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Development of monitoring and evaluation system for wastewater issues in

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Article  in  International Journal of Environment and Pollution · May 2008

DOI: 10.1504/IJEP.2008.018464

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54 Int. J. Environment and Pollution, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2008

Development of monitoring and evaluation system

for wastewater issues in Palestine

Yunes Mogheir*
Department of Water Quality,
Environment Quality Authority,
Gaza, Palestine
E-mail: yunesmogheir@yahoo.com
*Corresponding author

Ihab Lubbad
Department of Scientific Research,
Environment Quality Authority,
P.O. Box 5348, Gaza, Palestine
E-mail: dr_ihablubbad@yahoo.com

Abstract: Wastewater is the main source of groundwater pollution if it is not

properly collected and treated. In many parts of the Gaza Strip and the
West Bank wastewater is collected through cesspits, while in other areas it is
collected through networks and treated in central treatments plants. Collecting
aggregate information on the level of indicators with concern to the wastewater
issues (collection, treatment and reuse) is essential for efficient wastewater
management. So that conclusions regarding the level of ‘improvement’
or ‘degradation’ of various environmental compartments as a result of
wastewater practices can be given. The approach to be followed consists of
designing a monitoring system for wastewater (the parameter to be monitored,
the location of monitored points and the temporal frequency of monitoring).
The second part of the approach includes the design of an evaluation system for
wastewater issues by considering the Driving force State Pressure Impact
Response (DSPIR) model. Both systems will be applied to the Gaza
Wastewater Treatment Plant and wastewater reuse pilot. Developing such
systems will enhance the effective control and monitoring of operation of the
wastewater treatment plants. It also can establish a concrete basis for the
sustainable wastewater treatment and reuse.

Keywords: wastewater; treatment; reuse; monitoring; evaluation; indicators.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Mogheir, Y. and

Lubbad, I. (2008) ‘Development of monitoring and evaluation system for
wastewater issues in Palestine’, Int. J. Environment and Pollution, Vol. 33,
No. 1, pp.54–71.

Biographical notes: Yunes Mogheir is the Director of the Water Quality

Department, Environment Quality Authority (EQA), Palestine. He is also an
Expert in water and wastewater management and planning. He received a BSc
in Civil Engineering from Middle East Technical University in Ankara, an MSc
in Hydrological Engineering from IHE-Delft (The Netherlands) and a PhD in
Civil Engineering from the University of Coimbra, Portugal. His principal
research interests are in the field of environmental modelling and monitoring,
water quality management with emphasise on groundwater quality monitoring

Copyright © 2008 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

 Development of monitoring and evaluation system 55

and modelling. He has authored or coauthored more than 20 papers in journals

and conference proceedings. He participated in preparing most of the water
resources and environmental strategic and action plans studies as a senior
consultant. He is a Lecturer of water and environment courses for
undergraduate and MSc students at the Islamic University of Gaza.

Ihab Lubbad is the Director of the Scientific Research Department at the

Environment Quality Authority (EQA), Palestine. He is an Expert in water and
wastewater analysis and treatment. He received a BSc in Chemistry from
Al-Azhar University (Gaza, Palestine), an MSc in Strategies and Sciences of
Chemical Analysis with optional courses in water analysis and treatment
(Universite de Claude Bernard Lyon 1, France) and a PhD in Chemistry with
specialty in Electrochemical Analysis and Treatment of Water (Universite de
Claude Bernard Lyon 1 France). He contributed to various environmental
research projects at Environmental Protection and Research Institute (Gaza,
Palestine). He has authored or coauthored more than eight papers in journals
and conference proceedings.

1 Introduction

Palestine is one of the smallest countries in the Middle East and a large part of its
territory remains under Israeli occupation and control. The total area of Palestine is
6217 km² divided into two separated lands, the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, 365 km²
and 5853 km², respectively. The Gaza Strip has a coastline of about 40 km and West
Bank is situated west of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea and east of Israel (Figure 1).
The Palestinian population was estimated at 3.80 million in January 2005: 1.39 million in
Gaza and 2.37 million in the West Bank with a population growth rate of 3.6% (PCBS,
1999), in addition to 230,000 Jewish settlers (Encyclopedia of the Orient, 2005).

