Drilling Engineering Fundamentals PDF

Drilling Engineering Fundamentals
Associate Professor Jorge H.B. Sampaio Jr., PhD

Curtin University of Technology
Department of Petroleum Engineering
j.sampaio@curtin.edu.au
April 3, 2007
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Contents
1 Introduction 1–1
1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–1
1.2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–1
1.3 Drilling Rig Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–3
1.4 Personnel at Rig Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–5
1.5 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–7
2 Rotary Drilling System 2–1

2.1 Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–5
2.1.1 Energy, Work, and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–6
2.2 Hoisting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–8
2.2.1 The Derrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–10
2.2.2 The Drawworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–11
2.2.3 The Block & Tackle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–12
2.2.4 Load Applied to the Derrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–16
2.3 Drilling Fluid Circulation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–18
2.3.1 Mud Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–20
2.3.2 Solids Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–25
2.3.3 Treatment and Mixing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–30
2.4 The Rotary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–33
2.4.1 Swivel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–33
2.4.2 Kelly, Kelly Valves, and Kelly Saver Sub . . . . . . . . . . 2–33
2.4.3 Rotary Table and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–36
2.5 Well Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–38
2.6 Well Monitoring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–43
3 Drillstring Tubulars and Equipment 3–1
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Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals
3.1 Drill Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–1

3.1.1 Drill Pipe Elevator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–5
3.2 Drill Collars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–5
3.3 Heavy Wall Drill Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–6
3.4 Special Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–7
3.4.1 Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–7
3.4.2 Reamers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–9
3.4.3 Hole–openers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–9
3.5 Connections Make–up and Break–out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–10
3.5.1 Maximum Height of Tool Joint Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . 3–11
3.5.2 Make–up Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–13
3.6 Drill Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–13
3.7 Other Drillstring Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–14
3.7.1 Top Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–14
3.7.2 Bottom Hole Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–15
4 Introduction to Hydraulics 4–1

4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1
4.1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure for Incompressible Fluids . . . . . . 4–2
4.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure for Compressible Fluids . . . . . . . 4–4
4.2 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–7
5 Drillstring Design 5–1

5.1 Length of Drill Collars – Neutral Point Calculation . . . . . . . . . 5–1
5.2 Design for Tensile Force, Torque, Burst, and Collapse . . . . . . 5–6
5.2.1 Maximum Tensile Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–6
5.2.2 Maximum Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–9
5.2.3 Internal (Burst) and External (Collapse) Pressures . . . . 5–10
5.2.4 Drillstring Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–12
6 Drilling Hydraulics 6–1

6.1 Mass and Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–1
6.1.1 Mass Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2
6.1.2 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–3
6.2 Flow Through Bit Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–6
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6.2.1 Pressure Drop Across the Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–6

6.2.2 Hydraulic Power Across the Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–8
6.2.3 Impact Force of the Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–8
6.3 Required Hydraulic Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–10
6.4 Bit Hydraulics Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–11
6.4.1 Nozzle Size Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–13
6.4.2 Graphical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–16
7 Introduction to Drilling Fluids 7–1

7.1 Functions of Drilling Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–1
7.2 Types of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–2
7.2.1 Water–Base Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–3
7.2.2 Oil–Base Muds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–6
7.2.3 Synthetic Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–7
7.2.4 Aerated Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–7
7.3 Laboratory Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–7
7.3.1 Water–Base Mud Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–7
7.3.2 Oil-Base Mud Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–12
7.4 Fluid Density and Viscosity Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–13
7.4.1 Density Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–14
7.4.2 Density Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–15
7.4.3 Initial Viscosity Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–19
8 Rheology and Rheometry 8–1

8.1 Rheological Classification of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–1
8.2 Rheometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–4
8.2.1 Viscosity of Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–5
8.2.2 Parameters of Bingham–Plastic Model Fluids . . . . . . . 8–5
8.2.3 Parameters of Power–Law Model Fluids . . . . . . . . . . 8–5
8.2.4 Gel Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–6
9 Flow in Pipes and Annuli 9–1

9.1 Laminar Flow in Pipes and Annuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1
9.1.1 Equilibrium Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–2
9.1.2 Continuity Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–3
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9.1.3 Newtonian Flow in Pipes – Poiseuille’s Equation . . . . . 9–5

9.1.4 Newtonian Flow in Concentric Annuli – Lamb’s Equation . 9–6
9.1.5 Slot Approximation for Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . 9–9
9.1.6 Pressure Drop Gradient for Non–Newtonian Fluids . . . . 9–10
9.2 Turbulent Flow in Pipes and Annuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–12
9.2.1 Turbulent Flow of Newtonian Fluids in Pipes . . . . . . . . 9–12
9.2.2 Criterion for Laminar – Transition – Turbulent Flow . . . . 9–19
9.2.3 Other Geometries – Turbulent Flow in Annuli (Newtonian) 9–20
9.2.4 Turbulent Flow for Non–Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . 9–22
10 Drilling Bits 10–1

10.1 Drill Bit Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–1
10.1.1 Roller Cone Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2
10.1.2 Air Drilling Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–8
10.1.3 Fixed Cutter Bits (Drag Bits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–8
10.2 Bit Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–15
10.2.1 PDC Bit Classification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–18
10.3 Drill Bit Selection and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–20
10.3.1 Tooth Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–21
10.3.2 Bearing Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–21
10.3.3 Gage Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–22
10.4 Factors that Affect the Rate Of Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–22
10.4.1 Bit Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–22
10.4.2 Formation Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–22
10.4.3 Drilling Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–23
10.4.4 Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–25
A Drill Pipe Dimensions (as in API RP7C) A–1
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List of Figures
1.1 Rig Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–3
2.1 Typical rig components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1

2.2 A simplified drillstring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–3
2.3 Making a connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–4
2.4 Rig crew setting the slips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–4
2.5 Removing one stand of drillstring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–5
2.6 Typical hoisting system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–9
2.7 Stand of doubles along the mast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–10
2.8 Onshore rig drawworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–11
2.9 Brake belts and magnification linkage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–11
2.10 Drawworks schematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–12
2.11 Forces acting in the block–tackle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–13
2.12 Derrick floor plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–17
2.13 A swivel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–19
2.14 Rig circulation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–20
2.15 Duplex pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–22
2.16 Triplex pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–22
2.17 Surge dampener. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–24
2.18 Solids control system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–25
2.19 Shale shaker configurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–26
2.20 A two–screen shale shaker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–26
2.21 A vacuum chamber degasser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–27
2.22 Flow path in a hydrocyclone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–28
2.23 Solid control equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–28
2.24 Particle size classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–29
2.25 Internal view of a centrifuge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–30
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2.26 Mud cleaner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–31

2.27 Mud agitator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–31
2.28 Mud gun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–32
2.29 Mud hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–32
2.30 Cut views of a swivel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–34
2.31 A square kelly and a hexagonal kelly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–35
2.32 A kelly valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–35
2.33 Kelly bushings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–36
2.34 Master bushings ([a] and [b]), and casing bushing (c). . . . . . . 2–36
2.35 Kelly bushing and master bushing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–37
2.36 Drillpipe slip (detail when set in the master bushing). . . . . . . . 2–37
2.37 DC slips, safety collar, and casing slips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–38
2.38 A rotary table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–38
2.39 BOP stacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–39
2.40 Annular BOP’s (a and b) and an inside BOP (c) . . . . . . . . . . 2–40
2.41 BOP: (a) blind and pipe rams, (b) shear rams. . . . . . . . . . . . 2–41
2.42 BOP accumulators and control panels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–42
2.43 Choke manifold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–42
2.44 Weight indicator (a) and a deadline anchor (b). . . . . . . . . . . 2–44
2.45 Drilling control console. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–44
3.1 Typical rotary drillstring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–2

3.2 Typical tool joint designs. (A) Internal upset DP with full–hole
shrink–grip TJ, (B) External upset DP with internal–flush shrink–
grip TJ, (C) External upset DP with flash–weld unitized TJ, (D)
External–internal upset DP with Hydrill™–pressure welded TJ. . 3–3
3.3 A DP elevator and the links to the hook body. . . . . . . . . . . . 3–5
3.4 A spiraled and a slick drill collars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–6
3.5 Spiraled DC cross–section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–6
3.6 A DC elevator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–6
3.8 Heavy wall drill pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–7
3.9 Some Stabilizers: (a) integral, (b) interchangeable, (c) non–rotating,
(d) replaceable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–8
3.10 A roller reamer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–9
3.11 A fixed hole–opener. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–9
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3.12 Manual tongs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–10

3.13 Tongs in position to make–up a connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–11
3.14 A spinner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–12
3.15 Tongs position during make–up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–12
3.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–12
3.17 An electrical top drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–14
3.18 A bottom hole turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–15
3.19 A bottom hole PDM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–15
4.1 Stress state about a point in a fluid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1

4.2 Real gas deviation factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5
4.3 Drillstring schematics for Example 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–9
5.1 Assumption 1 – pressure contributes to buckling. . . . . . . . . . 5–2

5.2 Assumption 2 – pressure does not contribute to buckling. . . . . 5–4
6.1 Mass balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2

6.2 Schematic of a circulation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–5
6.3 Longitudinal cut of bit nozzles. (Courtesy SPE) . . . . . . . . . . 6–6
6.4 Pressure drop across the bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–7
6.5 Jet impact force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–9
6.6 Line of maximum hydraulic power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–16
6.7 Additional hydraulic constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–17
6.8 Ideal surface operational parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–18
6.9 Path of optimum hydraulics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–19
6.10 Frictional pressure drop lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–20
6.11 Graph for Example 27. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–21
7.1 A mud balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–8

7.2 A Marsh funnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–8
7.3 A rotational viscometer (rheometer). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–9
7.4 A API filter press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–9
7.5 A HTHP filter press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–9
7.6 Sand content sieve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–10
7.7 Retort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–10
7.8 Methyl blue capacity test kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–11
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7.9 A pH meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–11

7.10 A titration kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–12
7.11 A permeameter kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–12
7.12 An aniline point kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–13
7.13 Electrical stability tester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–13
7.14 Clay performance for viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–21
8.1 Typical graph of Newtonian fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–2

8.2 Typical graph of Bingham-plastic fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–3
8.3 Typical graphs of power–law fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–3
8.4 Arrangement of a rotational viscometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–4
9.1 Velocity profiles of laminar flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–3

9.2 Velocity profile of laminar flow in a slot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–4
9.3 Slot approximation of an annulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–9
9.4 Fluid particle flowing in a pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–14
9.5 Stanton chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–15
9.6 Selection of the correct pressure drop value. . . . . . . . . . . . 9–19
10.1 Typical roller cone bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2

10.2 Cut view of a roller cone bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–3
10.3 Cut view of a non–sealed bearing bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–4
10.4 A sealed bearing bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–5
10.5 Cut view of a roller bearing cone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–5
10.6 Cut view of a journal bearing cone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–6
10.7 Geometry of bit cones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–7
10.8 Cone offsets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–8
10.9 Air drilling bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–9
10.10Steel blade drag bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–10
10.11A diamond bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–10
10.12Schematic and nomenclature of diamond bit. . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11
10.13PDC bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–13
10.14Schematic and nomenclature of a PDC bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–14
10.15Nozzles in a PDC bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–14
10.16Back rake and side rake angles in PDC bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–14
viii
10.17IADC roller cone bit classification chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–16

10.18Tooth wear diagram for milled tooth bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–21
10.19Correlation between rock strength and threshold WOB. . . . . . 10–23
10.20Variation of ROP with different fluid properties. . . . . . . . . . . 10–24
10.21Effect of differential pressure in the ROP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–25
10.22Exponential relationship between of differential pressure and ROP.10–26
10.23Effect of WOB (a) and rotary speed (b) in the ROP. . . . . . . . . 10–26
ix
x
List of Tables
2.1 Heating values of fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–6

2.2 Block–tackle efficiency ($\eta=0.96$). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–14
10.1 IADC codes for roller cone bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–17

10.2 Range for IADC bit profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–19
10.3 Range for IADC bit hydraulic design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–19
10.4 Range for IADC cutter size and density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–20
A.1 New Drill Pipe Dimensional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–2

A.2 New Drill Pipe Torsional and Tensile Data. Courtesy API . . . . . A–3
A.3 New Drill Pipe Collapse and Internal Pressure Data. Courtesy APIA–4
A.4 Premium Drill Pipe Torsional and Tensile Data. Courtesy API . . A–5
A.5 Premium Drill Pipe Collapse and Internal Pressure Data. Cour-
tesy API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–6
xi
xii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Objectives
The purpose of this text is to give students an introduction to the principles and
some recommended procedures practiced in drilling engineering. All chapters
in general contain a theoretical introduction, examples, and exercises. Refer-
ences for further readings are given at the end of the text. Necessary equations
and procedures to solve the exercises are presented throughout the text.
1.2 General
When a drilling project is commenced, two goals govern its aspects. The first
is to build the well according to its purpose and in a safe manner (i.e, avoiding
personal injuries and avoiding technical problems). The second is to complete
it with minimum cost. Thereto the overall costs of the well during its lifetime in
conjunction with the field development aspects shall be minimized. The overall
cost minimization, or optimization, may influence the location from where the
well is drilled (e.g., an extended reach onshore or above reservoir offshore),
the drilling technology applied (e.g., conventional or slim–hole drilling, over-
balanced or underbalanced, vertical or horizontal, etc), and which evaluation
procedures are run to gather subsurface information to optimize future wells.
On the other hand, the optimization is influenced by logistics, environmental
regulations, etc.
To build a hole, different drilling technologies have been invented:
• Percussion drilling
– Cable drilling → “Pennsylvanian drilling”

– Drillstring
* With mud → Quick percussion drilling
CHAPTER 1 Page 1–1

Introduction to Drilling
* Without mud → “Canadian drilling”
• Rotating drilling
– Full cross-section drilling
* Surface driven
· Rotary bit
· Rotary nozzle
* Subsurface driven
· Turbine drilling
· Positive displacement motor drilling
· Electro motor drilling
– Annular drilling
* Diamond coring
* Shot drilling
• Special techniques
– Abrasive jet drilling

– Cavitating jet drilling
– Electric arc and plasma drilling
– Electric beam drilling
– Electric disintegration drilling
– Explosive drilling
– Flame jet drilling
– Implosion drilling
– Laser drilling
– REAM drilling
– Replaceable cutterhead drilling
– Rocket exhaust drilling
– Spark drilling
– Subterrene drilling
– Terra drilling
– Thermal-mechanical drilling
– Thermocorer drilling
Throughout this text, rotary drilling technology is discussed exclusively.

Figure 1.1: Rig Classification.
1.3 Drilling Rig Types
The diagram in Figure 1.1 shows a general classification of rotary drilling rigs.
Several pictures of the different types of rigs are presented in Figures (a) to (l)
below.
(a) Jackknife rig. (b) Portable mast.

(c) A cantilever rig on a barge. (d) A self–contained plat-

form.
(e) A tender assisted platform. (f) A submersible platform.
(g) A Jack–Up rig (h) Semi–submersible vessel.

(i) A drill–ship (j) A tension–leg platform.
(k) Caisson vessel (also called spar– (l) Diagram of a spar–buoy.

buoy).
1.4 Personnel at Rig Site
This section describes the crew requirements and tasks of some individual crew
members at the rig site.
People directly involved in drilling a well are employed either by the operating
company, the drilling contractor, or one of the service and supply companies.
The operating company is the owner of the lease/block and principal user of the
services provided by the drilling contractor and the different service companies.
To drill an oil or gas well, the operating company (or simply called operator)
acquires the right from the land owner under which the prospective reservoir

may exist, to drill and produce from it. Usually, when a well has to be drilled,
an auction is run by the operator and various drilling contractors are invited
to place their bid. Since drilling contractors are companies that perform the
actual drilling of the well, their main job is to drill a hole to the depth/location
and specifications set by the operator. Along with hiring a drilling contractor,
the operator usually employs various service and supply companies to perform
logging, cementing, or any other special operations, including maintaining the
drilling fluid in its planed condition.
Most drilling crews consist of a tool pusher, a driller, a derrickman, a mud
logger, and two or three rotary helpers (also called floormen or roughnecks).
Along with this basic crew configuration the operator sends usually a represen-
tative, called company man to the rig. For offshore operations the crews usually
consist of many more employees.
Tool Pusher: The tool pusher supervises all drilling operations and is the lead-
ing man of the drilling contractor on location. Along with this supervision
duties, he has to coordinate company and contractor affairs. Two or three
crews operate 24/7, and it is a responsibility of the Tool Pusher to super-
vise and coordinate these crews.
Company Man: The company man is in direct charge of all company’s activi-
ties on the rig site. He is responsible for the drilling strategy as well as the
supplies and services in need. His decisions directly effect the progress
of the well.
Driller: The driller operates the drilling machinery on the rig floor and is the
overall supervisor of all floormen. He reports directly to the tool pusher
and is the person who is most closely involved in the drilling process. He
operates, from his position at the control console, the rig floor brakes,
switches, levers, and all other related controls that influence the drilling
parameters. In case of a kick he is the first person to take action by
moving the bit off bottom and closing the BOP.
Derrick Man: The derrickman works on the so–called monkeyboard, a small

platform up in the derrick, usually about 90 ft above the rotary table. When
a connection is made or during tripping operations he is handling and
guiding the upper end of the pipe. During drilling operations the derrick-
man is responsible for maintaining and repairing the pumps and other
equipment as well as keeping tabs on the drilling fluid.
Floormen: During tripping, the rotary helpers are responsible for handling the
lower end of the drill pipe as well as operating tongs and wrenches to
make or break up a connection. During other times, they also maintain
equipment, keep it clean, do painting and in general help where ever help
is needed.
Mud Engineer, Mud Logger: The service company who provides the mud al-
most always sends a mud engineer and a mud logger to the rig site. They

are constantly responsible for logging what is happening in the hole as

well as maintaining the proper mud conditions.
1.5 Miscellaneous
According to a wells final depth, it can be classified into:

Shallow well: < 2000 m
Conventional well: 2 000 m – 3500 m
Deep well: 3500 m – 5000 m
Ultra deep well: > 5 000m
With the help of advanced technologies in MWD/LWD and extended reach
drilling techniques, horizontal departures of more than10000 m are possible
today (e.g.,Wytch Farm).


Chapter 2
Rotary Drilling System
The most common drilling rigs in use today are rotary drilling rigs. Their main
tasks are to create rotation of the drillstring and facilities to advance and lift the
drillstring, casings, and special equipment into and out of the hole drilled. The
main components of a rotary drilling rig can be seen in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Typical rig components.
Since the rig rate (rental cost of the rig) is one of the most influencing cost
factors to the total cost of a well, careful selection of the proper type and ca-
pacity is vital for a successful drilling project.

