑ r p (17.29)

A new status check is required for each element in the mesh. If no other
element is changing form the elastic to the plastic range, the analysis can go
on to the next load increment. If not, a new, similar sequence is required.

Remarks:

1. If the load increments are small enough, the redistribution phase can be
omitted; after the new structural stiffness assembling is performed, the next
loading increment ∆R is applied

K∆δ = ∆R + ∑ r p (17.30)

2. When evaluating the elastic-plastic matrix, a phase of solution

improvement can be introduced, as the one used in the tangential elasticity
matrix procedure (a modified Euler process).

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