Figure 1 Geographic location of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip
56 Y. Mogheir and I. Lubbad

Palestinian lands suffer from many environmental problems, many of them water-related,
such as the depletion of water resources, deterioration of water quality and bad
management of wastewater. The main water resources in Palestine are groundwater
wells, springs and rainwater harvesting. The uncontrolled disposal of the untreated
wastewater forms a main source of pollution of groundwater and coastlines. The present
data confirm the existing levels of chloride (Cl) and nitrate (NO3) in groundwater exceed
the Palestinian and WHO standards (El-Madhoun, 2002). Most municipal wells in the
Gaza Strip show nitrate levels in excess of the WHO drinking water standard of 50 mg/l.
In the worst affected areas (urban centres), NO3 concentrations are increasing at rates of
up to 10 mg/l per year (Mogheir, 2003).
Table 1 shows wastewater generation, treatment and disposal in Palestine. The annual
wastewater generation in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip is estimated as 40 × 106 m3
and 31 × 106 m3, respectively (MEDAWARE, 2005). Table 2 presents the percentages of
the used methods for wastewater disposal in Palestine such sewerage network, cesspits
and open channels.

Table 1 Wastewater generation, treatment and disposal in Palestine

Category West Bank Gaza Strip

Unit Quantity Unit Quantity
Population connected to wastewater treatment % 35 % 54
Total number of wastewater treatment plants Number 5 Number 3
3 3
Total wastewater generated 10 m /d 85 103 m3/d 110
Non-treated wastewater 103 m3/d 59 103 m3/d 42
Treated in public treatment plants 103 m3/d 13 103 m3/d 68
Reused wastewater (from the treated effluent) % 10 % 20
Discharge to Environment (raw and treated) % 75 % 60
Discharge into the Sea (raw and treated) in % 25 % 40
Gaza Strip and into the Wadi (partially treated)
in West Bank

Source: El-Madhoun (2002).

Table 2 Wastewater disposal methods in Palestine

West Bank Gaza Strip

Network Cesspit Open channel Network Cesspit Open channel
0.24 0.75 0.01 0.54 0.45 0.01

Source: Encyclopedia of the Orient (2005).

The sewage systems are the responsibility of municipal departments and village councils,
rather than commercially oriented utilities. The operational costs are mainly
wages, materials such as chemicals for treatment of wastewater and spare parts for
equipments and infrastructure. The institutional capacities of the municipal wastewater
department are generally weak.
Ongoing oversight of on-site wastewater system performance is important in order to
avoid public health and water quality problems. Monitoring systems were used to
evaluate the performance of wastewater systems, such as Critical Point Monitoring
(CPM) (Eliasson et al., 2001) and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
 Development of monitoring and evaluation system 57