Rotary Drilling Systems
For all rigs, the depth of the planned well determines basic rig requirements
like hoisting capacity, power system, circulation system (mud pressure, mud
stream, mud cleaning), and the pressure control system. The selection of the
most cost–efficient rig involves both quantitative and qualitative considerations.
The most important rig systems are:
1. Power system,
2. Hoisting system,
3. Drilling fluid circulation system,
4. Rotary system,
5. Derrick and substructure,
6. Well control system,
7. Well monitoring system.
The proper way to calculate the various requirements is discussed below. The
qualitative aspects involve technical design, appropriate expertise and training
of the drilling crew, contractors track record, and logistics handling.
For offshore rigs, factors like water depth, expected sea, winds, and currents
conditions, and location (supply time) have to be considered.
It should be understood that rig rates are not only influenced by the rig
type but they are also strongly dependent on by the current market situation
(oil price, drilling activity, rig availability, location, etc). Therefore, for the rig
selection, basic rig requirements are determined first. Then drilling contractors
are contacted for offers of a proposed spud date (date at which drilling operation
commences) and alternative spud dates. This flexibility to schedule the spud
date may reduce rig rates considerably.
Before describe the various rig systems listed above, it is important to un-
derstand the drilling process. In rotary drilling, the rock is destroyed by the
action of rotation and axial force applied to a drilling bit. The bit acts on the soil
destroying the rock, whose cuttings must be removed from the bottom of the
borehole in order to continue drilling.
The drilling bit is located at the end of a drill string which is composed of drill
pipes (also called joints or singles), drill collars, and other specialized drilling
tools connected end to end by threads to the total length of the drill string, which
roughly corresponds to the current depth of the borehole. Drill collars are thick
walled tubes responsible for applying the axial force at the bit. Rotation at the
bit is usually obtained by rotating the whole drill string from the surface. (See
Figure 2.2.)
The lower portion of the drill string, composed of drill collars and special-
ized drilling tools, are called bottom hole assembly (BHA). A large variety of
bit models and designs are available in industry. The choice of the right bit,

Figure 2.2: A simplified drillstring.
based on the characteristics of the formations to be drilled, and the right pa-
rameters (weight on bit and rotary speed) are the two most basic problems the
drilling engineer faces during drilling planning and drilling operation. The cut-
tings created by the bit action are lifted to the surface by the drilling fluid, which
is continuously pumped from the surface to the bottom through inside of the
hollow drill string. At the bit, the drilling fluid is forced through nozzles in a fluid
jet action which removes the cuttings from under the bit. The fluid returns to
the surface carrying the cuttings, through the annular space between the drill
string and the borehole. The carrying capacity of the drilling fluid is an impor-
tant characteristics of the drilling fluid. Other important characteristics are the
capacity to prevent formation fluids from entering in the borehole, and the ca-
pacity to maintain the stability of the borehole wall. At the surface, the cuttings
are separated from the drilling fluid by several solid removal equipment. The
drilling fluid accumulates in a series of tanks where it receives the necessary
treatment. From the last tank in this series, the drilling mud is picked up by the
system of pumps and pumped again down the hole.
As drilling progresses, new joints are added to the top of the drill string in-
creasing its length, in an operation called connection. The diagram in Figure 2.3
depicts the process of adding a new joint to the drill string.
During the drilling of the length of the kelly, a new joint is picked from the
pipe rack and stabbed into the mousehole using rig lift equipment. At the kelly
down, the kelly is pulled out of the hole. A pipe slips (see figure 2.4) is used to
transfer the weight of the drillstring from the hook to the master bushing. The

Figure 2.3: Making a connection.
Figure 2.4: Rig crew setting the slips.
connection at the first tool joint is broken and the kelly is swang and stabbed
onto the joint in the “mousehole.” The new joint is stabbed on and connected to
the top of the drillstring. The drillstring is picked up to remove the slips and the
drillstring is lowered until the kelly bushing fits the master bushing. Then drilling
is re–initiated.
As the bit gets dull, a round trip is performed to bring the dull bit to the
surface and replace it by a new one. A round trip is performed also to change
the BHA. The drillstring is also removed to run a casing string. The operation
is done by removing stands of two (“doubles”), three (“thribbles”) or even four
(“fourbles”) joints connected, and stacking them upright in the rig. During trips,
the kelly and swivel is stabbed into the “rathole".” The diagram in Figure 2.5
depicts the process of removing a stand of the drillstring. The process repeats
until the whole drillstring is out of the hole. Then the drill string is run again into

Figure 2.5: Removing one stand of drillstring.
the hole and drilling continues. The process to run the drillstring into the hole
is exactly the reverse of that shown in Figure 2.5.
Sometimes the drillstring is not completely run out of the hole. It is just
lifted up to the top of the open-hole section and then lowered back again while
continuously circulating with drilling mud. Such a trip, called wiper trip, is carried
out to clean the hole from remaining cuttings that may have settled along the
open–hole section.
2.1 Power System
The power system of a rotary drilling rig has to supply power to items 2 to 7 in
the list above. In addition, the system must provide power for pumps in general,
rig light, air compressors, etc. Since the largest power consumers on a rotary
drilling rig are the hoisting, the circulation system, and the rotary system, these
components determine mainly the total power requirements. During typical
drilling operations, the hoisting and the rotary systems are not operated at the
same time. Therefore the same engines can be used to perform both functions.
Drilling rig power systems are classified as direct drive type and electric
type. In both cases, the sources of energy are diesel fueled engines. In the
direct drive type, internal combustion engines supply mechanical power to the
rig. Most rigs use one to three engines to power the drawworks and rotary table.
Power is usually transmitted to the elements by gears, chains, belts, clutches,
and torque converters. The engines are usually rated between 400 hp and

800 hp. The power is used primarily to turn the drill string, pump the drilling
fluid, and raise the drillstring. Engines also power generators that supply the
electricity used on and around the rig. Usually there are two generator sets
in the rig. The rig can run with one of these units but it would run close to
maximum output at night. The second provides for back–up and allows for other
options. These engines are generally rated at 300 hp to 350 hp. Rigs may also
employ one or two engines to power the drilling fluid pumps. Total output varies
from 300 hp to 800 hp. In the electric type, several diesel engines are used to
generate electricity (DC and AC at various voltage levels) that are transmitted to
the various rig systems. DC electric motors are compact and powerful, and can
operate in a wide range of power and torque. There is considerable flexibility of
equipment placement, allowing better space utilization and weight distribution.
This is extremely important in offshore rigs. As guideline, power requirements
for most onshore rigs are between 1,000 to 3,000 hp. Offshore rigs in general
use much more power.
The performance of a rig power system is characterized by the output horse-
power, torque, and fuel consumption for various engine speeds. These three
parameters are related by the efficiency of each system.
2.1.1 Energy, Work, and Efficiency
The energy consumed by the engines comes from burning fuels. Table 2.1
presents the heating values for some types of fuels used in internal combustion
engines.
The engine transforms the chemical energy of the fuel into work. No engine
can transform totally the chemical energy into work. Most of the energy that
enters the engine is lost as heat. The thermal efficiency Et of a machine is
defined as the ratio of the work W generated to the chemical energy consumed
Q:
W
Et = .
Q
Evidently, in order to perform this calculation, we must use the same units
both to the work and to the chemical energy. Important conversion factors are:
1 BTU = 778.17 lbf/ft,
Table 2.1: Heating values of fuels.

Fuel Type Heating Value Density
(BTU/lbm) (lbm/gal)
Diesel 19000 7.2
Gasoline 20000 6.6
Butane (liquid) 21000 4.7
Methane (gas) 24000 –

1 cal = 4.1868 Joule = 4.1868 N m,

1 BTU = 252 cal.
Engines are normally rated by the power P they can deliver at a given work-
ing regime. Power if defined as the rate work is performed, that is work per unit
of time. If Q̇ is the rate of chemical energy consumed by the machine (chemical
energy per unit of time), we can rewrite the expression for the thermal efficiency
as:
P
Et = .
Q̇
To calculate Q̇ we need to know the type of fuel and the rate of fuel con-
sumption in mass per unit time. (Consumption of gaseous fuels is normally
given in mass per unit time, but consumption for liquid fuels is normally given in
volume per unit time. In the latter, we need to know the density of the fluid.)
A system produces mechanical work when the sole result of the process
could be the raising of a weight (most time limited by its efficiency). In this
case, the work W done by the system is given by
W =F h,
where F is the weight and h is the height. Since power is the rate the work is
produced, if we take the time derivative of the work we obtain power:
dW dh
P = =F =F v,
dt dt
where P is power, and v the velocity (assuming F constant). When a rotating
machine is operating (an internal combustion engine or an electrical motor, for
example), we cannot measure its power, but we can measure its rotating speed
(normally in RPM) and the torque at the shaft. This is normally performed
in a machine called dynamometer. The expression relating power to angular
velocity and torque is:
P =ωT ,
where ω is the angular velocity (in radians per unit of time) and T is the torque.
A common unit of power is the hp (horse power). One hp is the power
required to raise a weight of 33,000 lbf by one foot in one minute:
lbf ft lbf ft
1 hp = 33, 000 = 550 .
min s
For T in ft lbf and N in RPM we have:

π rad/s 1 hp
N [RPM] T [ft lbf] = P [hp] .
30 RPM 550 lbf ft/s
that is
N [RPM] T [ft lbf]
P [hp] = .
5252

When the rig is operated at environments with non–standard temperatures

◦
(85 F) or at high altitudes, the mechanical horsepower requirements have to be
corrected. The correction should follow the American Petroleum Institute (API)
standard 7B-llC:
1. Deduction of 3% of the standard brake horsepower for each 1000 ft of

altitude above mean sea level.
2. Deduction of 1% of the standard brake horsepower for each 10◦ F rise or

fall in temperature above or below 85◦ F.
Example 1: A diesel engine gives an output torque of 1740 ft lbf at an engine

speed of 1200 RPM. If the fuel consumption rate was 31.5 gal/hr, what is the
output power and the overall efficiency of the engine.
Solution:
The power delivered at the given regime is:
1200 RPM × 1740 ft lbf
P = = 397.5 hp
5252
Diesel is consumed at 31.5 gal/hr. From Table 2.1 we have:

gal lbm BTU
Q̇ = 31.5 × 7.2 × 19000 = 4, 309, 200 BTU/hr
hr gal lbm
Converting to hp, results in:
BTU 778.17 lbf ft 1 hr 1 hp
Q̇ = 4, 309, 200 × × × = 1693.6 hp
hr BTU 3600 s 550 lbf ft/s
The thermal efficiency is:

P 397.5
Et = = = 23.5%
Q̇ 1693.6
2.2 Hoisting System
The hoisting system is used to raise, lower, and suspend equipment in the well
(e.g., drillstring, casing, etc). The hoisting equipment itself consists of: (See
Figure 2.6.)
• derrick (not shown),

Figure 2.6: Typical hoisting system.
• draw works,
• fast line,
• crown block,
• traveling block,
• dead line,
• deal line anchor,
• storage reel,
• hook.
The drilling line (wire rope) is usually braided steel cable varying from 1 inch
to 13 /4 inches in diameter. It is wound around a reel or drum in the drawworks.
Power (torque and rotation) is transmitted to the drawworks, allowing the drilling
line in or out. The hoisting systems is composed by the derrick, the drawworks,
and the block-tackle system.

Figure 2.7: Stand of doubles along the mast.
2.2.1 The Derrick
The derrick or mast is a steel tower.1 The purpose of the derrick is to pro-
vide height to raise and lower the drillstring (and also casing) out and into the
borehole.
Derricks are rated by the API according to their height and their ability to
withstand wind and compressive loads. API has published standards for the
particular specifications. The higher the derrick is, the longer stands it can
handle, which in turn reduces the tripping time. Derricks are designed to handle
two, three, or four joints.
The derrick stands above the derrick floor. The derrick floor is the stage
where several surface drilling operations occur. At the derrick floor are located
the drawworks, the driller’s console, the driller’s house (or “doghouse”), the
rotary table, the drilling fluid manifold, and several other tools to operate the
drillstring. The space below the derrick floor is the substructure. The height of
the substructure should be enough to accommodate the well control equipment.
(See Figure 2.1.) At about 3 /4 of the height of the derrick is located a platform
called “monkey board”. This platform is used to operate the drillstring stands
during trip operations. During drillstring trips, the stands are kept stood in in the
mast, held by “fingers” in the derrick rack near the monkey board, as shown in
Figure 2.7.
1
If the tower is jacked up, it is called mast. If the tower is erected on the site, it is called
derrick.

Figure 2.8: Onshore rig drawworks.
Figure 2.9: Brake belts and magnification linkage.
2.2.2 The Drawworks
The drawworks provides hoisting and braking power required to handle the
heavy equipments in the borehole. It is is composed of a wire rope drum,
mechanical and hydraulic brakes, the transmission, and the cathead (small
winches operated by hand or remotely to provide hoisting and pulling power
to operate small loads and tools in the derrick area). Figure 2.8 shows a typical
onshore rig drawworks.
The reeling–in of the drilling line is powered by an electric motor or Diesel
engine, and the reeling–out is powered by gravity. To control the reeling out,
mechanical brakes and auxiliary hydraulic or magnetic brakes are used, which
dissipates the energy required to reduce the speed and/or stop the downward
movement of the suspended equipment. (See Figure 2.9.)

Figure 2.10: Drawworks schematics.
The drawworks take power from Diesel engines or electrical motors, and an
assembly of gears and clutches reduces the rotary speed to power the drum
and the various catheads. A schematic of the internal mechanisms of a draw-
works is shown in Figure 2.10. As shown in the schematics, the drum surface
has a helical groove to accommodate the drilling line without causing excessive
stress and stain. This also helps the drilling line to lay neatly when reeled in.
2.2.3 The Block & Tackle
The drawworks, although very powerful, cannot provide the pull required to
raise the heavy drillstring. The required pull is obtained with a system of pulleys.
The drilling line coming from the drawworks, called fast line, goes over a
pulley system mounted at the top of the derrick, called the crown block, and
down to another pulley system called the traveling block. The assembly of
crown block, traveling block and drilling line is called block-tackle. The number
of lines n of a tackle is twice the number of (active) pulleys in the traveling block.
The last line of the tackle is called dead line and is anchored to the derrick floor,
close to one of its legs. Below and connected to the traveling block is a hook
to which drilling equipment can be hung. As the drilling line is reeled in or out
of the drawworks, the traveling block rises and lowers along the derrick. This
raises and lowers the equipment in the well. The block-tackle system provides
a mechanical advantage to the drawworks, and reduces the total load applied
to the derrick. We will be interested in calculating the fast line force Ff (provided
by the drawworks) required to raise a weight W in the hook, and the total load

Figure 2.11: Forces acting in the block–tackle.
applied to the rig and its distribution on the derrick floor.
2.2.3.1 Mechanical advantage and Efficiency
The mechanical advantage AM of the block–tackle is defined as the ratio of the

load W in the hook to the tensile force on the fast line Ff :
W
AM = .
Ff
For an ideal, frictionless system, the tension in the drilling line is the same
throughout the system, so that W = n Ff . (See Figure 2.11.) Therefore, the
ideal mechanical advantage is equal to the number of lines strung through the
traveling block:
(AM )ideal = n .
In a real pulley, however, the tensile forces in the cable or rope in a pulley
are not identical. If Fi and Fo are the input and output tensile forces of the rope
in the pulley, the efficiency η of a real pulley is given by the following ratio:
Fo
η= .
Fi
We will assume that all pulleys in the hoisting system have the same ef-
ficiency, and we want to calculate the mechanical advantage of a real pulley
system. If Ff is the force in the fast line, the force F1 in the line over the first
pulley (in the crown block) is given by
F1 = ηFf .

The force in the line over the second pulley (in the traveling block) is
F2 = ηF1 = η 2 Ff .
Using the same reasoning over and over, the force in the ith line is
Fi = η i Ff .
The total load W acting in the hook is equal to the sum of the forces in each
line of the traveling block. This means that the load W is given by
W = F1 + F2 + · · · + Fn = (η + η 2 + · · · + η n )Ff .
It can be easily shown that the expression between parenthesis can be writ-
ten as
η − η n+1
.
1−η
Therefore we have:
η − η n+1
W = Ff .
1−η
Consequently, the real mechanical advantage is given by:
W η − η n+1
AM = = .
Ff 1−η
The overall efficiency E of the system of pulleys is defined as the ratio of

the real mechanical advantage to the ideal mechanical advantage:
AM η − η n+1
E= = . (2.1)
(AM )ideal n(1 − η)
If the efficiency of the pulleys η is known, Block–tackle overall efficiency E

can be calculated using Expression 2.1. A typical value for the efficiency of
ball–bearing pulleys is η = 0.96. Table 2.2 shows the calculated and industry
average overall efficiency for the usual number of lines.
Table 2.2: Block–tackle efficiency ($\eta=0.96$).

n E Eave
6 0.869 0.874
8 0.836 0.841
10 0.804 0.810
12 0.775 0.770
16 0.746 0.740
Therefore, if E is known, the fast line force Ff required to rise a load W is

given by
W
Ff = (2.2)
nE

2.2.3.2 Hook Power
For an ideal block–tackle system, the input power (provided by the drawworks)
is equal to the output or hook power (available to move the borehole equip-
ments). In this case, the power delivered by the drawworks is equal to the force
in the fast line Ff times the velocity of the fast line vf , and the power developed
at the hook is equal to the force in the hook W times the velocity of the traveling
block vb . That is
Pd = Ff vf = W vb = Ph .
Since for the ideal case n Ff = W , we have that

vf
vb = ,
n
that is, the velocity of the block is n times slower than the velocity of the fast
line, and this is valid also for the real case. Considering the Equation (2.2)
W
Ff = (2.3)
nE
2.2
which represents the real relationship between the force in the fast line and
the weight in the hook, and multiplying both sides by vf we obtain:
W vf W vb Ph
Ff vf = Pd = = = ,
nE E E
Ph
Pd =
,
E
which represents the real relationship between the power delivered by the draw-
works and the power available in the hook, where E is the overall efficiency of
the block–tackle system.
Example 2: A rig must hoist a load of 300,000 lbf. The drawworks can pro-
vide a maximum input power to the block–tackle system of as 500 hp. Eight
lines are strung between the crown block and traveling block. Calculate (1) the
tension in the fast line when upward motion is impending, (2) the maximum
hook horsepower, (3) the maximum hoisting speed.
Solution:
Using E = 0.841 (average efficiency for n = 8) we have:
W 300, 000 lbf

(1) Ff = = → Ff = 44, 590 lbf
nE 8 × 0.841
Ph Ph
(2) Pd = 500 hp = = → Ph = 421 hp
E 0.841


550 lbf ft/s
(3) Ph = 421 hp = 231, 550 lbf ft/s = W vb = 300, 000 lbf × vb
1 hp
231, 550 lbf ft/s
vb = → vb = 0.772 ft/s = 46.3 ft/min
300, 000 lbf
2.2.4 Load Applied to the Derrick
The total load applied to the derrick, FD is equal to the load in the hook plus the
force acting in the dead line plus the force acting in the fast line:
FD = W + Ff + Fd .
The worst scenario for the force in the fast line is that for the real case. From
Section 2.2.3.1 the force in the fast line is:
W
Ff = (2.4)
nE
2.2
For the dead line, however, the worst scenario (largest force) is that of ideal
case. In this case, the force in the dead line is:
W
Fd = .
n
Therefore, the total load applied to the derrick is:
W W (n + 1)E + 1
FD = W + + = W .
nE n nE
The total load FD , however, is not evenly distributed over all legs of the
derrick. In a conventional derrick, the drawworks is usually located between
two of the legs of the derrick. (See Figure 2.12.) The dead line, however must
be anchored close to one of the remaining two legs.2
From this configuration the load in each leg is:
W W n+4
Leg A : + = W ,
4 n 4n
W
Leg B :
,
4
W W nE + 2
Legs C and D : + = W .
4 2nE 4nE
2
The side of the derrick opposite to the drawworks is called V–gate. This area must be kept
free to allow pipe handling. Therefore, the dead line cannot be anchored between legs A and
B.

Figure 2.12: Derrick floor plan.
Evidently, the less loaded leg is leg B. We can determine under which con-
ditions the load in leg A is greater then the load in legs C and D:
n+4 nE + 2
W > W → E > 0.5 .
4n 4nE
Since the efficiency E is usually greater than 0.5, leg A will be the most
loaded leg, and very likely it will be the first to fail in the event of an excessive
load is applied to the hook. If a derrick is designed to support a maximum
nominal load Lmax , each leg can support Lmax 4
. Therefore, the maximum hook
load that the derrick can support for a given line arrangement is
Lmax n+4 n
= Wmax → Wmax = Lmax .
4 4n n+4
The equivalent derrick load, FDE , is defined as four times the load in the
most loaded leg. For the derrick configuration above, the equivalent derrick
load is
n+4
FDE = W .
n
The equivalent derrick load (which depends on the number of lines) must be
less than the nominal capacity of the derrick.
The derrick efficiency factor, ED is defined as the ratio of the total load
applied to the derrick to the equivalent derrick load:
(n+1)E+1
FD nE
W (n + 1)E + 1
ED = = n+4 = .
FDE n
W (n + 4)E

Example 3: For the data of Example 2, calculate (1) the actual derrick load,
(2) the equivalent derrick load, and (3) the derrick efficient factor.
Solution:
(1) The actual derrick load is given by
(n + 1)E + 1 (8 + 1) × 0.841 + 1
FD = W = × 300, 000 = 382, 000 lbf
nE 8 × 0.841
(2) The equivalent derrick load is given by

n+4 8+4
FDE = W = × 300, 000 = 450, 000 lbf
n 8
(3) The derrick efficiency factor is

FD 382, 000
ED = = = 85%
FDE 450, 000
2.3 Drilling Fluid Circulation System
The drilling fluid plays several functions in the drilling process. The most impor-
tant are:
1. clean the rock fragments from beneath the bit and carry them to surface,
2. exert sufficient hydrostatic pressure against the formation to prevent for-
mation fluids from flowing into the well,
3. maintain stability of the borehole walls,
4. cool and lubricate the drillstring and bit.
Drilling fluid is forced to circulate in the hole at various pressures and flow rates.
Drilling fluid is stored in steel tanks located beside the rig. Powerful pumps
force the drilling fluid through surface high pressure connections to a set of
valves called pump manifold, located at the derrick floor. From the manifold,
the fluid goes up the rig within a pipe called standpipe to approximately 1/3 of
the height of the mast. From there the drilling fluid flows through a flexible high
pressure hose to the top of the drillstring. The flexible hose allows the fluid to
flow continuously as the drillstring moves up and down during normal drilling
operations.
The fluid enters in the drillstring through a special piece of equipment called
swivel (Figure 2.13) located at the top of the kelly. The swivel permits rotating
the drillstring while the fluid is pumped through the drillstring.3 The drilling fluid
3
See Section 2.4.1 for details.