(Ba Dieu, 2001). Several research projects are in progress on the database, index system,
methods and models for environment evaluation (MEDAWARE, 2005). Some
programmes used as evaluation model; Environmental Management Systems (EMS)
(Meg and Marjorie, 2005; Mijanovic and Kopac, 2005), The Pressure-State-Response
(PSR) framework, Driving force State Response (DSR) (Adrián and Américo, 2002;
Hans-Peter, 2003) and the Driving force Pressure State Impact Response model (DPSIR)
(Fassio et al., 2005).
These models provide a classification of the indicators of environmental pressure,
indicators of environmental conditions and indicators of social responses. The models
could also be explained as a framework where environmental problems and solutions are
represented and explained by variables that stress the causes and effect relationship
between human activities that exert pressures on the environment, the condition of the
environment and the society’s response to the condition. Some models provide no
suitable analytical basis for indicator development; they offer a convenient classification
scheme for results derived otherwise. The PSR and DSR indicator frameworks tend to
miss the complex interactions and interrelations between the different indicators and
topics (European Commission, 2002). The inadequacies of PSR and DSR need to be
considered as they can lead to oversimplification and to wrong policy recommendations.
The DSR model is based on a logic and holistic framework of action-response
relationship among society, economy and environment. Another element missing from
the PSR model and still not tackled in the DSR model is the indicator system
that measures the impacts to humans and ecosystems. The social and ecological
impacts of environment are essential factors in influencing the policy responses.
An indicator system that consider the state but not the impact essentially assumes that
every change in the pressure, state and response should be given the same amount of
resources and ignores the human factor which is at the centre of development and should
be considered a priority.
The Environment Quality Authority (EQA) through recent studies evaluated the
environmental monitoring activities, including (ground) water quality, the marine
environment, natural resources, air quality and the living environment (EQA, 2004).
It was recommended that environmental monitoring systems have to be developed for
each of the environmental themes that have been elaborated Palestinian Environment
Strategy. The nine environmental themes are:

1 depletion of water resources

2 deterioration of water quality
3 depletion of natural resources
4 land degradation
5 shoreline and marine pollution
6 deterioration of nature and biodiversity
7 air and noise pollution
8 landscape and aesthetic distortion and
9 threats to cultural heritage.
The existing monitoring activities with respect to nine environmental themes were
evaluated. The evaluation has resulted in gaps and weaknesses as indicated in Table 3.
58 Y. Mogheir and I. Lubbad

Table 3 Overall gaps and weaknesses in the Palestinian environmental

monitoring activities

Gaps
No structured data on air emissions
No measuring equipment and data on ozone
and PM10 concentrations in ambient air
No geo-links for most environmental
compartments
Weaknesses
No current monitoring of nature and
biodiversity, landscape and cultural heritage
Limited capacity and capability for air
monitoring (only two incomplete mobile
stations with limited trained staff)
No capacity and capability for noise pollution
inventory and control
Poor data processing and reporting facilities

This paper will illustrate the procedures to design a monitoring system for wastewater
treatment plant and it will followed by design of evaluation system to assess the
performance of the plant and its impact on the surrounding environment. Gaza
Wastewater Treatment Plant will be considered as a case study to implement the
monitoring programme, however, the system is flexible to be applied for other treatment
plants in the region. The evaluation system will consider the Driving force State Pressure
Impact Response (DSPIR) model and it will be applied for the wastewater status in the
Palestinian territories (EQA, 2004).

2 Monitoring of wastewater treatment plants

The aim is to develop a set of consistent and workable guidelines and arrangements that
can be used by different agencies, facilities and projects to store data from the sampling
and measurements in wastewater treatment facilities in Palestine. The following sections
describe the aspects of data handling and processing that need to be considered.

2.1 Data collection

• Describe data collection procedures, processes and documentation procedures.
• Provide the names of data entry, management and analysis software packages
and computer programming languages to be used for the storage systems.

2.2 Data entry, editing and management

• Describe the overall procedures for management the data collected. Include in
the description the process for entering and editing data.
• Document the operating procedures for managing and accessing different
versions of data sets.
• Document procedures regarding confidentiality of the data, including how
confidentiality will be preserved during use and storage of the data and the
names of persons or positions responsible for technical and administrative
stewardship responsibilities.
• Document what the final disposition of records, data, computer files and
specimens will be, including location for any relevant information to be stored.
 Development of monitoring and evaluation system 59

2.3 Data analysis

• Describe the sampling methods, information collection procedures, test

procedures and relevant statistical quantities (e.g. variance, confidence intervals)
in sufficient detail that the methods are reproducible. This includes calculation
of relevant quantitative measures for tests and instruments, such as sensitivity
and specificity.
• Describe what tables and figures are planned to present monitoring.