Figure 2.13: A swivel.
then flows down the rotating drillstring and jets out through nozzles in the drill bit
at the bottom of the hole. The drilling fluid picks the rock cuttings generated by
the drill bit action on the formation. The drilling fluid then flows up the borehole
through the annular space between the rotating drillstring and borehole wall.
At the top of the well (and above the tank level, the drilling fluid flows through
the flow line to a series of screens called the shale shaker. The shale shaker
is designed to separate the cuttings from the drilling mud. Other devices are
also used to clean the drilling fluid before it flows back into the drilling fluid pits.
Figure 2.14 depicts the process described above.
The principal components of the mud circulation system are:
1. pits or tanks,
2. pumps,
3. flow line,
4. solids and contaminants removal equipment,
5. treatment and mixing equipment,
6. surface piping and valves,
7. the drillstring.
The tanks (3 or 4 – settling tank, mixing tank(s), suction tank) are made of
steel sheet. They contain a safe excess (neither to big nor to small) of the

Figure 2.14: Rig circulation system.
total volume of the borehole. In the case of loss of circulation, this excess will
provide the well with drilling fluid while the corrective measures are taken. The
number of active tanks depends on the current depth of the hole (bypasses
allow to isolate one or more tanks.) The tanks will allow enough retaining time
so that much of the solids brought from the hole can be removed from the fluid.
2.3.1 Mud Pumps
The great majority of the pumps used in drilling operations are reciprocat-
ing positive displacement pumps (PDP). Advantages of the reciprocating PDP
when compared to centrifugal pumps are:
• ability to pump fluids with high abrasive solids contents and with large
solid particles,
• easy to operate and maintain,
• sturdy and reliable,
• ability to operate in a wide range of pressure and flow rate.

Centrifugal pumps are very sensitive to abrasive solid contents mud, and do
not offer a wide range of operation compared to PDP.
PDP are composed of two major parts, namely:
Power end: receives power from engines and transform the rotating movement
into reciprocating movement.
Fluid end: converts the reciprocating power into pressure and flow rate.
The efficiency Em of the power end, that is the efficiency with which rotating me-
chanical power is transformed in reciprocating mechanical power is of the order
of 90%. The efficiency Ev of the fluid end (also called volumetric efficiency),
that is, the efficiency that the reciprocating mechanical power is transformed
into hydraulic power, can be as high as 100%.
Rigs normally have two or three PDPs. During drilling of shallow portions of
the hole, when the diameter is large, the two PDPs are connected in parallel to
provide the highest flow rate necessary to clean the borehole. As the borehole
deepens, less flow rate and higher pressure are required. In this case, normally
only one PDP is used while the other is in standby or in preventive maintenance.
The great flexibility in the pressure and flow rate is obtained with the possibility
of changing the diameters of the pair piston–liner. The flow rate depends on
the following parameters:
• stroke length LS (normally fixed),
• liner diameter dL ,
• rod diameter dR (for duplex PDP only),
• pump speed N (normally given in strokes/minute),
• volumetric efficiency EV of the pump.
In addition, the pump factor Fp is defined as the total volume displaced by the
pump in one stroke.
There are two types of PDP: double-action duplex pump, and single-action
triplex pump. Triplex PDPs, due to several advantages, (less bulky, less pres-
sure fluctuation, cheaper to buy and to maintain, etc,) has taking place of the
duplex PDPs in both onshore and offshore rigs.
2.3.1.1 Duplex PDP
The duplex mud pump consists of two double–action cylinders (see Figure 2.16-
a). This means that drilling mud is pumped with the forward and backward
movement of the barrel.

(a) Piston scheme (double action). (b) A duplex unit.
Figure 2.15: Duplex pumps.
(a) Piston scheme (single action). (b) A Triplex unit.
Figure 2.16: Triplex pumps.
For a duplex pump (2 double–action cylinders) the pump factor is given by:
π
2d2L − d2R LS EV .

Fp =
2
A typical duplex pump is shown in Figure 2.16-b.
2.3.1.2 Triplex PDP
The triplex mud pump consists of three single–action cylinders (see Figure ??-
a). This means that drilling mud is pumped only in the forward movement of the
barrel.
For a triplex pump the pump factor is given by:
3π 2
Fp = d LS EV .
4 L
A typical triplex pump is shown in Figure ??-b.
2.3.1.3 Pump Flow Rate
For both types of PDP, the flow rate is calculated from:

q = N Fp .

For N in strokes per minute (spm), dL , dR , and LS in inches, Fp in in3 , and q

in gallons per minute (gpm) we have:
1
q= N Fp .
231
Note that in this particular formulation, the volumetric efficiency of the pump is
included in the pump factor.
2.3.1.4 Pump Power
Pumps convert mechanical power into hydraulic power. From the definition of
power we can write:
P = F v.
In its motion, the piston exerts a force on the fluid that is equal to the pressure
differential in the piston ∆p times the area A of the piston, and the velocity v is
equal to the flow rate q divided by the area A, that is
q
PH = (∆p A) = ∆p q . (2.5)
A
For PH in hp, ∆p in psi, and q in gpm we have:
∆p q
PH = . (2.6)
1714.29
Example 4: Compute the pump factor in gallons per stroke and in barrels per
stroke for a triplex pump having 5.5 in liners and 16 in stroke length, with a
volumetric efficiency of 90%. At N = 76spm, the pressure differential between
the input and the output of the pump is 2400 psi. Calculate the hydraulic power
transferred to the fluid, and the required mechanical power of the pump if Em is
78%.
Solution:
The pump factor (triplex pump) in in3 per stroke is:
3π
Fp = × 5.52 × 16 × 90% = 1026 in3
4
Converting to gallons per stroke and to barrels per stroke gives:
1 1
Fp = 1026 × = 4.44gps = 4.44 × = 0.1058bps
231 42
The flow rate at N = 76spm is:
q = N Fp = 78spm × 4.44gps = 337.44gpm

The hydraulic power transferred to the fluid is:

2400psi × 334.44gpm
PH = = 468hp
1714.29
To calculate the mechanical power required by the pump we must consider

the efficiencies:
1 1
P = 468hp × × = 667hp
90% 78%
2.3.1.5 Surge Dampeners
Due to the reciprocating action of the PDPs, the output flow rate of the pump
presents a “pulsation” (caused by the changing speed of the pistons as they
move along the liners). This pulsation is detrimental to the surface and down-
hole equipment (particularly with MWD pulse telemetry system). To decrease
the pulsation, surge dampeners are used at the output of each pump. A flexible
diaphragm creates a chamber filled with nitrogen at high pressure. The fluctu-
ation of pressure is compensated by a change in the volume of the chamber.
The schematic of a typical surge dampener is shown in Figure 2.17.
A relief valve located in the pump discharge line prevents line rupture in
case the pump is started against a closed valve.
Figure 2.17: Surge dampener.

2.3.2 Solids Control Equipment
The purpose of the solids control equipment is to reduce to a minimum the

amount of inert solids and gases in the drilling fluid. They are:
1. Shale shakers,
2. Degassers,
3. Desanders (hydrocyclones),
4. Desilters (hydrocyclones),
5. Centrifuges,
6. Mud cleaners.
Figure 2.18 shows a sketch of a typical solids control system (for unweighted
fluid). Fine particles of inactive solids are continuously added to the fluid dur-
ing drilling. These solids increase the density of the fluid and also the friction
pressure drop, but do not contribute to the carrying capacity of the fluid. The
amount of inert solids must be kept as low as possible.
Figure 2.18: Solids control system.

Figure 2.19: Shale shaker configurations.
Figure 2.20: A two–screen shale shaker.
2.3.2.1 Shale Shakers
The shale shaker removes the coarse solids (cuttings) generated during drilling.
It is located at the end of the flow line. It constitutes of one or more vibrating
screens in the range of 10 to 150 mesh over which the mud passes before it is
fed to the mud pits. (See Figure 2.19.)
The screens are vibrated by eccentric heavy cylinders connected to electric
motors. The vibration promotes an efficient separation without loss of fluid.
Figure 2.20 shows a typical two–screen shale shaker.
2.3.2.2 Degassers
Gases that might enter the fluid must also be removed. Even when the fluid is
overbalanced, the gas contained in the rock cut by the bit will enter the fluid and
must be removed. The degasser removes gas from the gas cut fluid by creating
a vacuum in a vacuum chamber. The fluid flows down an inclined flat surface
as a thin layer. The vacuum enlarges and coalesce the bubbles. Degassed

Figure 2.21: A vacuum chamber degasser.
fluid is draw from chamber by a fluid jet located at the discharge line. A typical
degasser diagram is shown in Figure 2.21.
2.3.2.3 Hydrocyclones (Desanders and Desilters)
Hydrocyclones are simple devices with no internal moving parts. The drilling
fluid enters the device through a tangential opening in the cylindrical section,
impelled by a centrifugal pump. The centrifugal force generated by the whirling
motion pushes the solid particles towards the internal wall of the inverted cone.
As the whirling flux moves downwards the rotating speed increased and the
diameters decreases. The fluid free of solid particles is “squeezed” out of the
flow and swirls upwards in a vortex motion, leaving the hydrocyclone from the
upper exit. The solids leave the hydrocyclone from the apex of the cone (under-
flow). For maximum efficiency, the discharge from the apex exit of hydrocyclone
should be in a spray in the shape of a hollow cone rather than a rope shape.
Figure 2.22 shows the fluid/solids paths in a hydrocyclone.
Hydrocyclones are classified according to the size of the particles removed
as desanders (cut point in the 40–45µm size range) or desilters (cut point in
the 10–20µm size range). At the cut point of a hydrocyclone 50% of the parti-
cles of that size is discarded. The desander is a set of two or three 8in or 10in
hydrocyclones, and are positioned after the shale shaker and the degasser (if
used). The desilter is a set of eight to twelve 4in or 5in hydrocyclones. It re-
moves particles that can not be removed by the desander. Figures 2.23 shows
a desander (a), and a desilter (b). Note the size and number of hydrocyclones
in each case.
A typical drilling solid particle distribution and particle size range classifica-
tion are shown in the diagram in Figure 2.24.

Figure 2.22: Flow path in a hydrocyclone.
(a) Desander. (b) Desilter.
Figure 2.23: Solid control equipment.

Figure 2.24: Particle size classification.
2.3.2.4 Centrifuges
The centrifuge is a solids control equipment which separates particles even

smaller, which can not be removed by the hydrocyclones. It consists of a rotat-
ing cone–shape drum, with a screw conveyor. (See Figure 2.25.) Drilling fluid is
fed through the hollow conveyor. The drum rotates at a high speed and creates
a centrifugal force that causes the heavier solids to decant. The screw rotates
in the same direction of the drum but at a slight slower speed, pushing the solids
toward the discharge line. The colloidal suspension exits the drum through the
overflow ports. The drums are enclosed in an external, non–rotating casing not
shown in the figure.
2.3.2.5 Mud Cleaners
Inert solids in weighted fluid (drilling fluid with weight material like barite, iron
oxide, etc) can not be treated with hydrocyclones alone because the particle
sizes of the weighting material are within the operational range of desanders
and desilters. 4 This is shown in the diagram in Figure 2.24, which includes the
particle size distribution of typical industrial barite used in drilling fluids.
A mud cleaner is a desilter unit in which the underflow is further processed
by a fine vibrating screen, mounted directly under the cones. The mud cleaner
separates the low density inert solids (undesirable) from the high density weight-
4
Weighting material are relatively expensive additives, which must be saved.

Figure 2.25: Internal view of a centrifuge.
ing particles. (See Figure 2.26-a.)

Hydrocyclones discriminate light particles from heavy particles. Bentonite
are lighter than formation solids because they are of colloidal size (although of
the same density). Barite particles are smaller than formation solids because
they are denser.
The desilter removes the barite and the formation solids particles in the un-
derflow, leaving only a clean mud with bentonite particles in a colloidal suspen-
sion in the overflow. The thick slurry in the underflow goes to the fine screen,
which separate the large (low density) particles (formation solids) from the small
(high density) barite particles, thus conserving weighting agent and the liquid
phase but at the same time returning many fine solids to the active system.
The thick barite rich slurry is treated with dilution and mixed with the clean mud
(colloidal bentonite). The resulting mud is treated to the right density and vis-
cosity and re–circulates in the hole. A diagram of a mud cleaner is shown in
Figure 2.26-b.
Mud cleaners are used mainly with oil– and synthetic–base fluids where the
liquid discharge from the cone cannot be discharged, either for environmental
or economic reasons. It may also be used with weighted water–base fluids to
conserve barite and the liquid phase.
2.3.3 Treatment and Mixing Equipment
Drilling fluid is usually a suspension of clay (sodium bentonite) in water. Higher

density fluids can be obtained by adding finely granulated (fine sand to silt size
– see Figure 2.24) barite (BaSO4). Various chemicals or additives are also
used in different situations. The drilling fluid continuous phase is usually water
(freshwater or brine) called water–base fluids. When the continuous phase is
oil (emulsion of water in oil) it is called oil–base fluid. The basic drilling fluids

(a) Unit of a mud cleaner (b) Principle of the mud cleaner.
Figure 2.26: Mud cleaner.
(a)
Figure 2.27: Mud agitator.
physical properties are density, viscosity, and filtrate. Fresh water density is
8.37 pounds per gallon (ppg). Bentonite adds viscosity to the fluids and also
increases the density to about 9 to 10 ppg. Higher density (15 to 20 ppg) is
obtained with barite, iron oxide, or any other dense fine ground material.
Water base fluids are normally made at the rig site (oil base mud and syn-
thetic fluids are normally manufactured in a drilling fluid plant). Special treat-
ment and mixing equipment exists for this purpose. Tank agitators, mud guns,
mixing hoppers, and other equipment are used for these purposes.
Tank agitators or blenders (Figure 2.27-a) are located in the mud tanks to
homogenize the fluid in the tank. They help to keep the various suspended
material homogeneously distributed in the tank by forcing toroidal and whirl
motions of the fluid in the tank. (See Figure 2.27-b.)
Mud guns are mounted in gimbals at the side of the tanks, which allow aim-

Figure 2.28: Mud gun.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.29: Mud hopper.
ing a mud jet to any point in the tank. They help to homogenize the properties
of two tanks, and spread liquid additives in a large area of the tank (from a
pre-mixed tank). (See Figure 2.28.) Centrifugal pumps power the mud guns.
The mixing hopper (see Figure 2.29) allows adding powder substances and
additives in the mud system. The hopper is connected to a Venturi pipe. Mud
is circulated by centrifugal pumps and passes in the Venturi at high speed,
sucking the substance into the system.

2.4 The Rotary System
The rotary system is the set of equipments necessary to promote the rotation
of the bit. The bit must be mechanically and hydraulically connected to the rig.
This connection is made by the drillstring. The purpose of the drillstring is to
transmit axial force, torque, and drilling fluid (hydraulic power) to the bit. The
basic drillstring is composed of the following components:
• Swivel,
• Kelly and accessories,
• Rotary table and components,
• Drillstring tubulars (drill pipe, drill collars, etc.),
• Drill bit.
Several other components and equipment can be connected to the drillstring to

perform several tasks and to lend to the drillstring special features.
2.4.1 Swivel
The swivel is suspended by the hook of the traveling block and allows the drill-
string to rotate as drilling fluid is pumped to within the drillstring. Without the
swivel, drilling fluid could not be pumped downhole, or the drillstring could not
rotate. The swivel also supports the axial load of the drillstring. See Figure 2.30
for cuts of a swivel showing the internal parts.
A flexible hose connects to the gooseneck which is hydraulically coupled to
the top of the swivel stem by a stuffing box. The stem shoulder rest on a large
thrust tapered roller bearing, which transmits the drillstring weight to the swivel
body, and then to the bail. The thread connector of the swivel is cut left–hand
so that it will not tend to disconnect when the drillstring is rotated by the kelly or
by the top drive.
2.4.2 Kelly, Kelly Valves, and Kelly Saver Sub
Below and connected to the swivel is a long four-sided (square) or six-sided

(hexagon) steel bar with a hole drilled through the middle for a fluid path called
kelly. The purpose of the kelly is to transmit rotary motion and torque to the
drillstring (and consequently to the drill bit), while allowing the drillstring to be
lowered or raised during rotation. The square or hexagonal section of the kelly
allows it to be gripped and turned by the kelly bushing and rotary table (see
Section 2.4.3). The kelly bushing has an inside profile matching the kelly’s
outside profile (either square or hexagonal), but with slightly larger dimensions

(a) Lateral cut. (b) Front cut.
Figure 2.30: Cut views of a swivel.
so that the kelly can freely move up and down inside it. The overall length of
the kelly varies from 40 ft to 54 ft.
It is common (and advisable) to include two special valves at both ends of
the kelly, called kelly valves. (The upper kelly valve has left–hand threads.) The
kelly valve consists of a ball valve which allows free passage of drilling fluids
without pressure loss. This is a safety device that can be closed to prevent
flow from inside the drillstring during critical operations like kick control. It also
isolates the drillstring from the surface equipment and allows disconnecting the
kelly during critical operations.
A kelly saver sub is simply a short length pipe with has male threads on
one end and female on the other. It is screwed onto the bottom of the lower
kelly valve or topdrive and onto the rest of the drillstring. When the hole must
be deepened, and pipe added to the drillstring, the threads are unscrewed be-
tween the kelly saver sub and the rest of the drillstring, as opposed to between
the kelly valve or topdrive and the saver sub. This means that the connection
between the kelly or topdrive and the saver sub rarely is used, and suffers min-
imal wear and tear, whereas the lower connection is used in almost all cases
and suffers the most wear and tear. The saver sub is expendable and does
not represent a major investment. However, the kelly or topdrive component
threads are spared by use of a saver sub, and those components represent a
significant capital cost and considerable downtime when replaced. It is impor-
tant that both lower kelly valve and kelly saver sub be of the same diameter of

Figure 2.31: A square kelly and a hexagonal kelly.
Figure 2.32: A kelly valve.

the drill pipe tool-joints to allow stripping into the hole during control operations.
2.4.3 Rotary Table and Components
Torque and is transmitted to the kelly by the kelly bushing. The kelly bushing
has an inside profile matching the kelly’s outside profile (either square or hexag-
onal), but with slightly larger dimensions so that the kelly can freely move up
and down inside it (see Figure 2.33).
Figure 2.33: Kelly bushings.
Figure 2.34: Master bushings ([a] and [b]), and casing bushing (c).
The kelly bushing fits in the master bushing, which, in turn, attach to the
rotary table. It connects to the master bushing either by pins of by a squared

Figure 2.35: Kelly bushing and master bushing.
link. A master casing bushing is used to handle casings. Figure 2.34 shows two
master bushing and one master casing bushing. The master bushing transmit
torque and rotation from the rotary table to the kelly bushing. Figure 2.35 shows
a kelly bushing, master bushing, and rotary table assembly.
The master bushing (and also the master casing bushing) has a tapered
internal hole as shown in the schematics in Figure 2.36-a. The purpose of
the tapered hole is to receive the pipe slips (see Figure 2.36-b). During pipe
connection or drillstring trip operations, this tapered hole receives either the drill
pipe slips, or the drill collar slips, or the casing slips, which grips the tubular and
frees the hook from its weight.
Because of the slick shape of most drill collars, a safety clamp is always
(a) (b)
Figure 2.36: Drillpipe slip (detail when set in the master bushing).