2.4 Quality control/assurance

• Describe the steps that will ensure no unintended consequences that could affect
the quality of the data. Those steps might include methods to capture all
reported data exactly as received, assuring logical consistency among all parts
of a record and ensuring that manipulation or transformation of the data
produces no unintended changes.
• Describe procedures for ongoing data quality monitoring to assure that
information of appropriate depth, breadth and specificity is collected and
remains consistent within and among staff over time and acceptable levels of
such attributes as validity, reliability, reproducibility, sensitivity and specificity
are achieved.

2.5 Bias in data collection, measurement and analysis

• Describe the kinds of bias that may occur in collecting the data or in the
measurement or analysis phases and the steps that will be taken to avoid,
minimise and compensate for the bias.

2.6 Continuous and regular monitoring of the operation

Wastewater treatment plant monitoring programmes are undertaken to provide
information to answer questions related to the management of wastewater bodies and
plant units functions. Ongoing monitoring programmes may be used to ensure that
acceptable wastewater treatment is maintained; where single exercise to examine a
particular issue. Both ongoing monitoring and single investigations programme required
a careful planning.
Monitoring programmes require systematic collection of physical, chemical and
biological data and the interpretation of these measurements. Certain fundamental
questions need to be answered when considering the detailed design of a monitoring
programme and how compliance is to be tested. For example:

• What are the objectives of the monitoring programme?

• What scale (duration and extent) is appropriate?
• What variables or components should be measured?
• What sampling site(s) should be used?
60 Y. Mogheir and I. Lubbad

• What are the practical consequences of various sampling frequencies,

compliance periods, sampling time (time of day or week)?
• Should grab samples be used or bulking methods to obtain a composite sample?
• What are the standard methods of samples analysis?
• How should data problems be handled, for example, ‘outliers’, ‘lesser-than’ or
‘greater-than’ values, ‘non-detect’ results, missing data?
• How information is to be presented and communicated to those who need it?
• What decisions and actions should be made on the evidence of the sample
results?
• Will the monitoring programme be cost-effective and is it affordable?
Monitoring within treatment plants is a treatment plant-specific matter; it is depending
upon treatment plant processes, treatment components and wastewater constituents.
Monitoring is typically carried out to provide information on within-plant treatment
processes and the efficiency of treatment associated with different components at
different points in the plant.
This type of monitoring should be designed around specific objectives and must meet
specific constituent/sampling requirements by a suitably trained person. Constituents,
number of samples and method of sampling are the key considerations. Monitoring
typically involves one or more of the following key groups of constituents given in
Table 4.

Table 4 Functions of wastewater treatment plant components

Constituent Treatment plant component

Microbiological removal
Suspended solids
Biological oxygen demand
Dissolved reactive and total phosphorus
Ammoniacal-nitrogen
Effectiveness of ultraviolet or other
disinfection units
Effectiveness of oxidation/maturation ponds
Operation of clarifiers, sand filters
Effectiveness of digesters
Operation of biological nutrient removal (BNR)
components of plant
Operation of oxidation ponds
Operation of BNR components of plant

Monitoring options for the traditional characteristics of the wastewater influent and
effluent, namely:
• flow

• physical characteristics

• chemical characteristics and

• microbiological characteristics.
 Development of monitoring and evaluation system 61

2.7 Sampling locations

For locating the points of sampling in the treatment plant, it is essential to review the
treatment technologies and technical aspects of the wastewater treatment plant.
The technical aspects of wastewater treatment plants include primary treatment,
secondary treatment, activated sludge, solids handling, disposal systems, disinfection
technologies and sampling testing procedures. Gaza WWTP will be presented as a case
study for the Gaza Strip.
The existing facilities of Gaza WWTP are shown in Figure 2, which describe the
following:

1 Influent structure: this tank consists of a side inlet structure and a main box inlet
structure, which accepts the flow from the two pump stations.
2 Anaerobic Ponds: Gaza WWTP consists of three Anaerobic Ponds, Two
Anaerobic Ponds (Nos. 1 and 2) and Anaerobic Pond (No. 3). The pumped
wastewater discharged to the first two Anaerobic Ponds. They are used now as
sedimentation tank to reduce the amount of solids in the wastewater going into
the Anaerobic Pond No. 3.
3 Aerobic Pond: includes 16 aerators, which are fixed in the pond by cables and
anchors and provided with antierosion pad constructed on the basin floor
beneath each unit.
4 Trickling Filter (TF) Feed Pump Station: pumps aerated pond effluent plus
recycle to two high - rate Trickling Filter.
5 TFs: the two high rate TFs are operating in parallel. The wastewater is
distributed over the surface of the media where it flows downward as a thin film
over the media surface for aerobic treatment and then collected at the bottom of
under drain system.
6 TFs effluent distributions chamber: this structure divides effluent flow
from the TFs proportionately between the settling pond and recycle back
to the TFs.
7 Settling channel: the final settling channel clarifies the effluent from
the TFs and Aerobic Pond by removing the solids formed by the
biological process.
8 Effluent polishing pond: this pond is a concrete settling zone. Sludge is removed
through suction pipes draped along the existing 3:1 slope. This suction is
connected to the pump discharge sludge to holding pond.
9 Sludge holding pond: this pond are used as an anaerobic sludge holding pond by
concentrating impurities into solid and then separating these solids from the
bulk liquid.
10 Effluent pump station: a submersible pump station consists of two parallel
wet wells.
11 Chlorination facilities: sodium hypochlorite storages and dosing equipment are
provided, but are not currently in use.
12 Effluent pipeline: there are two effluent pipelines from the Gaza WWTP: one
discharged to the sea and the other discharged by gravity to the infiltration.
62 Y. Mogheir and I. Lubbad

Figure 2 Sampling locations in Gaza WWTP

 Development of monitoring and evaluation system 63

2.8 Description of Gaza WWTP processes

• The treatment process at Gaza WWTP started with pumping the wastewater to a
single inlet chamber. Flows from the inlet chamber pass to the first two
Anaerobic Ponds; they are currently used as sedimentation tank to reduce the
amount of solids (e.g. greases, oils, toilet paper and other materials that are put
down the drain or flushed into the system) in the wastewater going into the
Anaerobic Pond No. 3 (Figure 2).
• Then the flow passes to the anaerobic treatment. This process utilises naturally
occurring bacteria to break down biodegradable material in wastewater. Because
the bacteria are anaerobic, they do not require oxygen like the organisms in an
aerobic process.
• The wastewater is distributed over media in the TFs that provide a medium for
the growth of certain bacteria, which feed on the dissolved solids in the settled
sewage. The organisms which developed within the filters provide BOD5
removal and nitrification for ammonia nitrogen removal.
• The partially treated wastewater discharged from TFs to the Aerobic Pond,
where sufficient energy is supplied by 14 mechanical aerators to keep the entire
contents; including the sewage solids. It has a capacity of 3800 m3. This stage of
treatment removes up to 50% of BOD5 and more than 30% of the total nitrogen.
• The polishing pond is the last in a series of treatment plant which produce
effluent flows before being discharged into the natural environment. It has an
aerobic zone on the top and an anaerobic zone on the bottom. In the
intermediate zone, which is partly aerobic and partly anaerobic, the facultative
(aerobic-anaerobic) bacteria degrade the suspended organic matter.
• Wastewater treatment processes are accomplished by concentrating impurities
into solid and then separating these solids from the bulk liquid. This
concentration of solids, referred to as sludge, contains many objectionable
materials. The reduction of these materials may be acquired in the drying beds.

Figure 3 TSS measurements in Gaza WWTP for April 2005

64 Y. Mogheir and I. Lubbad

Determining the suitable locations for wastewater sampling is considered an important

aspect in monitoring of the WWTP. The selection of sampling points depends largely on
the technical facilities of the wastewater treatment plant.
At Gaza WWTP, samples are taken almost from each phase of the treatment process,
six locations points are considered as the main location points for sampling:
1 flow to the inlet structure
2 inlet to the sedimentation tank
3 flow to the TFs
4 outlet of trickling filter
5 outlet of Aerated ponds and
6 effluent.
The exact locations of these samples are shown in the layout of Gaza wastewater
treatment plant.