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.37: DC slips, safety collar, and casing slips.
Figure 2.38: A rotary table.
used above the drill collar slips (mandatory!) If the drill collars slides in the
slips, the safety clamp works as a stop to force the slips to grip the drill collar.
A drill collar slips, a safety collar, and a casing slips are shown in Figure 2.37.
The rotary table (Figure 2.38) receives power from the power system (either
mechanical or electric.) A gearbox allows several combinations of torque and
speed.
2.5 Well Control System
The functions of the well control system are to detect, stop, and remove any
undesired entrance of formation fluids into the borehole. An undesired entrance
of formation fluid into the borehole is called kick and may occur due to several

(a) A fixed rig BOP. (b) A floating rig BOP.
Figure 2.39: BOP stacks.
reasons (high pressure formations, insufficient drilling fluid density, drillstring

swab, loss of circulation, formation fracture, etc). If the undesired entrance
of fluid feedbacks and the fluid continuously enters the borehole reaching the
surface, it is called blowout. Blowouts (in particular gas blowouts) are extremely
dangerous and put the crew, the rig, the drilling operation, and the reservoir at
risk.
The well control system must detect, control, and remove the undesired
entrance of fluids into the borehole. The system is composed of sensors (flow
rate, surface volume, annular and drillstring pressure etc,) capable to detect an
increase of flow or volume in the fluid system, the blowout preventer (BOP), the
circulating pressure control manifold (choke manifold), and the kill and choke
lines.
The BOP is a set of pack–offs capable of shutting the annular space be-
tween the surface casing and the drillstring. Because of the diversity in shape
of the annular, several different device types exist and they are normally assem-
bled together (and in various configurations) called BOP stack (see Figure 2.39.
The BOP stack is located under the rotary table in land and fixed marine rigs,
and on the bottom of the sea in mobile and floating rigs.
The various types of BOP devices are:
Annular BOP: The purpose of the annular BOP is to shut the annular in front of
any kind of drillstring equipment (except stabilizers) or even without drill-
string. The active element is an elastomeric ribbed donut that is squeezed
around the drillstring by an hydraulic ram (see Figure 2.40-a and -b). It is
located at the top of the BOP stack. Controlling the pressure applied to
the ram, it is possible to strip the drillstring in and out while keeping the

(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 2.40: Annular BOP’s (a and b) and an inside BOP (c)
annular closed (requires the use of an inside-BOP, shown in Figure 2.40-

c, which should be connected immediately to the drillstring when a kick is
identified). The inside bop acts as a check valve, allowing fluid be pumped
down the drillstring, but blocking back flow.
Blind ram: The blind rams (normally one at the top of all other rams) allows
shutting the borehole with no drillstring element in front of it. (See Fig-
ure 2.41-a, upper ram.) If the blind ram is applied to a drillpipe, the pipe
will but no seal is obtained.
Pipe rams: The pipe rams allows shutting the annular in front a compatible
drill pipe (not in front of tool joints.) Normally two rams are used (a special

spool between the two is used where the kill and choke line is connected.
(See Figure 2.41-a, lower ram.) The use of two pipe rams also permit to
snub the drillstring during the well control operation.
Shear rams: The shear ram (normally one below the blind ram or below all
other rams) can shear a drill pipe and provide seal. (See Figure 2.41-
b.) This is a last resource when all other rams and annular had failed.
Circulation through the drillstring is lost and, if the shear ram is the lower
one, the drillstring falls into the borehole.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.41: BOP: (a) blind and pipe rams, (b) shear rams.
All these safety devices are hydraulically actuated by a pneumatic–hydraulic

system (actuators and accumulators), which can operate completely indepen-
dent of the power system of the rig. Two control panels are normally used, one
at the rig floor, and a remote one away from the risky area.
The accumulators are steel bottles lined with a elastomeric bladers forming
two separated compartments. One compartment is filled with oil, which powers
the BOP. The other compartment is filled with air or nitrogen at high pressure.
The pressure of the gas pressurizes the oil across the elastomeric liner. Rig
power, during ordinary operation, keeps the gas in the accumulators under
pressure. The accumulators should be able to provide hydraulic power to close
and open all elements of the BOP stack a number of times without external
power.
Choke Manifold
During a kick control operation, some of the BOP stack devices are actuated to
close the annulus and divert the the returning fluid to the choke line. The choke
line directs the returning fluid to a manifold of valves and chokes called choke
manifold, which allows to control the flow pressure at the top of the annular
adjusting the flow area open to flow. The choke manifold also direct the flow to
a flare (in case of a gas kick), or to the pits (if mud) or to special tanks (if oil).

Figure 2.42: BOP accumulators and control panels.
Figure 2.43: Choke manifold.

2.6 Well Monitoring System
Several sensors, gauges, meters, indicators, alarms, and recorders exist in the
rig to provide all data required to control (safely, efficiently, and reliably) of all
operations under way in the rig. Among the most important parameters are:
• weight on bit (WOB) and hook load,
• rate of penetration (ROP),
• rotary speed,
• torque,
• circulating (pump) pressure,
• flow rate (in and out),
• drilling fluid gain/loss,
• mud temperature,
• mud density,
• total hydrocarbon gas in the drilling fluid.
Accurate and reliable indication of hook load and weight on bit are essential
for the efficient control of rate of penetration, bit life, borehole cleaning, and
borehole direction.
The weight indicator works in conjunction with the deadline anchor using
either tension or compression hydraulic load cells. The deadline anchor senses
the tension in the deadline and hydraulically actuates the weight indicator. Most
weight indicators have two hands and two scales. The inner scale shows the
hook load and the outer one shows the weight-on–bit.
To obtain the weight–on–bit, the driller perform the following steps: with
the bit out of the bottom, the drillstring is put to rotate and the weight of the
drillstring is observed in the central scale; using the knob at the rim of the weight
indicator, the outer scale is adjusted so that the zero of the outer scale aligns
with the longer hand. The driller lowers the drillstring slowly observing the long
hand. When the bit touches the bottom, part of the weight of the drillstring is
transferred from the hook to the bit (the weight–on–bit.) The amount of weight
transferred corresponds to the decrease of hook load, indicated by the long
pointer (turning counterclockwise).
All modern rigs have control consoles that shows all pertinent parameters in
analog and or digital displays. All parameters and operations may be recorded
in physical (paper) or magnetic media for post analysis. Some automated op-
erations like constant weight–on–bit and constant torque are possible in most
rigs.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.44: Weight indicator (a) and a deadline anchor (b).
Figure 2.45: Drilling control console.

Chapter 3
Drillstring Tubulars and Equipment
The purpose of the drillstring is to transmit mechanical power (torque and rota-
tion), hydraulic power (pressure and flow rate), and weight to the bit.
The drillstring is composed mainly of the following elements:
• Drill pipes,
• Heavy wall drill pipes,
• Drill collars,
• Several special elements and tools.
Figure 3.1 shows an schematic of a typical rotary drillstring.
3.1 Drill Pipes
Below the kelly assembly (upper kelly valve + kelly +lower kelly valve + kelly
saver sub) is a length of drill pipes (DP). Drill Pipe is a primary and important
drillstring member.
Since the drill pipes are generally compose the upper and longest portion
of the drillstring, they must be light and strong.
The drill pipe body is a seamless pipe with outside diameter (OD) varying
from 23 /8 in to 65 /8 in. The outside diameter and the wall thickness t determine
the linear weight of the drill pipe. The inside diameter (ID) is equal to OD minus
2t.
Drill pipes are made of high grade steel (there are also drill pipes made of
aluminum, carbon fiber, etc). API has standardized four steel grades: E–75,
X–95, G–105, and S–135. The figures represent the minimum yield strength
Ys (in ksi) of the the steel. Drill pipes are specified with the following basic
parameters:

Figure 3.1: Typical rotary drillstring.
1. Length range:
Range I: 18ft to 22ft,

Range II: 27ft to 30ft (most common),
Range III: 38ft to 45 ft,
2. Nominal linear weight: in general 2 or 3 linear weight or wall thickness for

each standard OD
3. Wall upset: EU (external upset), IU (internal upset), and IEU (internal &
external upset). The wall upset is a length of extra thickness at both ends
of the drill pipe body to provide a smooth transition between the pipe body
and the tool joint, in order to reduce the stress concentration,
4. Tool joint OD, ID, and tong length,
5. Steel grade: (D-55), E-75, X-95, G-105, S-135,
6. Connection size and type: from 23 /8 in to 51 /2 in, type IF (internal flush), EF

(external flush), FH (full hole), XH (extra hole), SH (slim hole), DS (double
streamline), and NC (numbered connection),
The API RP-7G contains the specification of all API standard drill pipes ap-
proved for oil and gas drilling use. The tool joints are heavy coupling elements

having coarse, tapered threads and sealing shoulders designed to sustain the
weight and to transmit torque along the drillstring. The threads of the tool joints
are specially designed to offer strength (axial and torsional), easy handling, fast
connections (number of turns to make the connection), and leak-proof sealing
(metal to metal). Tool joints might be welded or screwed to the ends of the drill
pipe body.
Figure 3.2: Typical tool joint designs. (A) Internal upset DP with full–hole
shrink–grip TJ, (B) External upset DP with internal–flush shrink–grip TJ, (C)
External upset DP with flash–weld unitized TJ, (D) External–internal upset DP
with Hydrill™–pressure welded TJ.
Two other common properties of drill pipes are capacity and displacement.
Pipe Capacity: The capacity Ap of a drill pipe is a measure of its internal area,
expressed as volume/length, usually gal/ft or bbl/ft.1 If Di is the inside
diameter (ID) of a drill pipe in inches, then
π 2 Di2 Di2
Ap = Di [in2 ] = [gal/ft] = [bbl/ft] .
4 24.51 1029.41
Pipe Displacement: The displacement As of the drill pipe is the measure of

its cross-section area, expressed as volume/length, normally bbl/ft. If Do
1
Sometimes the capacity is expressed as the reversal of the area, usually in ft/bbl. The
reader should be attended to the units.

is the outside diameter (OD) of a drill pipe in inches, then
π D2 − Di2 D2 − Di2
Do2 − Di2 [in2 ] = o [gal/ft] = o

As = [bbl/ft] .
4 24.51 1029.41
Annulus Capacity: The annulus capacity Aa is not a property of the pipe be-
cause it depends on the diameter of the hole opposite to the pipe. If DW
is the diameter of the well, the annulus capacity Aa in bbl/ft is given by:
π D2 − Do2 D2 − Do2
2
− Do2 [in2 ] = W [gal/ft] = W

Aa = DW [bbl/ft] .
4 24.51 1029.41
The capacity and displacement formulas above do not take into account the
tool joints, and manufacturer tables must be consulted when more accurate
values are required. In particular, the nominal weight that specify a given drill
pipe represents neither the pipe body linear weight, nor the the average linear
weight (body plus tool joint divided by its length). It is just a nominal value. For
example, a typical 5in DP with 19.5 lb/ft has an internal diameter of 4.276in.
The density of steel is 489.5 lb/ft3 . Therefore, one foot op pipe body weights
1ft3

π 2
5 − 4.2762 × × 489.5 lb/ft3 = 17.93 lb/ft .

4 144in3
Considering a 30 ft long DP (Range II), the tool joints (pin and box) comprise
about 21 /2 ft of its length. Outside and inside diameters of the tool joints are 6in
and 31 /2 in respectively. Therefore, the linear weight of the tool joint is
1 ft3

π 2
6 − 3.52 × × 489.5 lb/ft3 = 63.41 lb/ft .

4 144 in3
The weight of the drill pipe (body plus TJ) is
27.5 ft × 17.93 lb/ft + 2.5 ft × 63.41 lb/ft = 651.6 lbm .
Consequently, the adjusted linear weight of the drill pipe is
651.6 lb
= 21.72 lb/ft .
30 ft
Drill pipes are subjected to wear during operation. In particular, reduction

of tool joints OD and wall thickness reduce tensile and torsion capacity of the
element. Used drill pipes are classified as Premium or Class I if the minimum
wall thickness is at least 80% of the wall thickness of a new pipe, and Class II
when at least 70%. A new pipe that for the first time is connected to a drillstring
is immediately re–classified to premium DP. Table A.1 presents dimensional
data for new drill pipes.

Figure 3.3: A DP elevator and the links to the hook body.
3.1.1 Drill Pipe Elevator
Drill pipes are handled during tripping using a drill pipe elevator. (The swivel
and kelly are set aside in the rat hole.) It is connected by two links to the
hook body (See Figures 3.3 and 2.4) . A hinge and latch allows opening and
closing the bi–parted collar around the drill pipe. The elevator is operated by
the roughnecks at the rotary table level, and by the derrick man at the monkey
board.
Drill pipes extend across almost the whole length of the drillstring and, al-
though relatively light, they contribute with a significant part of the drillstring
weight (50% or more). However, drill pipes are, in general, used only under
tension. They should not be subjected to compression due to its low resistance
to buckling. Therefore, they cannot be used to apply weight on the bit. 2
3.2 Drill Collars
Since drill pipes cannot be used to apply weight on bit, this role is played be
the drill collars (and also by heavy weight drill pipes as shown next). Drill col-
2
In horizontal wells, drill pipes can be put under compression if located in a suitably curved
section of the hole; in addition, compression service drill pipes (CSDP, S-135 grade DP with 2 or
3 wear knots) are specially designed to work under compression to drill short radius horizontal
wells.

lars (DC) are thick walled steel pipes located normally right above the bit, and
their purpose is to provide weight (axial force) to the bit. Drill collars are man-
ufactured with carbon steel (AISI 4115), or some non-magnetic alloy (stainless
steel, monel metal). The outside of drill collars may be slick (small diameters)
or spiral grooved (any size.). Figure 3.4 shows a spiraled and a slick drill col-
lars. The purpose of the groves is to reduce or avoid the risk of differential
sticking opposite to permeable formations . The depth of the grooves is made
larger than the average thickness of a flocculated mud cake (see Figure 3.5).
Average length of drill collars is 34 ft, but re–threading normally makes them
shorter.
Figure 3.4: A spiraled and a slick drill collars.
Figure 3.5: Spiraled DC cross–section. Figure 3.6: A DC elevator.
The elevators for drill collars are very similar to the elevators for drill pipes.
They differ in the shape of the internal hole that clamps on the pipe. Most drill
collars are recessed so as to be handled with the elevator. If the drill collar is
not recessed (sometimes even if it is!), a special sub called lift sub is used. Lift
subs have the shape of the upper end of a drill pipe, and connects to the top of
sections of drill collars during trips. Then the drill pipe elevator can be used to
lift or lower the drillstring.
3.3 Heavy Wall Drill Pipes
In addition to drill pipes and drill collars, there are special pipes called heavy
wall drill pipes (HWDP). They are intermediary pipes between drill pipes and
drill collars, being strong enough to be put under compression (they contribute

to the available weight to apply to the bit), and they are flexible enough to be
used in directional drilling (less torque and drag than drill collars.) The use
of HWDP also allow a gradual transition between the flexible drill pipes and
the stiff drill collars (less stress concentration, and therefore, less mechanical
fatigue on the threads.)
HWDPs look very similar to regular drill pipes, being of the same length of
Range II DP (27 to 30 ft), but with longer tool joints (to permit re–threading).
HWDPs have a central external upset as shown in Figure 3.8. This central
upset provides an additional third point of contact, increasing the overall stiff-
ness and protecting the pipe sections from excessive wearing in high inclination
wells (normally the tool joints and central upset have a band of hard material to
prevent/reduce wear).
Figure 3.8: Heavy wall drill pipes.
3.4 Special Tools
Several drilling equipment are used in the drillstring. The most important are:
• stabilizers,
• reamers,
• hole–openers.
3.4.1 Stabilizers
Stabilizers provide localized additional support points (localized larger diame-

ter) in one or more positions along the drillstring. For vertical wells, the stabilizer
prevents low frequency vibration in the drillstring during rotation. The advan-
tages are:
• reduce wear (of both drillstring and casing),
• reduce mechanical fatigue,
• reduce mechanical instability of formation (caving),
• reduce tortuous hole.

Stabilizers are essential equipment for directional drilling. Suitable choice of

number and position of stabilizers in the drillstring lend to the bottom hole as-
sembly (BHA, the lower part of the drillstring composed of drill collars, stabiliz-
ers and HWDP) special characteristics in terms of inclination control:
• angle build–up,
• angle drop–off,
• angle hold.
Stabilizer may be of the following types:
• integral blade,
• interchangeable blade,
• non–rotating blades,
• replaceable blades,
• clamp–on
• near-bit,
The diameter of stabilizers can be in gauge or under gauge. More recently,

remote adjustable blade stabilizers were introduced. Changing suitably the di-
ameter of the stabilizers provide a level of control in the directional behavior of
BHAs.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.9: Some Stabilizers: (a) integral, (b) interchangeable, (c) non–rotating,
(d) replaceable.

3.4.2 Reamers
The purpose of the reamer is to keep the diameter of the open hole in gauge,
that is, with the expected original diameter of the bit. Two reasons may cause
a decrease in the original diameter:
1. formation swelling (hydrated shales, moving salt),
2. bit diameter reduction (hard and abrasive formations).
The reamer also functions as a stabilizer since the rollers touch the borehole
wall. Different types of rollers can be selected to suit the formations being
reamed. (See Figure 3.10.)
Figure 3.10: A roller reamer. Figure 3.11: A fixed hole–opener.
3.4.3 Hole–openers
The hole–opener is a tool designed to enlarge the diameter of a previously (or

simultaneously drilled smaller borehole. Three situations (at least) are possible:
(See Figure 3.11.)
1. to drill the borehole section with a smaller bit, and later to enlarge to the
final diameter (a special tool called bull nose is connected in the place of
the bit, to guide the hole opener along the pre-drilled hole),
2. to drill the borehole section with a smaller bit and simultaneously enlarge
to the final diameter,

3. to enlarge a section below a casing with a diameter larger than the internal
diameter of the casing. In this case, a special hole opener (also caller
underreamer) with hinged arms actuated hydraulically is used (the drilling
fluid pressure actuates in rams that open the arms forcing the cutters
against the borehole wall).
3.5 Connections Make–up and Break–out
To make–up and break–out the pipe connections (during normal operations

and drillstring trips), big self–locking wrenches called manual tongs are used
to grip the drillstring and apply torque. The tongs are kept suspended at suit-
able height above the rotary table (3 to 5ft) balanced by counter–weights. They
work in pairs, one turns to left (counterclockwise) and the other to right (clock-
wise). They are mechanically or pneimatically actuated by the cathead (special
rotating spools connected to the drawworks). (See Figure 3.12).
(a) Left tongue (break-out). (b) Right tong (make–up).
Figure 3.12: Manual tongs.
To make–up a connection, the left tong grips the upper tool joint joint (box)
of the lower pipe, and the right tong grips the lower tool joint (pin) of the upper
pipe. The left tong is connected by a steel rope to a fixed point in the derrick,
and the right tong is connected to the cathead (turns the upper pipe). To break
a connection, the left tong grips the lower tool joint (pin) of the upper pipe, and
the right tong grips the upper tool joint (box) of the lower pipe. The right tong
is connected by a steel rope to a fixed point in the derrick, and the left tong is
connected to the cathead (also turns the upper pipe). Figure 3.13 shows the
tongs ready to make–up a connection.

Figure 3.13: Tongs in position to make–up a connection.
When set and ready to apply torque, the angle between the arms of the
tongs should be either 90◦ or 180◦ (the ideal is zero degrees but operational
difficulties make this position not practical). It is important to leave the rotary
table unlocked, to avoid damage to the pipe caused by the slips.
Compressed air tongs or spinners (see Figure 3.14) are also used to speed–
up the operation, but the torque to make–up or to break–out the connection is
always done using the manual tongs.
3.5.1 Maximum Height of Tool Joint Shoulders
To make–up or break–out a connection, the drillstring must be resting on the

master bushing using the slips (DP and HWDP) or slips+safety clamp (DC and
any other slick equipment.) The angle between the arms of the tongs are either
90◦ or 180◦ as shown in Figure 3.16.
The maximum height of the tool joint shoulder with respect to the master
bushing is given by the following formulas:
Case 1: 90◦
Ymin LT S
Hmax [f t] = 0.053
Tmu

Figure 3.14: A spinner.
Figure 3.15: Tongs position during make–up.
Figure 3.16:
Case 1: 180◦
Ymin LT S
Hmax [f t] = 0.038
Tmu
where: Ymin = minimum yield stress of the pipe [psi]

LT = tong’s arm length [ft]
π (Do −Di )
4 4
S = Ic = 32D o
= section modulus [in3 ]
Tmu = make up torque [ft lbf]

Example 5: Calculate maximum height of the tool joint shoulder for a 5 in OD

DP, 19.5 lb/ft, X-95, with NC50 65 /8 in – 312 in new tool joint, using tongs with
31 /2 ft positioned at 90◦ and 180◦ .
Solution:
Ymin = 95 kpsi = 95, 000psi
LT = 3.5 ft
π (54 − 4.2764 )
S= = 5.71 in3
32 × 5
Tmu = 27, 076 ft · lbf
a) 90◦ :
95, 000 × 3.5 × 5.71
Hmax = 0.053 = 3.72 f t
27, 076
b) 180◦ :
95, 000 × 3.5 × 5.71
Hmax = 0.038 = 2.76 f t
27, 076
3.5.2 Make–up Torque
It is very important to apply the right torque during the make–up of a connec-
tion. Too little torque will not provide a suitable seal between the pin and box
shoulders, and leakage might wash out the threads causing failure of the con-
nection. Too much torque may cause mechanical failure of the threads, either
in the box or in the pin. The API RP7G tables present the maximum (tb.9) and
minimum (tb.10) torques for each standard connection.
3.6 Drill Bit
The bit is connected to the lower end of the drill collars. Bits are manufactured
with a pin, so that to connect to the lower pin of the drillstring, a bit sub is used.
The bit sub is a short sub (11 /2 to 2 ft) with two box connections.
There are a large variety of bits. Each type is designed to drill rocks of
different hardness, composition, abrasiveness, etc, encountered during drilling
operations. It is a duty of the drilling engineer to select the most appropriate
bit and the drilling parameters (nozzle sizes, weight-on-bit, rotation speed, and
flow rate) to optimize the performance of the operation. A more detailed study
of drill bits is covered in Chapter 10.

3.7 Other Drillstring Equipment
In addition to the kelly–rotary table assembly, two other methods can be used
to promote rotation to the bit:
• Top drive,
• Bottom hole motors (positive displacement motors and turbines).
3.7.1 Top Drive
The top drive, also called power swivel, takes the place of the kelly, and the
torque is applied to the top of the drill pipe section by mean of hydraulic or
electric motors. The assembly slides along tracks (most models incorporate
a swivel in the design,) and is suspended by the hook. The reactive torque is
transmitted to the rig structure directly through the tracks or by a torque reaction
beam.
Figure 3.17: An electrical top drive.
A great advantage of using a top drive is the possibility to drill a full stand
(3 or 4 drill pipes) without interruption, saving time in connections. Another
advantage is the possibility of rotating the drillstring during the trips reducing
the drag to pull–out or slack–off the drillstring in the hole for high inclination
drilling.

3.7.2 Bottom Hole Motors
Bottom hole motors are special engines located above the bit to promote bit
rotation. Bottom hole motors convert hydraulic power of the drilling fluid (P =
q ∆p) into mechanical (rotational) power.
Turbines use fluid momentum conversion on the blades of stator/rotor to
generate rotation and torque. Turbines operates in high speed and has a narrow
range of operation. The torque decreases steadily from the maximum at 0 rpm
(stalled) to zero at the maximum speed.
Figure 3.18: A bottom hole turbine.
Positive displacement motors (PDM) use continuous displacement of con-

stant volume compartments created between an elastomer stator and a steel
rotor to generate rotation and torque. The rotation speed of a PDM is function
of the flow rate, and the torque is directed related to the pressure differential
across the motor (easily monitored from the surface). The use of bottom hole
motors is essential for directional drilling. The use of bent sub or bent housing
provides a good deal of control of the inclination and the azimuth, allowing to
drill complex trajectories.
Figure 3.19: A bottom hole PDM.


Chapter 4
Introduction to Hydraulics
By definition, a static fluid cannot sustain shear stresses, otherwise it will enter
in motion (and will not be static anymore). The consequence of this is that
the state of stress inside a fluid is such that the normal stresses are the same
in any direction. This state of stress is called hydrostatic state of stress. The
magnitude of the stress is called pressure.
4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
The hydrostatic pressure inside a homogeneous fluid comes from the pressure
at the surface and the weight of the fluid above the point in question. To calcu-
late the pressure at any point inside a column of fluid of density ρ (gas or liquid),
we consider an infinitesimal element of fluid with volume dV = dx · dy · dz as
shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Stress state about a point in a fluid.

To remain in equilibrium, the resulting forces acting in all 3 directions must

be zero. Then we have:
X
Fx = px dy dz − (px + dpx ) dy dz = 0 → dpx = 0
X
Fy = py dz dx − (py + dpy ) dz dx = 0 → dpy = 0
X
Fz = py dz dx − (py + dpy ) dz dx − ρ g dx dy dz = 0 → dpz = −ρ g dz
The horizontal gradients (dpx /dx and dpy /dy) are zero. Using p instead of
pz , we have, for the hydrostatic gradient:
dpz
= −ρ g
dz
Since in general we will be dealing with depth D, and since a point at depth
D has coordinate z = −D, the expression for the pressure differential in terms
of depth is:
dp = ρ g dD (4.1)
Note that ρ is mass per volume, or specific mass, or density. Therefore, ρ g

is weight per volume or specific weight, usually noted as γ. For a gravitational
system of units as the British System, the acceleration of gravity is equal to 1 G.
Such that
1 lbm × 1 G = 1 lbf .
That is the magnitude of the force is numerically equal to the magnitude of the
mass. For a scientific or non–gravitational system as the International System
(SI), the acceleration of gravity is equal to 9.80665m/s2 , such that
1 kg × 9.80665m/s2 = 9.80665 N .
To integrate (4.1), we need to know how the density depends on the pres-
sure. All fluids are compressible, but for some applications, some fluids can
be classified as incompressible. Liquids, in general are incompressible up to a
considerably high pressures. Gases are, in general, incompressible.
4.1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure for Incompressible Fluids
For incompressible fluids (liquids in general are in this class), the density ρ is
constant and integrating the (4.1) yields:
p1 = p0 + ρ g (D1 − D0 ) ,
which allows us to calculate the pressure at a point with depth D1 if we know

the pressure p0 at a point of depth D0 . For pressure in psi, density in lbm/gal,
and depth in feet we have:
12
p1 = p0 + ρ(D1 − D0 ) ≈ p0 + 0.0519ρ(D1 − D0 )
231

For pressure in psi, density in lbm/gal, and depth in meter we have:
12 D1 − D0
p1 = p0 + ρ ≈ p0 + 0.1704ρ(D1 − D0 )
231 0.3048
Example 6: Calculate the absolute pressure 1 at the depth of 3,000 ft in a

borehole filled with a drilling fluid with 9.2 lb/gal, in a location where the atmo-
spheric pressure is 13.5psi.
Solution:
p = 13.5 psi + 0.0519 × 9.2 lbm/gal × (3, 000 ft − 0 ft) = 1, 446 psia
Example 7: Calculate the fluid density required to drill a permeable forma-

tion at 12,000 ft if the pore pressure of the formation is 8,200 psig, with an
overbalance of 50 psi.
Solution:
8200 psig + 50 psid = 0.0519 × ρ × 12000 ft
ρ = 13.25 lbm/gal
4.1.1.1 Complex Fluid Column and Equivalent Density
If the column of fluid is composed of several segregated fluids with different

densities (complex fluid column), we still can use the expression for hydrostatic
pressure above, considering that at the top of a homogeneous column of fluid
acts a pressure resulting from the fluid above:
X
p=g ρi Ti ,
where ρi is the density of the ith layer of fluid and Ti its thickness.
For a complex fluid column, the equivalent fluid density at a given depth
is the density of a homogeneous fluid that would cause the same hydrostatic
pressure at that depth. Note that the equivalent density depends on the depth
in consideration.
1
The zero point of an absolute reference is the absence of all matter. There is no pressure
at absolute zero. On the other hand, a gauge pressure measures pressure relative to the local
atmosphere. Changes in local atmospheric pressure occur due to weather, altitude, and/or
depth. Gauge pressure indications usually use a "g" after the unit as in "psig". Absolute pres-
sure may have the letter "a" after the unit as in "psia". For pressure differential, it is common to
use a "d" after the unit.

P
A general expression for the equivalent density at depth D = Ti is
P
ρi Ti
ρeq = .
D
Example 8: A borehole is filled with fluid of density 8.8 lbm/gal from the sur-
face to the depth of 8,000 ft, and a fluid with 10.0 lbm/gal below 8,000 ft. Cal-
culate the absolute pressure at 12,200 ft. What is the equivalent density of the
fluid at 12,200 ft. Assume standard atmospheric pressure.
Solution:
lbm lbm
p12200 = 14.696 psi+0.0519×8.8 gal
×8000 ft+0.0519×10 gal
×(12200 ft−8000 ft)
P12000 = 5848 psia

5848 psia = 14.696 psi + 0.0519 × ρeq × 12200 ft
ρeq = 9.21 lbm/gal
4.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure for Compressible Fluids
The density ρ of a compressible fluid (gases in general are compressible) is not

constant and depends on the pressure and temperature. In order to account
for this, we must consider the equation of state for real gases:
m
pV = z n R̄ T = z R̄ T ,
M
where z is the real gas deviation factor (see Figure 4.2) of the real gas at
pressure p and temperature T . Solving for ρ = m/V results in:
M
ρ= p. (4.2)
z R̄ T
Considering the expression (4.1) for the pressure differential we have:

Mg
dp = p dD .
z R̄ T
Since z depends on p, separating variables and integrating results in: 2
Zp2
z Mg
dp = (D2 − D1 ) .
p R̄ T
p1
2
And assuming that the temperature is constant in the gas column.

Figure 4.2: Real gas deviation factor.

The pressure integral can only be calculated if we know how z depends on

p. This is normally very complicated. For short columns, z cam be considered
constant and we can write:
Zp2
dp Mg
z = (D2 − D1 ) ,
p R̄ T
p1
M g
(D2 −D1 )
p2 = p1 e z1 R̄ T , (4.3)
where z1 is the compressibility factor at pressure p1 and T . A more accurate
approach is to use an average value for z given by:
z1 + z2
z̄ = ,
2
where z2 is the deviation factor for p2 calculated using the expression above.
Using this new average value of the compressibility factor, a new pressure p2 is
obtained from M g
p2 = p1 e z̄R̄ T (D2 −D1 ) ,
and compared with the previous one. The process is repeated until conver-
gence is obtained.
Values for the universal gas constant R̄ for various units are:
psi ft3
R̄ = 10.732
lb–mole◦ R
lbf ft
R̄ = 1545.4
lb–mole◦ R
kPa m3
R̄ = 8.3145
kg–mole K
J
R̄ = 8314.5
kg–mole K
It is important to note that pressure and temperature must be given in absolute
scales, as required by the gas equation of state. The absolute temperatures
are normally the Rankine and the Kelvin scales and given by:
T [◦ R] = t[◦ F] + 459.67 ,
T [K] = t[◦ C] + 273.15 .
The figures above are normally approximated to 460 and 273 respectively.
The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature are converted using the following re-
lations:
9
t[◦ F] = (t[◦ C] + 40) − 40 ,
5
5
t[◦ C] = (t[◦ F] + 40) − 40 .
9

Example 9: What is the density of the air at 13 psia and 60◦ F? (assume ideal
gas)
Solution:
With sufficient accuracy, the molecular weight of the air is:
lbm
Mair = 22% × 32 + 78% × 28 = 28.88
lb–mole
Using Equation (4.2) gives:
lbm
M 28.88 lb–mole
144 in2

ρ= p= lbf ft ◦
13 psi 1 ft2 = 0.0673 lbm/ft3
z R̄ T 1 × 1545.4 lb–mole◦ R × (60 + 460) R
Example 10: Consider a 10,000 ft deep borehole with a drillstring and bit
to the bottom. The annular is completely filled with methane (CH4 ), and the
drillstring is filled with a 8.4 lbm/gal mud. After closing the BOP, the pressure
in the drill pipe at the surface is 640 psia. What is the expected pressure in the
casing at the surface, assuming ideal gas and average temperature of 150 ◦ F.
Solution:
The mass of one lb–mole of methane is 1x12+4x1 = 16 lbm. The drillstring–
annular system form a U–tube system. The pressure at the bottom of the bore-
hole can be calculated using the fluid inside the drill pipe and the surface pres-
sure:
pbottom = 640 psi + 0.0519 × 8.4 lbm/gal × 10000 ft = 5000 psi
This pressure is balanced by the pressure of the casing at the surface and the
hydrostatic pressure of the gas. Using Equation (4.3) gives:
16×1
psur = 5000 e 1×1545.4×(150+460) (0−10000)
psur = 4220 psi
4.2 Buoyancy
Archimedes principle of buoyancy states that the buoyant force exerted on a

body fully or partially immersed in a fluid is equal in magnitude (and opposite in
direction) to the weight of the volume of fluid which is displaced by that body.
For homogeneous bodies immersed in homogeneous fluids, the net or buoyed
weight of the body can be calculated from

ρf
Wnet = 1 − W
ρb

where W is the weight of the body (in the air),

ρf is the density of the fluid,
ρ
and ρb is the density of the body. The term 1 − ρfb is called buoyancy fac-
tor. This expression is valid only for homogeneous bodies fully immersed in
homogeneous fluids.
For homogeneous bodies, the geometric center of the body coincides with
the center of mass. For non–homogeneous bodies, an equivalent density (total
mass/volume) can be used, but it is important to keep in mind that the geometric
center (where the buoyant force applies) may not coincide with the center of
mass. In these cases, stable or instable equilibrium may exist.
Example 11: What is the weight of 0.4 ft3 of carbon steel? What is its buoyed
weight when submerged in a 9.3 lbm/gal fluid? What is the equivalent density
of the buoyed body in lbm/gal?
Solution:
The average density of carbon steel is 490 lb/ft3 = 65.5 lb/gal, so that the
weight of the body is
lbm
W = ρs g Vb = 490 × 1 G × 0.4 ft3 = 196 lbf
ft3
The buoyed weight is:

ρf 9.3
Wbuoyed = 1 − W = 1− × 196 = 168.2 lbf
ρs 65.5
The equivalent density is the density that would result in the same buoyed
weight:
ρf ρf
1− Wb = 1 − ρb g Vb = ρeq g Vb
ρb ρb
ρeq = ρb − ρf = 65.5 lbm/gal − 9.3 lbm/gal = 56.2 lbm/gal
Example 12: A 12,000 ft long drillstring is composed of the following elements

(bottom up): 420 ft of 8 in OD–3 in ID DC, 840 ft of 7 in OD – 3 in ID DC, and
5 in E-75 19.5lb/ft drill pipe (22.28 lb/ft). The fluid density is 8.9 lb/gal. Calculate
the expected hook load when the drillstring is hanging on the elevator (out of
the bottom).
Solution:
The linear weight of the DCs are
π
1 ft2

8 in DC: w = × (8 − 3 ) × 144 in2 × 490 lbm/ft3 = 147.0 lbf/ft
2 2
4

Figure 4.3: Drillstring schematics for Example 12.

π
1 ft2

7 in DC: w = × (7 − 3 ) × 144 in2 × 490 lbm/ft3 = 106.9 lbf/ft
2 2
4
The weight in the air of the drillstring is
Wair = 420 × 147.0 + 840 × 106.9 + (12000 − 420 − 840) × 22.28 = 390823 lbf
The buoyed weight of the drillstring is:

8.9
Whook = Wbuoyed = 1 − × 390823 = 337719 lbf
65.5
If the body is either not totally submerged, or submerged in a inhomoge-

neous fluid, the expression above cannot be used. This may be complicated
for complex shape bodies. A more general way to calculate the buoyed weight,
even for partially immersed bodies and for complex fluid column is to calculate
the effect of the hydrostatic pressure on the body. This is demonstrated in the
next example.
Example 13: Recalculate the hook load of Example 12 using the effect of the
hydrostatic pressure on the drillstring.
Solution:
Here we face a problem: the tool joints of the drill pipes causes a considerable
increase in the average linear weight os the drill pipe body. Although we can
consider each tool joint of the drillstring, a most appropriate way is to consider
an equivalent cross section of the drill pipe. Since the purpose is to determine
the effect of the fluid in the weight, it is not important if we choose to change
the inside or the outside diameter (or both). In the present example, we chose
to change both, such that the average diameter remains the same. In this case,
the average diameter is Dave = 5+4.276
2
= 4.638 in, and the area is given by
As = π Dave t ,
where t is the thickness of the equivalent drill pipe. The equivalent outside
diameter is Dave + t and the inside diameter is Dave − t. Therefore, for a drill
pipe with 22.28 lb/ft, we have:
1 ft2

lb lb
π × 4.638 in × t × 490 3 × 2
= 22.28
ft 144 in ft
t = 0.449 in
Do = 4.638 + 0.449 = 5.087 in
Di = 4.638 − 0.449 = 4.189 in
Note that these figures are for buoyancy calculation only, and should never be
used for strength calculations (torque, tensile, burst, collapse, etc).

Now, the fluid pressure acts in the cross section areas at 10,740 ft, 11,580 ft,
and 12,000 ft. In the first and second areas, the forces are downwards, and in
the third case the force is upward. These forces add and subtract to the weight
of the drillstring. To calculate the force we need the pressures at each depth
and the area exposed to the fluid. The values are:
p10740 = 0.0519 × 8.9 × 10740 = 4961 psi
p11580 = 0.0519 × 8.9 × 11580 = 5349 psi

p12000 = 0.0519 × 8.9 × 12000 = 5543 psi
π
[72 − 5.0872 ] + [4.1892 − 32 ] = 24.87 in2

A10740 =
4
π 2
8 − 72 = 11.78 in2

A11580 =
4
π 2
8 − 32 = 43.20 in2

A12000 =
4
The hook load is:
Whook = 390823 + 4961 × 24.87 + 5349 × 11.78 − 5543 × 43.20 = 337756 lbf
This result should be compared with the previous example. The discrepancy is
due rounding errors.
This method should always be used when either the annular or the drillstring
is filled with non–homogeneous fluids, partially filled, etc.


Chapter 5
Drillstring Design
The drillstring must be designed to support (with a safety margin) all the static
and dynamic loadings that occur during normal and special operations. It also
must support some extreme situations like pipe sticking problems, curved holes,
harsh environment, etc. In addition, it must be able to provide a suitable conduit
for the drilling fluid flow without causing excessive frictional pressure drop both
inside and outside the pipe. The mechanical aspects of drilling design are
covered in this chapter.
5.1 Length of Drill Collars – Neutral Point Calcu-

lation
One of the purposes of the drillstring is to apply weight on the bit, and as men-
tioned before, this is obtained by slacking part of the drillstring weight on the
bit. When this is done, a portion of the lower end of the drillstring will be put in
compression, and the upper portion will remain in tension. Since drill pipe can
not be compressed, a sufficient length of drill collars and/or heavy weight drill
pipes should be used so that the required weight on bit can be applied without
compressing the drill pipes.
The reason drill pipes can not be put in compression is that the moment
of inertia1 of drill pipes are small compared to its length (a parameter called
slenderness = length/radius of gyration). On the other hand, the slenderness of
the drill collars are relatively low and compression is allowed. The slenderness
is an important parameter to determine the mechanical buckling resistance of
a column.
The cause of buckling is the moment created by compressive forces. There-
fore, a lot of discussion occurred to determine the right way to account the
effects of hydrostatic pressure in the tendency to buckle a column.
One of the considerations was that both the compressive force due to the
weight on bit and the compressive force due to the hydrostatic pressure of the

Drillstring Design
Figure 5.1: Assumption 1 – pressure contributes to buckling.
fluid would contribute to buckle the drillstring, since the pressure acting in the
lower area of the drillstring causes a substantial compressive force at the bit,
even with no weight applied against the rock. Based on this assumption, the
position of the neutral point of stress can be determined, and a sufficient length
of drill collars must be used such that the neutral point lays in the drill collars
(neutral point occurs where the axial stress is equal to zero.) Using this point
of view, we can determine the position of the neutral point using the diagram in
Figure 5.1.
Considering the element of length x in the lower end of the column. The
forces acting on this element is shown in the diagram, and the equilibrium of
forces results in the following equation:
FT = W − p A − Fb
where FT is the axial force at acting at the top section of the element, W is the
weight of the element of length x, p is the pressure at depth D, A is the cross
section of the column, and Fb is the reaction of the force applied to at the bit.
The force due to the pressure p acting on the lower area A is given by
p A = ρf g D A ,
and the weight of the element is given by
W = ρs g A x .