2.9 Parameters to be measured

Several physical, chemical and microbiological parameters are analysed in the lab; these
parameters are compatible with the draft Palestinian treated wastewater standard Table 5.

Table 5 Treated wastewater quality parameters

Parameter Abbreviation Unit Palestinian standard

Reuseِin agriculture
Colour – – –
Temperature – – –
Total Solids TS mg/l –
Total Suspended Solids TSS mg/l 50
Total Dissolved Solids TDS mg/l 1500
Total Volatile Suspended Solid TVSS mg/l –
Biochemical Oxygen Demand BOD mg/l 40
Chemical Oxygen Demand COD mg/l 150
Dissolved Oxygen DO mg/l >1
Acidity level pH – 6–9
Phenols – – 0.002
Industrial Detergents MBAS – 5
Ammonia-nitrogen NH4-N mg/l 10
Nitrate-nitrogen NO3-N mg/l 15
Nitrites- nitrogen NO2-N mg/l –
Nitrogen N mg/l 10
Nitrogen Kjeldahl N-KJD mg/l –
Phosphorus P mg/l 15
Chloride CL mg/l 600
Sulfate SO4 mg/l 1000
Sodium Na mg/l 9
Magnesium Mg mg/l 150
 Development of monitoring and evaluation system 65

Table 5 Treated wastewater quality parameters (continued)

Parameter Abbreviation Unit Palestinian standard

Reuseِin agriculture
Calcium Ca mg/l 400
Aluminum Al mg/l 1
Arsenic As mg/l 0.05
Copper Cu mg/l 0.2
Fluoride Fl mg/l 1.5
Iron Fe mg/l 2
Manganese Mn mg/l 0.2
Nickel Ni mg/l 0.2
Lead Pb mg/l 0.1
Selenium Se mg/l 0.02
Cobalt Co mg/l 0.05
Cadmium Cd mg/l 0.01
Zinc Zn Mg/l 5
Cyanide CN mg/l 0.1
Chromium Cr mg/l 0.05
Mercury Hg mg/l 0.001
Boron B mg/l 1.0
Total fecal coliform TFC #/100ml 1000

Source: Mogheir (2003).

2.10 Laboratory analysis methods

One of the main parameters of quality control for wastewater treatment plants is data
collection. Specific data concerning the efficiency of the treatment processes could be
obtained by the analysis of the wastewater. Many parameters could effect the wastewater
quality such as biological, chemical and physical parameters as mentioned in Table 5.
To assure high degree of the precision and accuracy of the analysis processes
international standard methods such as (standard methods for the examination of water
and wastewater or EPA standard) should be applied during the monitoring processes
which include samples collection, preservation and analysis (Environmental Protection
Agency, 2001; Lenore et al., 1998).

3 Wastewater evaluation system

3.1 DPSIR approach

For practical purposes, the PSR model is sufficient. However, for compatibility reasons
(e.g. to the DSR model) and for a better description of underlying economic trends, the
indicator community has formulated the DPSIR model, which includes PSR as special
case. The challenges to the PSR and then to DRS models have contributed to the
expanded model described as DPSIR developed by the European Environmental Agency
(EEA) of the European Commission. The DPSIR model defines five indicators
categories as explained in Figure 4.
66 Y. Mogheir and I. Lubbad