Drillstring Design
Substituting in the expression above we have forFT :
FT = ρs g A x−ρf Assumption1−−pressurecontributestobuckling.g D A−Fb = g A (ρs x − ρf D)−
The stress at x is calculated dividing FT by the area A:

FT Fb
σ= = g (ρs x − ρf D) − .
A A
The neutral line is the position xn where σ = 0, that is:

FT Fb
0= = g (ρs xn − ρf D) − .
A A
Solving for xn we get:
ρf Fb
xn = D+
ρs ρs g A
ρf Fb
xn = D+ .
ρs wc
where wc = ρs g A is the linear weight of the drill collar. Note that even if the
weight on bit is zero (drillstring hanging off the bottom), this expression tells
us that the neutral point is quite above the bit, and that the lower end of the
drillstring will be under compression.
Example 14: Calculate the position of the neutral point for a column 10,000 ft
long hanging off bottom and submerged in a borehole filled with a 9.3 ppg
(pound per gallon) fluid. What is the length of drill collar with 147 lb/ft is re-
quired to apply 100,000 lbf on the bit, assuming that, for safety, only 85% of
the total length of DC is compressed. Calculate the suspended weight of the
drillstring using nominal 19.5 lb/ft DP (actual 22.28 lb/ft). Use the assumption
that pressure contributes to buckle the drillstring.
Solution:
Off bottom:
ρf Fb 9.3 0
xn = D+ = × 10000 + = 1420 ft
ρs wc 65.5 147
On bottom:
ρf Fb 9.3 100000
xn = D+ = × 10000 + = 2100 ft
ρs wc 65.5 147
Since this length should be 85% of the total, the minimum length of DC’s is
2100
LDC = = 2471 f t
85%

Drillstring Design
Figure 5.2: Assumption 2 – pressure does not contribute to buckling.
The hook load (buoyed weight) of the drillstring is:

9.3
Wh = [2471 × 147 + (10000 − 2471) × 22.28] × 1 − = 455592 lbf
65.5
The fact, however, is that the neutral point position calculated as above is
calculated assuming that the forces created by hydrostatic pressure will con-
tribute to the buckling of the column. But this is not true.
If we recall the Archimedes’s effect, the resultant force due to hydrostatic
pressures is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the
displaced fluid. But that is not all. In addition to that, the resulting moment of
the hydrostatic pressure must be ZERO, otherwise, the fluid would rotate about
its center of mass.
This means that the hydrostatic pressure acting on an immersed column
can not contribute to buckle it. The easiest (and correct) way to figure out the
required length to apply a weight on bit is exactly doing this, that is, calculating
the length of a column whose buoyed weight is equal to the required weight on
bit. Considering the diagram in Figure5.2 we have:
W = ρs g A x n
B = ρf g A x n

ρf
Fb = W − B = (ρs − ρf ) g A xn = 1− ρs g A x n
ρs

Drillstring Design
Fb
xn =
ρf
1− ρs
wDC
where wDC is the linear weight of the drill collar. Note that the denominator
corresponds to the buoyed linear weight of the drill collar.
The length calculated with this expression determines the neutral point of
buckling. Above this point the drillstring will not buckle. Bellow this point, which
depends on the weight on bit, the drillstring might be buckled or not, and this
will depend, among other factors, on the weight on bit and on the polar moment
of inertia of the drill collars.
Example 15: Calculate the position of the neutral point for a column 10,000 ft
long hanging off bottom and submerged in a borehole filled with a 9.3 ppg
(pound per gallon) fluid. What is the length of drill collar with 147 lb/ft is re-
quired to apply 100,000 lbf on the bit, assuming that, for safety, only 85% of
the total length of DC is compressed. Calculate the suspended weight of the
drillstring using nominal 19.5 lb/ft DP (actual 22.28 lb/ft). Use the assumption
that pressure dos not contribute to buckle the drillstring.
Solution:
Off bottom:
The neutral point position is given by
Fb
xn = .
ρf
1− ρs
wDC
For the off bottom condition the weight on bit Fb = 0 and the neutral point is at
xn = 0 ft. For a weight on bit of 100,000 lbf we have
100000
xn = 9.3
= 793 f t
1 − 65.5 × 147
Since this length should be 85% of the total, the minimum length of DC’s is
793
LDC = = 933 f t
85%
The hook load (buoyed weight) of the drillstring is:

9.3
Wh = [933 × 147 + (10000 − 933) × 22.28] × 1 − = 291008 lbf
65.5
A more general expression for the neutral point position includes the possi-
bility that the fluids inside and outside the pipe have different densities:
Fb
xn = .
wDC − (ρo Ao − ρi Ai )

Drillstring Design
5.2 Design for Tensile Force, Torque, Burst, and

Collapse
Once the length of the drill collars and the total weight of the drillstring had been
determined, we must check if the drillstring will be able to resist the loadings
it will be submitted during normal and special operations. The drill pipe sec-
tion may be composed by one or several types of drill pipes (diameter, linear
weight, and steel grade). We must check for maximum tensile strength, max-
imum torque, maximum burst, and collapse pressure. In addition, since these
loadings very likely occur simultaneously (for example, tension and torque), the
conjoined strength must be determined.
5.2.1 Maximum Tensile Force
During normal operation, the maximum tensile force occurs at the top of the
drill pipe section during pick–ups. Since this point has (normally) the smallest
section area, it is also the point of maximum stress. In addition to static load
(the buoyed weight of the drillstring), inertial effects (the force to accelerate the
drillstring), friction effects between the drillstring and the borehole wall, and vis-
cous effects must be considered. Also, in the event of stuck pipe1 , the drillstring
must be able to support the overpull applied during pipe freeing operations.
Due to several uncertainties involved in the calculation of the various load-
ings, relative large safety factors must be used. It is practice to use 125% of
the static load as the design parameter (25% of overpull.) In addition, it is im-
portant to note that the API defines yield stress as the stress that will cause
a certain permanent (plastic) deformation. Based on this, the minimum yield
strength of a pipe is defined. The minimum yield strength is the minimum axial
tensile load that will cause the yield of the material. Normally we want to avoid
any plastic deformation of the drill pipes. Therefore, only a fraction (normally
90%) of the minimum yield strength is allowed during drilling operations. This
figure is called tensile strength of the pipe.
The margin of overpull (MOP) is defined as the excess of the tensile load ca-
pacity of the drillstring to the normal tensile load for normal operations. Knowing
the MOP is important in case of stuck pipe. In practice, the determined MOP
must not be exceeded since the drillpipe would fail. Typical values of MOP re-
quirements for drillpipe selections are in the range from 50,000 to 100,000 lbf.
Example 16: Calculate the minimum yield strength required for the drill pipe
of the previous example.
1
A stuck pipe is the situation in which the force required to move, or the torque required to
rotate the drillstring is larger that its strength.

Drillstring Design
Solution: The drillstring buoyed weight is 291000 lbf, and 125% of this value
(25% of overpull) is 1.25 x 291000 lbf = 363750 lbf. The minimum tensile
strength required is
363750
Fy = = 404167 lbf
0.9
If a new 5 in, 19.5 lb/ft (nominal) is used, the minimum yield stress is:
Fy 404167
Ymin = = π = 76625 psi
As 4
(52− 4.2762 )
Therefore, a X–95 grade pipe is required (Fy = 501087 lbf).

The minimum yield strength in the example is obtained from drill pipe tables,
or calculated from the pipe parameters:
π
OD2 − ID2 Ys

Fy =
4
where Ys is the yield strength of the material. For the example above we have:
π
× 52 − 4.2762 × 95000 = 501087 psi

Fy =
4
This figure is for new pipe dimensions. For premium pipes (every new pipe
is re–classified to premium in the first time it goes to operation), it should be
considered that the wall thickness is reduced to 80% of the original wall thick-
ness. Normally, the worst scenario is used and, in this case, we assume that the
thickness reduction occurred in the outside diameter (external wear). There-
fore, the new dimensions are:
ID = 4.276 in
OD = ID + 80% (OD − ID) = 4.276 + 80% × (5 − 4.276) = 4.8552 in

Therefore, for premium DP, the minimum yield strength is:
π
4.85522 − 4.2762 × 95000 = 394611 lbf .

Fy =
4
Note that if a premium DP is considered in the previous example, the X-95,

a premium pipe can not be used in that operation.
Situations like this suggest the use of tapered drill pipe section. In tapered
drill pipe sections, the segment with the lowest capacity is placed right above
the drill collar section (or HWDP when used), and the maximum length for that
pipe is calculated. Then a higher capacity drill pipe is used and the maximum
length for this drill pipe is calculated. The process is repeated until the expected
total length (the maximum depth for that drillstring) is reached. For a multi di-
ameter, multi weight, or multi grade drillstring, the topmost joint of each section
must be checked for tension.

Drillstring Design
Example 17: Calculate the drillstring for the previous example data using pre-
mium drill pipes of 5 in–19.5 lb/ft and grades E-75, X-95, and G-105.
Solution:
This problem is simplified by the fact that the total weight of the drillstring
is the same, no matter the grade and length of the drillpipe. Using 25% of the
buoyed weight, the MOP is
M OP = 25% × 291000 = 72750 lbf .
It is important to realize that any overpull applied to the top of the drillstring
will manifest in every element of the drillstring (assuming that the stuck point is
in the bit).
The minimum yield strength and maximum tensile load for 5 in–19.5 lbf/ft
(actual 22.28 lbf/ft) drill pipes for the various grades, and using a maximum of
90% as operational limits are:
π
E–75: Fy = (4.85522 − 4.2762 ) × 75000 × 90% = 280382 lbf
4
π
X–95: Fy = (4.85522 − 4.2762 ) × 95000 × 90% = 355150 lbf
4
π
G–105: Fy = (4.85522 − 4.2762 ) × 105000 × 90% = 392535 lbf
4
Starting with E–75 (on top of the drill collars), the maximum length for this
grade is

9.3
(933 × 147 + LE–75 × 22.28) × 1 − = 280382 − 72750
65.5
LE–75 = 4705 ft
The maximum length is 933 + 4705 = 5638 ft, and the partial weight is
933 × 147 + 4705 × 22.28 = 241978 lbf .
Continuing with the next grade (X–95):

9.3
(241978 + LX–95 × 22.28) × 1 − = 355150 − 72750
65.5
LX–95 = 3912 ft
The maximum length is 5638 + 3912 = 9550 ft, and the partial weight is
241978 + 3912 × 22.28 = 329137 lbf .
Continuing with the next grade (G–105):

9.3
(329137 + LG–105 × 22.28) × 1 − = 392535 − 72750
65.5

Drillstring Design
LG–105 = 1956 ft
The maximum length is 9550 + 1956 = 11506 ft, enough to reach the depth of
10000 ft.
Note that if different DP diameters or different linear weights are used, the
final weight of the drillstring is not known before it has been designed, and
the MOP cannot be imposed directly (and an iterative process will be needed).
In this case, we can set the MOP absolutely, based, for example in the worst
scenario (heaviest DP) or using field experience.
5.2.2 Maximum Torque
The torque applied to the drillstring is the reaction due to the bit action on
the bottom of the borehole, and due to friction forces between the drillstring
elements and the borehole wall. In vertical wells, most of the torque comes
from the bottom hole assembly (bit, stabilizers, etc.). For directional wells, the
torque is distributed along the borehole trajectory below the kick-off point (the
point of the trajectory where the borehole leaves the vertical). In any case,
the torque accumulates and the point of higher torque is always at the top of
the drillstring. The torsional yield strength of a pipe is given by the following
expression:
J
Ty = 0.577 Ys ,
r
where Ty is the torsional yield strength, J is the polar moment of inertia of the
circular section, and r is the outside diameter of the section. The coefficient
0.577 ≈ √13 comes from the von Mises–Hencky distortion energy theory of fail-
ure of ductile materials, which determines the shear yield strength based on
the tensile yield strength. The polar moment of inertia for circular pipes is given
by:
π
OD4 − ID4 .

J=
32
For Ty in ft · lbf, the expression for the torsional yield strength is given by:
Ys OD4 − ID4
Ty = .
105.92 OD
Example 18: Calculate the torsional yield strength for a new and for a pre-
mium 5 in–19.5 lbf/ft, grade E–75 drill pipe.
Solution:
75000 54 − 4.2764
a) new: Ty = = 41166 ft · lbf
105.92 5
75000 4.85524 − 4.2764
b) premium: Ty = = 32285 ft · lbf
105.92 5

Drillstring Design
The figures in the example above can be found in Tables A.2 and A.4 (API
RP7G). Note that the calculation of the torsional yield strength for a premium
DP uses the worst scenario for the wall thickness reduction. Although these
values represent the maximum torque allowed in the body of the drill pipe, the
maximum should not exceed the actual make–up torque of the connection.
5.2.3 Internal (Burst) and External (Collapse) Pressures
The API criteria for internal pressure strength (burst resistance) assumes that
drill pipes are thin–walled pipes. Since API accepts pipes with a minimum of
87.5% of the nominal wall thickness, the formula for the internal pressure for
new pipes (and also for casing) is:

2 (OD − ID)
pint = 0.875 Ys .
OD
If thick–wall and von Misses–Hencky theories are used, the formula is:
OD2 − ID4
pint = √ Ys .
3 OD4 − ID4
Note that in this formula, the allowed wall reduction to 87.5% has not been
considered. Data for internal pressure strength for new and premium drill pipes
are shown in Tables A.3 and A.5 (API RP7G) respectively.
In operations like drill stem testing, the drill pipe may be subjected to ex-
ternal pressure higher than the internal pressure. The most critical point is the
lower end of the drill pipe section. The net collapse pressure is determined by
the depth of the fluid inside the pipe, the depth of the lower end of the drillstring
section, and the density of the fluids in the annular and inside the drill pipe. The
expression for the net external pressure is:
pext = 0.0519 [ρ0 D − ρi (D − d)] ,
where pext is the external net pressure, D is the depth of the lower end of the
drill pipe section, d is the depth of the fluid surface inside the pipe (make d = D
if d > D), ρo and ρi are the densities of the fluid in the annular and inside the
drill pipe. A safety factor of 1.125 is normally used for collapse pressure.
The minimum collapse pressure is also in Tables A.3 and A.5. The collapse
strength is calculated using API Bulletin 5C3. The discussion of the formulation
is beyond the scope of this work, and will be covered in the Casing Design
chapter in Advanced Drilling.
Collapse pressure is detrimentally affected by tensile force in the drill pipe
(the beneficial effect in burst resistance is neglected). the combined effect of

Drillstring Design
tensile load to collapse resistance is obtained using the biaxial (σr = 0) expres-
sion of the von Misses failure theory:
σz2 − σz σt + σt2 ≤ Ys2
The equality holds when for a given axial stress σz , an effective tangential yield
stress Ys0 occurs. Then we have:
2
σz2 − Ys0 σt + Y 0 s = Ys2 .
Solving for the appropriate Ys0 (tangential stress is compressive for collapse)
results in: s 2
Ys0

σz σz
= 1−3 − .
Ys 2 Ys 2 Ys
API define 4 types of collapse: yield, plastic, transition, and elastic. All col-
lapse types but the elastic depends on the yield strength (elastic collapse de-
pends on the modulus of elasticity E). API indicates that the collapse pressure
Ys0
of drill pipes are reduced due to tensile load by the fraction Ys above.
Example 19: Determine the the collapse resistance corrected for tension
loading for a premium 5 in–19.5 lbf/ft, grade E–75 drill pipe subjected to a
tensile load of 50,000 lbf.
Solution:
The outside and inside diameters of the DP are 4.8552 in and 4.276 in
respectively (premium DP). Therefore the cross section area is:
π
4.85522 − 4.2762 = 4.1538 in2 ,

A=
4
and the axial stress is:
50000
σz = = 12037 psi .
4.1538
The ratio of the equivalent yield stress to the nominal yield stress is:
s 2
0

Ys 12037 12037
= 1−3 − = 0.9100 .
Ys 2 × 75000 2 × 75000
The minimum collapse resistance for the premium pipe is 7041 psi (see Ta-
ble A.5), and the corrected collapse pressure is
7041 × 0.9100 = 6407 psi .

Drillstring Design
5.2.4 Drillstring Elongation
Due to the weight of the drillstring and the elastic characteristic of the steel
(and many other metals and alloys), an elongation occurs when the drillstring
is suspended inside the borehole. In addition, if an additional force acts at the
bottom end (be it tensile or compressive) additional elongation (or shortening)
occurs. The expression for the total elongation of a drillstring of length L is:
ρs g L2 F L
∆L = + ,
2E AE
where ρs is the density of the drillstring metal, E is the longi-
tudinal modulus of rigidity (or modulus of elasticity or Young
modulus), F is the force acting on the bottom, and A is the
area of the right section of the drillstring. Note that this
expression is valid only for a homogeneous drillstring sus-
pended in the air. If the drillstring is submerged in a fluid
with density ρf , a hydrostatic pressure will act at the lower
end (upward) such that the total elongation becomes:
ρs g L2 F L ρf g L2
∆L = + − ,
2E AE E
(ρs − 2ρf ) g L2 F L
∆L = + .
2E AE
For ρ in lbm/gal, E in psi, L and ∆L in ft, and A in in2 we
have:
(ρs − 2ρf ) L2 F L
∆L = 0.0519 + .
2E AE
This formulation is not considering the effect of the Pois-
son’s ratio due to the (varying) pressure acting along the drill-
string.
Example 20: Calculate the elongation of 10,000 ft of drill pipe hanging off-
bottom inside a borehole filled with 10 ppg drilling fluid. The modulus of elas-
ticity of the steel is 30 × 106 psi.
Solution:
(65.5 − 2 × 10.0) × 100002
∆L = 0.0519 = 3.94 ft
2 × 30 × 106
For a tapered drillstring we calculate the elongation of each section, con-

sidering force acting at the bottom of each section (including pressure effects),
and add all contributions.

Drillstring Design
Example 21: Calculate the elongation of a drillstring made up off 10,000ft of

5 in–19.5 lb/ft drill pipe and 600 ft of 8 in OD, 3 in ID drill collar (147lb/ft), inside
a borehole filled with 10 ppg drilling fluid and 20,000 lbf of WOB (weight on bit).
Solution:
a) elongation of the drill collars:
π 2
8 − 32 = 43.197 in2

ADC =
4
F = −20000 lbf − 0.0519 × 10 ppg × 10600 ft × 43.197 in = −257644 lbf
65.5 × 6002 −257644 × 600

∆LDC = 0.0519 + = −0.099 ft
2 × 30 × 106 43.197 × 30 × 106
b) elongation of the drill pipes:
π 2
5 − 4.3762 = 5.2746 in2

ADC =
4
F = −257644 lbf + 147 lbf/ft × 600 ft + 0, 0519 × 10 ppg × 10000 ft × (43.197 − 5.2746) in2
F = 27373 lbf
65.5 × 100002 27373 × 10000

∆LDP = 0.0519 6
+ = 7.40 ft
2 × 30 × 10 5.2746 × 30 × 106
∆L = ∆DC + ∆DP = −0.099 + 7.40 = 7.30 ft
Note that in this case (and in most cases), the elongation of the drill collars can
be neglected, compared with elongation of the drill pipes.

Drillstring Design

Drillstring Design
Chapter 6
Drilling Hydraulics
During most of the drilling operations, the drilling fluid is circulating through
the circulating system and/or the drillstring is moving with respect to the fluid.
These dynamic components cause pressure gradients and pressure losses that
must be determined, predicted, and controlled in order to perform the drilling
operation safely and optimally. The most important parameters to be deter-
mined are:
• The pressure along the borehole while circulating (equivalent circulating

density – ECD)
• The pressure along the borehole while moving the drillstring (surge and
swab pressures)
• The optimum circulating parameters and bit nozzle sizes
• The cuttings transport capacity of the fluid (hole cleaning)
• The pressure along the borehole during well control operations (kick re-
moval)
In order to proceed with these studies, we need to use basic physical principles
like mass conservation and energy conservation. Also, the flow behavior of the
fluid must be understood and determined (rheological properties of the fluid,
laminar and turbulent flow, etc.)
6.1 Mass and Energy Balance
Mass and energy (two different forms of the same thing), can be neither created
nor destroyed and, for non–relativistic scenarios, one cannot be converted into
the other. This results in the mass and energy conservation laws.

Drilling Hydraulics
6.1.1 Mass Conservation
“the net flow of mass into any volume is equal to

the rate of increase of mass within the volume”
This statement is mathematically expressed by (see Figure 6.1):
Figure 6.1: Mass balance
dm
= ṁ = ρi qi − ρo qo .
dt
where m is the mass within the volume, ρ is density, and q is flow rate. It is
evident that a volume under study may have several influxes and several out
fluxes so that a general expression can be written:
dm X X
= ṁ = ρi q i − ρo q o .
dt
Considering only steady-state conditions (the mass inside the volume under
control does not change) this expression reduces to:
X X
0= ρi q i − ρo q o .
In addition, for incompressible fluids (most drilling fluids are considered

incompressible, except those with gaseous components), this expression re-
duces further to: X X
0= qi − qo → qi = qo .
The expression above is important when considering flows other than gen-
erated by the fluid pumps, like kick influx, fluid loss (to underground formations),
mud treatment (material addition and fluid discard,) et cetera. For a closed, sin-
gle way system (as the circulating system is considered most of the times) we
have:
qi = qo = q ,
that is, the flow rate at any point of the system is constant equal to q (the flow
rate). Therefore, it suffices to know the flow area to calculate fluid average
velocity at any point of the circulating system.

Drilling Hydraulics
Example 22: A 11 lb/gal fluid is being circulated at 280 gal/min. The diameter
of the hole is 81 /2 in. The drill collars have 8 in OD and 3 in ID, and the drill
pipes have 5 in OD and 4.276 in ID. Calculate the average fluid velocities inside
the DP’s and DC’s, and in the annular space opposite to the DP’s and DC’s.
Solution:
A 11 lb/gal fluid can be consider incompressible. Therefore we can write for
the flow rate at any point of the circuit:
q
q = A v̄ → v̄ =
A
where q is the fluid flow rate, A is the area in the point of interest, and v̄ is the
average velocity at the point. or v in ft/s, A in in2 , and q in gal/min we have:
231 in2

q[gal/min] 1 min 1 ft
v̄[ft/s] = × × ×
A[in2 ] 1 gal 60s 12 in
q[gal/min]
v̄[ft/s] = 0.3208
A[in2 ]
The average velocities are:
280 gal/min
vDP = 0.3208 π = 6.26ft/s
4
× 4.2762
280 gal/min
vDC = 0.3208 π = 12.71ft/s
4
× 32
280 gal/min
vannDP = 0.3208 π = 2.42ft/s
4
× (8.52 − 52 )
280 gal/min
vannDC = 0.3208 π = 13.86ft/s
4
× (8.52 − 82 )
6.1.2 Energy Conservation
“the net flow of energy crossing the boundaries of a system is equal to

the rate of increase of the internal energy of the system”
Energy crosses the boundary of a system as work and/or heat, and internal
energy may be of several forms:
• potential,

Drilling Hydraulics
• kinetic,
• chemical,
• thermal,
• etc.
The best way to apply the energy conservation in drilling is using the Bernoulli’s
equation:1
“at any point of an ideal steady state incompressible flow system

the sum of the specific kinetic energy, the pressure, and the
specific potential energy and pressure is constant”
or, in mathematical terms:

1
ρ v̄ 2 + p + ρ g h = constant ,
2
where ρ is the density of the fluid (considered incompressible) and h a height
with respect to any fixed reference. The value of the constant is not relevant,
because we can chose any arbitrary reference to the height. Since we will
be more concerned to depth instead of height, the following expression for the
Bernoulli equation is more appropriate:
1
ρ v̄ 2 + p − ρ g D = constant ,
2
where D is depth. If we take two points in a flow field (points 1 and 2), we can
write:
1 2 1 2
ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D = ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D .
2 2 2 1
Note that this expression can be used to express hydrostatic pressure as pre-
sented before. In this case, the velocities are zero and we have:
p2 − ρ g D2 = p1 − ρ g D1 ,
p2 = p1 + ρ g (D2 − D1 ) .
The meaning of the Bernoulli equation is that the total energy at point 1 is
equal to the total energy at point 2. This is true for ideal system in which no
energy loss occurs in the path between point 1 and point 2. For real systems,
however, a loss of energy always occurs because of the internal viscous friction
in the fluid. This energy loss reveals itself as a friction pressure drop. Therefore,
if the fluid flows from point 1 to point 2 we have, for real flow:

1 2 1 2
ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D = ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D − ∆pf .
2 2 2 1
1
Named after the Swiss physicist and mathematician Daniel Bernoulli.

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.2: Schematic of a circulation system.
In addition, if between points 1 and 2 we have a pump that increases the pres-
sure by a value we end up with the general energy conservation equation:

1 2 1 2
ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D = ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D + ∆pp − ∆pf .
2 2 2 1
Most frequently we will be interested in calculating the pressure downstream.

In these cases we can write:
1
p2 = p1 + ρ g (D2 − D1 ) − ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − ∆pf

(6.1)
2
In field units we have:
p2 = p1 + 0.0519 ρ (D2 − D1 ) − 8.073 × 10−4 ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − ∆pf , (6.2)

for pressure in psi, density in lb/gal, depth in ft, and velocity in ft/s.
Example 23: Determine the pressure at the lower end of the drillstring if the
frictional pressure loss in the drillstring is 1650 psi, the flow rate is 340 gal/min,
the mud density is 11 lb/gal, and the well depth is 11500 ft. The internal diame-
ter of the drill collars at the lower end of the drillstring is 213 /16 in, and the pump
increases the pressure by 3000 psi.
Solution:
Consider the simplified diagram beside. We can assume that the velocity
of the fluid at the tank (point 1) is very low so that v̄1 = 0. In addition we have

Drilling Hydraulics
p1 = 05 psig, D1 = 0 ft, D2 = 11500 ft. The velocity at point 2 is calculated with

the mass conservation formula:
340 gal/min
vDC = 0.3208 π = 17.56ft/s
4
× 2.81252
Using these values in the expression for the downstream pressure we obtain:
p2 = 0+0.0519×11×(11500 − 0)−8.073×10−4 ×11× 17.562 − 02 +3000−1650

p2 = 0 + 6565 − 2.74 + 3000 − 1650 = 7912.26 psi ≈ 7912 psi
Note the small contribution of the kinetic energy to the pressure at point 2
(2.74 psi.) In most of the situations, we can neglect the kinetic energy term. A
situation, however, where we can’t neglect the kinetic energy term is in the flow
through bit nozzles.
6.2 Flow Through Bit Nozzles
The drilling fluid exits the drillstring through nozzles at the bit (normally 3 or 4
nozzles). The nozzles accelerate the fluid forming a high-velocity jet below the
nozzles, which are hurled against the recently cut formation. The fluid jets help
to clean the bit cones and to remove the cuttings from beneath the bit (to avoid
re–grinding them) and so improving the drilling efficiency.
Figure 6.3: Longitudinal cut of bit nozzles. (Courtesy SPE)
Bit nozzles are made of hard–erosion resistant materials such as cast tung-
sten carbide, sintered carbide or a ceramic material.
6.2.1 Pressure Drop Across the Bit
As the fluid exits the drillstring through the nozzles, its velocity accelerates from
v̄1 inside the bit to v̄2 at the jet at the expense of a pressure drop across the bit.

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.4: Pressure drop across the bit.
The pressure drop is determined using the mass conservation and the energy
conservation laws. The length of the nozzles is very short (about 11 /2 in), so
that so that the the potential energy terms can be neglected. In addition, the
friction loss is neglected (temporarily), and since there is no other source of
pressure, the Equation (6.1) becomes:
1
ρ v̄22 − v̄12 .

p2 = p1 −
2
The velocity of the fluid inside the bit is much less than the velocity in the jet.
Therefore we can write for the pressure drop across the bit:
1
∆pb = p1 − p2 = ρ v̄j2 , (6.3)
2
where v̄j is the average velocity of the fluid in the jet.
The pressure drop across the bit is an important parameter in drilling en-
gineering. If we solve Equation (6.3) for the average nozzle jet velocity, we
obtain: s
2 ∆pb
v̄j = .
ρ
This ideal exit velocity, however, is never obtained because of the friction-
less assumption made in the beginning of the derivation. The friction pressure
loss depends on parameters of the nozzle like the shape, material, and surface
roughness. Based on experimental measurements comparing ideal to real noz-
zle jet velocities, the following expression was proposed:
s
2 ∆pb
v̄j = Cd , (6.4)
ρ

Drilling Hydraulics
where the coefficient Cd is called discharge coefficient. Typical values for Cd

are in the range 0.95 to 0.98. Using field units, we can write:
s s
∆pb ∆pb
v̄j = Cd −4
= 35.2 Cd .
8.073 × 10 ρ ρ
A drilling bit has several nozzles distributed in the bit body (normally equal
to the number of cones.) If they have different areas, the total flow q splits to
the nozzles depending on their areas. The pressure drop is the same for each
nozzle (equal to the pressure inside the bit less the pressure outside the bit),
therefore the nozzle velocity is must be the same for each nozzle. Since the
flow q is be equal to the sum of the flows in the nozzles we have (assuming 3
nozzles):
q = q1 + q2 + q3 = v̄j A1 + v̄j A2 + v̄j A3 = v̄j (A1 + A2 + A3 ) = v̄j At ,

q
v̄j =
,
At
where At is the total area of the bit nozzles. Therefore, the pressure drop
across the bit can be expressed by:
s
q 2 ∆pb
v̄j = = Cd ,
At ρ
ρ q2
∆pb = . (6.5)
2 Cd2 A2t
−5 ρ q2 ρ q2
∆pb = 8.310 × 10 = , (6.6)
Cd2 A2t 12034 Cd2 A2t
for ∆pb in psi, ρ in lbm/gal, q in gpm, and At in in2 .
6.2.2 Hydraulic Power Across the Bit
The power across the bit is obtained by multiplying the pressure drop across
the bit by the flow rate:
ρ q3
Pb = q ∆pb = . (6.7)
2 Cd2 A2t
6.2.3 Impact Force of the Jets
The Jet of fluid exert a force at the bottom of the hole called jet impact force. It
is due to the change in the jet momentum as it hits the bottom. An infinitesimal
volume dV of fluid in the jet with velocity v̄j has a linear momentum given by
(see Figure 6.5):

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.5: Jet impact force.
dM = ρdV v̄j .
As this volume hits the surface, the momentum is totally transferred to the sur-
face (the vertical velocity becomes zero), and the force due to this moment
transfer is given by:
dM dV
Fj = =ρ v̄j = ρ q v̄j .
dt dt
Using Equation (6.4) results in:
s
2 ∆pb p
Fj = ρ q Cd = Cd 2 ρ q 2 ∆pb ,
ρ
p
Fj = Cd 2 ρ q 2 ∆pb . (6.8)
Cd p 2
Fj = ρ q ∆pb . (6.9)
54.85
Note that the impact force as derived is only true for nozzles close enough
to the formation so that the viscous friction between the fluid in the jet and the
fluid in the vicinity of the bit can be neglected.
The sizes of the nozzles are usually measured in 1/32nd of inch (hole diam-
eter), and are reported in “thirty-seconds” of inch. Nozzles range from 6/32 to
32/32. The area of a #14 nozzle for example is:
2
π 14
A(14) = = 0.1503 in2 .
4 32

Drilling Hydraulics
Example 24: A 12 ppg drilling fluid is flowing through a bit containing three
#13 nozzles. The pump pressure increase is 3000 psi at a flow of 400 gpm.
Calculate (a) the pressure drop across the bit, (b) the hydraulic power delivered
by the pump, (c) the power spent at the bit, and (d) the hydraulic impact force.
(Use 0.95 for the discharge coefficient.)
Solution:
The total area of the nozzles is:
2
π 13
At = 3 A13 =3× = 0.3889 in2
4 32
The pressure drop across the bit is
ρ q2
∆pb = = 1169 psi
12034 Cd2 A2t
The hydraulic power delivered by the pump is [Equation (2.6)]

3000 × 400
PH = = 700 hp
1714.29
The power spent at the bit is [Equation (6.7)]

1169 × 400
Pb = = 272 hp
1714.29
The hydraulic impact force is [Equation (6.8)]

0.95 √
Fj = 12 × 4002 × 1169 = 821 lbf
54.85
6.3 Required Hydraulic Power
Consider the expression for the pressure downstream from the fluid tank to the
bottom of the borehole along the drillstring (see Figure 6.2). If the pressure in
the tank is p1 , the pressure at the bottom p2 , after the bit is:
1
ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − (∆pf )ds − ∆pb ,

p2 = p1 + ρ g (D2 − D1 ) −
2
where ∆pf ds is the frictional pressure drop along the drillstring. Consider now
the expression for the pressure downstream from the bottom of the borehole to
the fluid tank along borehole annular.
1
ρ v̄12 − v̄22 − ∆pf ann ,

p1 = p2 + ρ g (D1 − D2 ) −
2

Drilling Hydraulics
where pf ann is the frictional pressure drop along the annular. Adding these two
equations we obtain:
∆pp = ∆pb + ∆pf , (6.10)
where ∆pf = (∆pf )ds + (∆pf )ann is the pressure drop along the whole (closed)
flow circuit. This expression says that the pressure increase in the pump is
equal to the friction pressure drop (considered the whole circuit) plus the pres-
sure drop across the bit. Therefore, since the pump adds energy to the fluid
system, we clearly see that this energy is spent part in friction, ∆pf , and part
to accelerate the fluid in the nozzles, represented by the pressure drop across
the bit, ∆pb .
Multiplying the expression above by the flow rate q, and recalling that power
P is equal to q ∆p we obtain the following relation:
PH = Pb + Pf
where PH is the hydraulic power delivered by the pump to the fluid, Pb is the
power spent at the bit to accelerate the fluid through the nozzles, and Pf is the
power spent to overcome viscous friction.
6.4 Bit Hydraulics Optimization
The drilling of a well is made in several phases. A phase is determined by

the bit diameter and starts when the first bit of that size is lowered into the
borehole and the first interval of formation is cut, and ends after the casing or
liner is landed and cemented. The common practice is to drill a phase using
a drilling fluid dense enough to keep the formation fluids from entering into
the borehole, and light enough to prevent fracturing the formations. The fluid
density, if correctly determined, is kept constant along the whole phase.
When a new bit is lowered into the borehole it is expected that to drill a long
interval before it becomes dull. The nozzles of the bit will play an important
role in the performance of the bit, and, therefore, must be carefully selected. A
wrong selection can be costly.
The basic parameter for the bit nozzle selection is the flow rate. A minimum
flow rate is required to keep the borehole clean from the cuttings generated by
the bit. An unsatisfactory cuttings transport may put the operation at risk.
It will be shown later that the frictional pressure drop (also called parasitic
pressure loss) in the circulation system can be modeled quite accurately by an
expression of the following form:
∆pf = c q m , (6.11)
where c and m are constants that determine the behavior of the pressure drop
of the whole circulation system.

Drilling Hydraulics
The values of both c and m change as the borehole deepens, but not much.
The appropriate way to determine the values of c and m (to be used for the next
bit) is to run a simple test just before a dull bit is changed.
The test consists in circulating the fluid at two different flow rates and mea-
suring the pump pressures. Normally one of the flow rates is close to the min-
imum required to lift the cuttings and the other close to the expected flow rate
to be used for the next bit. Using the nozzles sizes of the dull bit and the values
of the pump pressures and flow rate, the friction pressure drop is calculated for
the two flow rates. Then these two values are used to determine the values of
c and m for the next bit run.
Example 25: In a drilling operation, a flow test was performed before start a
drillstring trip to change the bit. The following result was obtained:
q pp
[gpm] [psi]
475 3000
250 1000
The dull bit has one #13 nozzle and two #12 nozzles. The fluid density is
10 ppg. Determine the constants c and m for the next bit run. The discharge
coefficient is Cd = 0.95.
Solution:
The total nozzle area is:
2 2
π 13 π 12
At = +2× = 0.3505 in2
4 32 4 32
For q = 475 gpm we have (Equation [6.6]):
ρ q2 10 × 4752
∆pb = = = 1691 psi
12034 Cd2 A2t 12034 × 0.952 × 0.35052
∆pf = 3000 − 1691 = 1309 psi
For q = 250 gpm we have:
10 × 2502
∆pb = = 468.4 psi
12034 × 0.952 × 0.35052
∆pf = 1000 − 468.4 = 531.6 psi
Using these values in Equation (6.11) we have:
1309 = c × 475m
531.6 = c × 250m

Drilling Hydraulics
Dividing the first expression by the second expression we obtain:

m
1309 475
= → m = 1.404
531.6 250
Using this result in the first expression we find:
h i
psi
1309 = c × 4751.404 → c = 0.2286 gpm1.404
Therefore, for the next bit run, the frictional pressure drop should quite ac-
curately be expressed by:
∆pf = 0.2286 q 1.404
6.4.1 Nozzle Size Selection Criteria
The two most common criteria used to select the nozzles are
• Maximum hydraulic power at the bit,
• Maximum jet impact force.
6.4.1.1 Maximum Hydraulic Power at the Bit
The hydraulic power spent at the bit is given by:
Pb = PH − Pf = ∆pp q − ∆pf q .
Using the expressions for ∆pf (Equation [6.11])we have:
Pb = ∆pp q − c q m+1 .
Note that the power developed at the bit is function of the flow rate q. To
obtain the flow rate of maximum power at the bit, we make
dPb
= ∆pp − (m + 1) c q m = ∆pp − (m + 1) ∆pf = 0 .
dq
Solving for ∆pf gives:
∆pp m
∆pf = = c qopt .
m+1
Therefore, the flow rate for maximum power at the bit is:
m1
∆pp
qopt = . (6.12)
c(m + 1)

Drilling Hydraulics
The pressure drop at the bit for maximum power is:

∆pp
∆pb = ∆pp − ∆pf = ∆pp − ,
m+1
m
∆pb = ∆pp . (6.13)
m+1
6.4.1.2 Maximum Jet Impact Force at the Bit
The jet impact force at the bit is given by (Equation [6.8]):

p
Fj = Cd 2 ρ q 2 ∆pb .
Substituting ∆pb = ∆pp − c q m we obtain:

q q
Fj = Cd 2 ρ q (∆pp − c q ) = Cd 2 ρ (∆pp q 2 − c q m+2 ) .
2 m
Calculating the derivative of Fj with respect to q and setting to zero, we find:
dFj 2 ∆pp q − (m + 2) c q m+1

= Cd ρ p = 0,
dq 2 ρ (∆pp q 2 − c q m+2 )
which results in
2 ∆pp q − (m + 2) c q m+1 = 2 ∆pp q − (m + 2) ∆pf q = 0 .
Solving for ∆pf gives:

2 ∆pp
∆pf = = c qo ptm .
m+2
Therefore, the flow rate for maximum jet impact force is:
m1
2 ∆pp
qopt = . (6.14)
c(m + 2)
The pressure drop at the bit for maximum jet impact force is:
2 ∆pp
∆pb = ∆pp − ,
m+2
m
∆pb = ∆pp . (6.15)
m+2
6.4.1.3 Total Bit Nozzle Area
For a given optimum pressure drop at the bit ∆pb (calculated using one of the
criteria above), the total nozzle are is calculated using Equation (6.5):
ρ q2
∆pb = ,
2 Cd2 A2t

Drilling Hydraulics
s
qopt ρ
(At )opt = .
Cd 2 (∆pb )opt

s
qopt ρ
(At )opt = .
109.7 Cd (∆pb )opt
Example 26: For the data of Example 25 and ∆pp = 3000 psi, determine the
optimum flow rate, the pressure drop at the bit, and the total nozzle area for (a)
maximum hydraulic power at the bit, and (b) maximum jet impact force.
Solution:
The frictional pressure drop model for Example 25 is
∆pf = 0.2286 q 1.404 .
Then we have
(a) maximum hydraulic power at the bit
m1 1
1.404
∆pp 3000
qopt = = = 459 gpm
c(m + 1) 0.2286 × (1.404 + 1)
m 1.404
∆pb = ∆pp = × 3000 = 1752 psi
m+1 1.404 + 1
s r
qopt ρ 459 10
(At )otm = = = 0.333 in2
109.7 Cd (∆pb )opt 109.7 × 0.95 1752
(b) maximum jet impact force
m1 1
1.404
2∆pp 2 × 3000
qopt = = = 587 gpm
c(m + 2) 0.2286 × (1.404 + 2)
m 1.404
∆pb = ∆pp = × 3000 = 1237 psi
m+2 1.404 + 2
r
587 10
(At )otm = = 0.506 in2
109.7 × 0.95 1237

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.6: Line of maximum hydraulic power.
6.4.2 Graphical Analysis
The hydraulic condition of a borehole is continuously changing as the borehole

deepens. Therefore, it would be necessary to change continuously the nozzle
total area to attain optimum condition all the time. Since this is not economically
possible, the best we can do is to keep the hydraulic parameters close to the
optimum point.
It is always desirable to operate the pumps in their maximum power (PH )max .
The relationship between hydraulic power, pressure and flow rate is given by
∆p q
PH = . (2.6)
1714.29
Taking the logarithm of this expression and solving for log ∆pp we obtain:
log ∆pp = log (1714.29 PH ) − log q .
For the maximum pump pressure (PH )max , plotting log ∆pp versus logq re-
sults in a a straight line with slope -1, as shown in Figure 6.6 (other values for
PH plots as lines parallel to the maximum power line).
The pump can theoretically operate in any condition below the maximum
hydraulic power line. In addition, three other constraints limit the operational
area:
1. the maximum allowable surface pressure (∆pp )max ,
2. the minimum flow rate to carry the cuttings qmin ,

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.7: Additional hydraulic constraints.
3. The maximum flow rate for a given pump liner qmax .
These three constraints are shown in the Figure 6.7.