• Driving forces (D) are underlying factors influencing a variety of relevant

variables. For examples, the number of cars per inhabitant, total industrial
production and GDP.
• Pressure (P) indicators describe the variables which directly cause (or may
cause) environmental problems. For examples, toxic emissions, CO2 emissions,
noise caused by road traffic and the amount of waste produced by scrap cars.
• State (S) indicators show the current condition of the environment.
For examples, the concentration of lead in urban areas, the noise
levels near main roads and the global mean temperature.
• Impact (I) indicators describe the ultimate effects of changes of state.
For example, the percentage of children suffering from lead-induced health
problems, the mortality due to noise-induced heart attacks and the number
of people starving due to climate-change induced crop losses.
• Response (R) indicators demonstrate the efforts of society (i.e. politicians,
decision-makers) to solve the problems. For examples, the percentage of cars
with catalytic converters, maximum allowed noise levels for cars, the price level
of gasoline, the revenue coming from pollution levies and the budget spent for
solar energy research.

Figure 4 The DPSIR model

Source: Environmental Protection Agency (2001).

Eurostat focuses on the Driving force (e.g. sectoral trends), Pressure and Response
indicators and on linking such indicators to standard socio-economic statistics.
Complementary to this effort, the EEA concentrated on state and impact indicators and
on a comprehensive description of the full PSR chain.
 Development of monitoring and evaluation system 67

The DPSIR approach more effectively represents the complexities of

social/environmental interaction and highlights the need to understand and measure the
nature and scale of that dynamic. The more effective integration of social condition,
environmental dynamics and institutional response can only enrich the processes of
informed decision making on sustainable resources use and development practices
(EQA, 2004).
The indicators are essential for the evaluation system, however, data is collected by
the monitoring system. Table 6 shows the data categories required for each part of
DPSIR model with concern to the wastewater management systems in Palestine. The
data is linked to the reasonable indictor that might reflect.
Table 6 Major data categories that connect DPSIR model for wastewater
evaluation systems
Major data DPSIR type Brief definition Data needed within the major data
category category
Generation of D The generation of 1. Domestic consumption of water
wastewater municipal wastewater per capita.
(domestic and is derived from the 2. Population and number of
industrial) production of waste on households.
a volume basis at the 3. Percentage of wastewater
point of production. produced from water consumption
Unit: MCM/yr 4. Type of industrial activities.
5. Data related to the industries
including the production, labour
and wastewater generation.
Share of D The proportion of 1. Wastewater generation rate.
collected produced wastewater 2. Connection of population to
wastewater by that has been subjected sewage system.
the available to collection by
collection different means:
means cesspits, open channels
(domestic and and public sewage
industrial) network.
Unit: %
Share of D The proportion of 1. Volume of wastewater collected
collected and collected wastewater by means of the different
disposed that has not been collection means.
untreated subjected to treatment 2. Existing final disposal methods.
wastewater by and discharged directly
the available into the environment.
collection Unit: %
means
Share of R The proportion of 1. Volume of wastewater collected
collected and collected wastewater by means of the public sewage
treated that has been subjected network.
municipal to adequate treatment 2. Composition of untreated
wastewater by to allow its discharge wastewater.
the public into the environment 3. Type of existing wastewater
sewage without impacting treatment plants.
network human health or 4. Inflow and outflow of the existing
ecosystem. WWTP.
Unit: % 5. Efficiency of existing WWTP
(composition of treated effluent).
68 Y. Mogheir and I. Lubbad

Table 6 Major data categories that connect DPSIR model for wastewater
evaluation systems (continued)

Major data DPSIR Brief definition Data needed within the major data
category type category
Share of industrial R This is the proportion of 1. Type of industrial activities.
wastewater treated wastewater produced by 2. Existing wastewater disposal
on site industry and receiving treatment method.
that is adequate to allow it to be 3. Volume of industrial
discharged into the environment wastewater produced by
without impacting human health industry.
or ecosystems. 4. Composition of the generated
Unit: % industrial wastewater (BOD,
COD, TSS, nitrates, phosphate
and heavy metals) a
5. Volume of wastewater treated
by on site treatment plants.
6. Type of on site wastewater
treatment plants.
7. Efficiency of existing WWTP
(composition of treated
effluent).
Releases of D Average annual load of nitrogen 1. Type of land sources
Nitrogen and (N) and phosphorus (P) from discharged into coastal waters.
Phosphorus to land sources including 2. Volume and composition of
coastal waters wastewater discharged into wastewater discharged into
coastal waters. coastal waters.
Unit: Tons per year, reported
separately for N and P.
Area and type of S This indicator corresponds to 1. Spatial data analysed from
land contaminated the surface area of lands aerial photos and satellite
by wastewater (agricultural lands, forests, images.
discharges nature reserves, etc) 2. Data collected by field
including that contaminated by pollution surveys.
irrigated with related to wastewater
untreated discharges.
wastewater Unit: square kilometres (or %)
(Loss of different
types of lands)
Actual S This indicator corresponds to 1. Soil classification and type.
concentration of the soil contaminated by the 2. Standard soil composition.
pollutants in the discharged untreated or partially 3. Related laboratory analyses
contaminated soil treated wastewater. results (Heavy metals).
as compared to the
standard)
Threatened flora S Number of species at risk of 1. Total number of species.
and fauna species extirpation in proportion to the 2. Number of threatened species.
(Preferably for all total number of native species.
vascular plant and This indicator corresponds to
vertebrate animal the number of threatened
classes) species including those at risk of
extirpation due to their exposure
to the discharged wastewater
(affected by contaminated soil).
Unit: %
 Development of monitoring and evaluation system 69

Table 6 Major data categories that connect DPSIR model for wastewater
evaluation systems (continued)

Major data DPSIR Brief definition Data needed within the major
category type data category
Concentration of S The proportion of freshwater 1. Water supplied quantities
faecal coliforms in resources containing and sources.
freshwater (piped concentrations of faecal 2. Records of Palestinian water
and unpiped water coliforms, which exceed the authority’s laboratories,
supplies including levels recommended in the Ministry of Health
wells, public water World Health Organization laboratories, universities and
networks and (WHO) Drinking Water research institutes which
cisterns) Guidelines. show the level of E. coli in
Unit: % the analysed water samples
(Related laboratory analysis
results).
3. World Health Organization
(WHO) Drinking Water
Guidelines.
Biochemical S BOD measures the amount of BOD5 results from laboratories
Oxygen Demand oxygen required or consumed
(BOD) in water for the microbiological
bodies decomposition (oxidation) of
organic material in water.
The presence of BOD as an
indicator of faecal
contamination can restrict
water use and development or
necessitate expensive
treatment.
Unit: mg/L
Methane S Amounts of methane emitted 1. Type of existing wastewater
emissions from form the handling of domestic handling system.
domestic and and industrial wastewater 2. Fraction of wastewater
industrial streams with high contents of treated by the handling
wastewaters organic material. system.
handling
3. Total population served by
the wastewater handling
system.
4. Fraction of degradable
organic component removed
as sludge.
5. Degradable organic
component in the wastewater
stream (kg BOD/cap/day and
kg COD/cap/day).
6. Methane conversion factor
for the handling system.
7. Maximum methane
producing capacity
(kgCH4/kg BOD, kg CH4/kg
COD)
70 Y. Mogheir and I. Lubbad

4 Conclusion

In this paper, a framework for the monitoring and evaluation system for wastewater
treatment and reuse (wastewater management) was introduced. The internationally
accepted model (DSPIR) that represents the environmental evaluation system was
applied for the Palestinian case. Indicators for each part of the model were detailed.
The presented evaluation system can be considered as a comprehensive model, however,
it should be linked to the monitoring system that provides data to complete the cycle of
monitoring (collection of data, analyses and evaluation of data). In parallel to the
evaluation and monitoring systems, an environmental database should be established and
linked with the two systems to form at the end a complete Wastewater Monitoring and
Evaluation System.
Further work is recommended to detail the data needs for representing the indicators
for each part of DSPIR model. Some of the data might be available in other institutions.
Therefore, it should be collected and stored in the database. The available data should be
further monitored through new projects or through Joint Environmental Committee.

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