The shaded area represents the possible operational conditions. The bold
line corresponds to the maximum operational pressure for those constraints.
However, in order to be able to operate on both the slanted bold line and
on the horizontal bold line (maximum power or maximum pressure) it would
be necessary to change the pump liner frequently as the borehole deepens.
The common practice, however, is to select a liner to operate the pumps at the
maximum allowed surface pressure at the maximum hydraulic power, and use
this liner, if possible, in the entire well or, at least, for the whole phase. The
maximum flow rate for the maximum surface pressure is given by
1714.29 (PH )max

qmax = ,
∆pmax
and shown in the graph in Figure 6.8.

Under these limitations, the pump should operate such that the surface op-
erational parameters remain on the bold line of the graph in Figure 6.8. That
is, the pump will be operating at the maximum flow rate during the shallow por-
tion of the well (the pressure is dictated by the resistance to flow), and at the
maximum pressure during the lower portion of the well.
The constants c and m, which determine the frictional pressure drop in the
fluid circuit, depend on the depth (and other factors too). For each depth, an
optimum nozzle total flow area At exists, for a given optimization criterion, which
depends on the constants c and m. Assuming the constant m will not change

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.8: Ideal surface operational parameters.
∆p
too much as the well deepens, the optimum ratio ∆pfp (for one of the criteria)
remains quite constant. Therefore, as the pump operational conditions change
during the drilling, the optimum condition is that for which the values of the
frictional pressure drop ∆pf follows the bold line in Figure 6.9. This line is
called the path of optimum hydraulics.
Consider now the expression for the pressure drop due to friction, ∆pf =
c q m , where c and m depend on the depth. Taking the logarithm of this expres-
sion results in the following expression:
log ∆pf = log c + m log q
Therefore, the graph of log ∆pf × log q plots as a straight line with slope m
as shown in Figure 6.10.
The point where a frictional pressure drop line intercepts the path of opti-
mum hydraulics defines the pair qopt and (∆pb )opt . These values of optimum
flow rate and optimum pressure drop at the bit are used to calculate the total
bit nozzle area for the next bit run.
Example 27: Determine the proper pump operating conditions and bit nozzle
sizes for maximum hydraulic power for the next bit run. The bit currently in use
has three #12 nozzles. The driller has recorded that when the 9.8 lbm/gal fluid
is pumped at a rate of 485 gal/min, a pump pressure of 2900 psig was observed
and when the pump was slowed to a rate of 260 gal/min, a pump pressure of
980 psig was observed. The nominal power of the pump is 1250 hp with an
efficiency of 95%. The minimum flow rate to lift the cuttings is 230 gal/min. The

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.9: Path of optimum hydraulics.
maximum allowable surface pressure is 3000 psig. The fluid density will remain
unchanged in the next bit run. (Use Cd = 0.95
Solution:
The hydraulic power delivered by the pump is
(pH )max = 1250 × 95% = 1188 hp
For a maximum surface pressure of 3000 psi, the maximum flow rate is
1714.29 × 1188
qmax = = 679 gpm
3000
Now we need to calculate the frictional pressure drop for the two flowing test
points. The total nozzle area is
2
π 12
At = 3 × = 0.3313n2
4 32
The pressure drop across the bit and the frictional pressure drop for q = 485 gpm
are:
ρ q2 9.8 × 4852
∆pb = = = 1934 psi
12034 Cd2 A2t 12034 × 0.952 × 0.33132
∆pf = ∆pp − ∆pb = 2900 − 1934 = 966 psi
The pressure drop across the bit and the friction pressure drop for q = 260 gpm
are:
9.8 × 2602
∆pb = = 556 psi
12034 × 0.952 × 0.33132
∆pf = 980 − 556 = 424 psi

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.10: Frictional pressure drop lines.
Therefore, we have for c and m:
966 = c × 485m
424 = c × 260m
m = 1.321
h i
c = 0.2741 gpmpsi1.321
For the maximum hydraulic power criterion, the optimum pressure drop due to
friction and the optimum pressure drop across the bit are:
∆pp 3000
(∆pf )opt = = = 1292 psi
m+1 1.321 + 1
m 1.321
(∆pb )opt = ∆pp = × 3000 = 1708 psi
m+1 1.321 + 1
which defines the optimum hydraulics for the maximum hydraulic power at the
bit. A plot of the path of optimum hydraulics, the line of frictional pressure
drop line (the straight line passing at the two test points), and the optimum
operational point are shown in the graph in Figure 6.11.
The frictional pressure drop line intercepts the path of optimum hydraulics at
1292 psi. The optimum flow rate is calculated from the frictional pressure drop
model for the condition of the operation:
1292 = 0.2741 q 1.321 → q = 603 gpm

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.11: Graph for Example 27.
Therefore, the pressure drop across the bit is ∆pb = 1708‘psi at the flow rate of
603 gpm. The total nozzle bit area is calculated from:
r
603 9.8
(At )otm = = 0.4383 in2
109.7 × 0.95 1708
Sets of nozzles to use are
(13, 14, 14) → At = 0.403 in2
(12, 14, 15) → At = 0.434 in2

(11, 14, 15) → At = 0.438 in2

Drilling Hydraulics

Drilling Hydraulics
Chapter 7
Introduction to Drilling Fluids
The objective of a drilling operation is to drill, evaluate, and complete a well that
will produce oil and/or gas efficiently. Drilling fluids perform numerous functions
that help make this possible. The responsibility for performing these functions
is held jointly by the mud engineer and those who direct the drilling operation.
The duty of those charged with drilling the hole – including the oil company
representative, drilling contractor, and rig crew – is to make sure that the correct
drilling procedures are conducted. The chief duty of the mud engineer is to
assure that mud properties are correct for the specific drilling environment. The
mud engineer should also recommend drilling practice changes that will help
reach the drilling objectives.
7.1 Functions of Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluid (also called drilling mud) is a mixture of water, oil, clay, and various
physical chemical additives. It performs various functions in drilling and con-
tributes with a large portion to the total well cost. In this way the drilling fluid
system (or mud program) has to be carefully designed to ensure a successful
drilling project.
The drilling fluid serves many purposes, which may not all be achieved si-
multaneously for all parts of the well. In this way, an individual prioritization has
to be followed. Below is a summary of some main drilling fluid functions:
1. Transport the drilling cuttings from the bottom of the hole to the surface.
For this, a higher fluid circulation velocity and a higher fluid viscosity are
favorable.
2. Create an overbalanced drilling condition to control the formation pres-

sure. Fluid density (or mud weight) is increased with additives like barite,
iron oxide, etc, to maintain a hydrostatic pressure inside the well which is
slightly higher than the formation pressure. Normally, an overbalance of
100 to 200 psi has proven to be adequate to establish safe drilling.

3. Reduce chemical and physical interactions with formation. This avoid or

reduce the occurrence of formation swelling, formation cave–in, and prob-
lems associated with cementing. The invasion of fluid, filtrate, or small
solids into the formation can cause damage to the formation and result is
less productivity
4. Produce an impermeable and thin seal (mud cake) along the walls of
permeable formations to reduce fluid and filtrate loss to the formations,
reducing the damage potential of the fluid. This function is obtained by
adding bentonite to the fluid, and by appropriate chemical treatment to
enhances deflocculation and solids distribution.
5. Cool and lubricate the drilling bit and drillstring to minimize wear. Ben-
tonite, oil, various emulsifying agents, graphite, and others favor the cool-
ing and/or lubrication capacity of the fluid.
6. Allow efficient solids control at the surface (separation of cuttings, forma-
tion gas, etc, from the fluid) by using appropriate solids control equipment.
(To be recirculated, a maximum of 2% of sand contends are allowed to
avoid early wear of mud pumps and drilling equipment in general.)
7. Hold drilling cuttings in suspension when circulation is interrupted. Failure
of this function would allow cuttings to fall down the hole and settle around
the drillstring possibly causing pipe sticking problems. The thixotropic 1
behavior of drilling fluids determines its capacity to keep solids in suspen-
sion (including weighting material).
8. Produce buoyancy force to partly support the weight of the drillstring and
casing string. An increase in mud weight, which increases buoyancy, re-
sults in smaller surface hoisting equipment requirements.
9. The drilling fluid should not interfere with logging measurements.
10. Transmit he hydraulic power to the bit and allow maximum penetration
rates.
11. Minimize the torque and drag of the drillstring to reduce wear and failure
of drillstring.
12. As a mean to transmit data between bottom hole equipment and surface
equipment.
7.2 Types of Drilling Fluid
The composition of a particular drilling fluid system depends on the actual re-
quirements of the individual well or well section. Wells are drilled through dif-
ferent formations, which require different mud properties to achieve optimum
1
The ability of a fluid, such as cement or drilling mud, to develop gel strength over time when
not subject to shearing, and then to liquefy when agitated.

penetrations and stable borehole conditions. Economics, additives (cost and

availability), temperature profile, contamination, and environment are some im-
portant factors that determine the design of the drilling fluid. The basic classifi-
cation of drilling fluids is (sub–classifications exist):
1. Water–base fluids
(a) Clear water and native muds

(b) Inhibitive water–based muds – calcium muds
(c) Dispersed muds – lignosulfonate muds
(d) Non–dispersed muds – KCL/Polymer muds
(e) Flocculated muds
(f) Salt–saturated muds
2. Oil–base fluids and Emulsion fluids
(a) Oil–in–water emulsion

(b) Water–in–oil emulsions
3. Synthetic Fluids
4. Aerated fluids
(a) Gaseous fluids (air, nitrogen, CO2 , natural gas)

(b) Foams
(c) Mists
7.2.1 Water–Base Fluids
Water–base fluids are any drilling fluid in which the continuous phase, where
some materials are in suspension and others are dissolved, is water. Thus any
water–base fluid system consists of a water phase, inert solids, reactive solids
phase, and chemical additives. Each of these parts contribute to the overall
fluid properties. The individual contributions are:
water: create initial viscosity,

inert solids: (low-gravity solids like sand and chert, and high-gravity solids like
barite and lead sulfides) produce required mud weight,
reactive solids: ( low-gravity solids like bentonite and attapulgite clays) cause
additional viscosity and gel,
chemical additives: (thinners [phosphate, chrome, lignosulfonate, lignites, sur-
factants] and thickeners [lime, cement,polymers]) provide control to vis-
cosity, yield point, gel strength, fluid loss, pH, filtration behavior, etc.
Caustic soda (NaOH) is used to keep a high pH required to control corro-
sion, hydrogen embrittlement and the solubility of Ca2 + and Mg2 +.

7.2.1.1 Clear Water and Native Muds
To drill compact formations which are normally pressured2 , fresh water and
salt–saturated water can be used as drilling mud. Native muds are the result
of mixing water and clays or shales from the cuttings drilled. Here the clays
or shales are dissolved by the water and returned to the surface. Clear water
and native muds are the cheapest mud systems since no additional material is
needed to form the mud. They are also environmentally best accepted.
7.2.1.2 Inhibitive Water–Base Muds – Calcium Muds
When swelling and hydration of clays and shales are expected, inhibitive water–
base muds can be used. Calcium muds are best suited to drill formations
that contain gypsum and hydrite. A subclassification of inhibitive water–base
muds distinguishes seawater muds, saturated saltwater muds, lime muds, and
gypsum muds.
7.2.1.3 Dispersed Muds – Lignosulfonate Muds
Dispersed muds are used when the following characteristics are required:
• relative high mud weight (larger than 14 ppg),

• tolerance to moderately high formation temperatures,
• low filtration loss
• high tolerance for contamination by drilling solids.
Some of the disadvantages of dispersed muds are sloughing of shales and

formation damage due to dispersing of formation clays in the presence of lig-
nosulfonate.
Dispersed mud systems consist of:
• fresh or salty water,

• bentonite,
• lignosulfonate,
• caustic soda
• colloidal polymers (carboxymethylcellulose or stabilized starch).
In general, these mud systems exhibit better control of viscosity, higher solids
tolerance, and better control of filtration than non–dispersed muds.
2
Formation with pore pressure gradient equal to brine density

7.2.1.4 Non–Dispersed Muds – KCL/Polymer Muds
To drill sloughing shales and water sensitive rocks such as productive sands,
which are prone to formation damage, fresh water non–dispersed muds are
used. Commonly, non–dispersed muds are associated with low mud weights
and low solid concentrations.
Non–dispersed mud systems consist of:
• fresh water or brine,
• potassium chloride (KCl),
• inhibiting polymer,
• viscosifier,
• stabilized starch or carboxymethyl cellulose,
• caustic soda,
• lubricants.
Low–solids polymer mud systems are widespread in the industry since they
offer advantages like increased penetration rate, hole stability, shear thinning
ability, hole cleaning with maximum hydraulics, and lower equivalent circula-
tion density over conventional deflocculated muds. Besides these advantages,
they also have disadvantages like instability at temperatures above 250 ◦ F, ir-
reversible absorption of the polymer on clay, higher dilution, the requirement of
adequate solids removal equipment, and the fact that they are more corrosive.
7.2.1.5 Flocculated Muds
Flocculated muds generally causes a dynamic increase in filtration, viscosity,

and gel strength. Flocculation refers to a thickening of the mud due to edge–
to–edge and edge–to–face association of clay particles.
The flocculation is commonly caused by high active solids concentration,
high electrolyte concentration, and high temperature. To reduce the flocculating
tendency of the mud, chemical additives, also called deflocculants or thinners,
are used. Thinners like phosphates, tannin, lignin, and lignosulfonate are used
to lower the yield point and gel strength. When deflocculants are added, the pH
is controlled by NaOH.
7.2.1.6 Salt–Saturated Muds
Several mud systems have been included in this classification. Saturated salt
systems have a chloride concentration near 190,000 mg/l (saturated) and are

used to drill salt formations. Saltwater systems have a chloride content of

10,000 to 190,000 mg/l. The lower levels are usually referred to as brackish
or seawater systems.
Salt–saturated muds are used to drill through salt domes and salt sections.
These mud systems are saturated with sodium chloride (NaCl), which prevents
severe hole enlargements due to washouts of the salt formations. Swelling of
bentonitic shales is controlled by adding of polymer.
Various specialty products, such as attapulgite, CMC, starch, and others,
are used to increase viscosity for hole–cleaning properties and to reduce fluid
loss.
7.2.2 Oil–Base Muds
In oil–base mud systems, crude or diesel oil forms the continuous phase in the
water–in–oil emulsion. In this way oil–base mud can have as little as 3% to 5%
or as much as 20% to 40% (invert emulsions) of water content. Oil–base mud
systems are used when:
1. Drilling sensitive production zones or troublesome shales,
2. Directional drilling and slim hole drilling,
3. Drilling of depleted reservoirs,
4. Drilling salt sections and formations that contain hydrogen sulfide,
5. High risk of pipe sticking problems,
6. Drilling formations with higher temperatures.
Low–gravity solids content has to be monitored closely when drilling with oil–
base muds. The reason is because there is no hydration of solids (clays),
which frequently causes the contents of low–gravity solids to exceed acceptable
levels. This results in reduction of penetration rate, increase risk of formation
damage, and increase risk of differential sticking.
Since oil–base muds contain substantially less colloidal particles, they ex-
hibit an increased spurt fluid loss 3 . Due to the higher filtration rates, the mon-
itoring of high–pressure/high–temperature filtration and the drilling conditions
are important to ensure that excessive filtration or filter cake buildup does not
lead to drilling problems.
3
The instantaneous volume (spurt) of liquid that passes through a filter medium prior to
deposition of a competent and controlling filter cake.

7.2.3 Synthetic Fluids
Synthetic fluids are designed to mirror oil–based mud performance without the
environmental hazards. Primary synthetic fluids are esters, ethers, poly alpha–
olefin and isomerized alpha–olefin. They are environmentally friendly, can be
discharged offshore, and are non–sheening and biodegradable.
7.2.4 Aerated Fluids
Four basic operations are included in this specialized category. These include:
1. Dry air drilling, which involves injecting dry air or gas into the wellbore at
rates capable of achieving annular velocities that will remove cuttings;
2. Mist drilling, which involves injecting a foaming agent into the air stream
that mixes with produced water and coats the cuttings to prevent mud
rings, allowing drill solids to be removed;
3. Foam uses surfactants and possibly clays or polymers to form a high

carrying-capacity foam;
4. Aerated fluids rely on mud with injected air (which reduces hydrostatic
head) to remove drilled solids from the wellbore.
These fluids are discussed in details in advanced drilling courses (air drilling,
underblanced drilling, etc).
7.3 Laboratory Tests
The API has recommended standard methods of conducting field and labora-
tory tests for drilling fluids and detailed procedures may be found in the API
publication, “Recommended Practice: Standard Procedure for Field Testing
Water–Based (Oil–Based) Drilling Fluids,” API RP13B–1, 13B–2 and supple-
ments (also see 13I for Laboratory Testing Drilling Fluids, 13J for Testing Heavy
Brines and supplements).
7.3.1 Water–Base Mud Tests
7.3.1.1 Density of Fluid (Mud Weight:)
The density or weight of the mud may be determined by the use of any instru-
ment of sufficient accuracy to permit measurement to within 0.1 lb/gal (0.5 lb/ft3
or 5 psi/1000 ft of depth).

Figure 7.1: A mud balance. Figure 7.2: A Marsh funnel.
For all practical purposes, density means weight per unit volume and mak-
ing a density test means weighing the mud. The weight of mud may be ex-
pressed as a hydrostatic pressure gradient in psi/1000 ft of vertical depth, as a
density in lb/gal, lb/ft3 , or specific gravity.
7.3.1.2 Marsh Viscosity:
The Marsh funnel is used for routine field measurement of the viscosity of
drilling mud. It is a simple device for indicating viscosity on a routine basis.
When used with a measuring cup, the funnel gives an empirical value for the
consistency of a fluid.
7.3.1.3 Dynamic Viscosity, Gel:
The rotary viscometer is used to supplement the information obtained from the
Marsh funnel, particularly with respect to the gel characteristics of the mud.
It is capable of giving the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point, and
gel strengths (initial and timed). Drilling fluid contained in the annular space
between two concentric cylinders is sheared by the rotation of the outer cylinder
(rotor sleeve) at a constant RPM (rotational velocity). The torque at the rotor
sleeves is transmitted by the fluid to the inner cylinder (bob). A torsion spring
restrains the movement of the bob, and a dial indicates displacement of the
bob. Instrument constants are adjusted so that plastic viscosity and yield point
are obtained by using readings from rotor sleeve speeds of 600 and 300 RPM.
A six-speed model (600, 300, 200, 100, 6, and 3 rpm) can be used to fully
characterize a fluid.
7.3.1.4 API Fluid Loss:
Determines the filtration properties of drilling muds and cement slurries. Gen-
erally consists of a mud reservoir mounted in a frame, a pressure source, a
filtering medium, and a graduated cylinder for receiving and measuring filtrate.

Figure 7.3: A rotational viscometer (rheometer).
Working pressure is 100 psi and the filtering area is 7.1 in2 , as specified by the
American Petroleum Institute (API RP13B–1 and RP13B–2).
7.3.1.5 HTHP Filtration:
Similar to API filter press (with half filtration area), but can be used in pressures
up to to 1200 psi and temperatures up to 500◦ F.
Figure 7.4: A API filter press. Figure 7.5: A HTHP filter press.

Figure 7.6: Sand content sieve. Figure 7.7: Retort.
7.3.1.6 Filter–Cake Compressibility:
This is not yet an API test. The purpose is to determine some mechanical prop-
erties of the mud cake like penetration resistance, adherence, compressibility,
etc.
7.3.1.7 Solid Contents:
A retort is used to determine solid contents including dissolved ions.
7.3.1.8 Sand Content:
Determines sand content by sieve analysis. The volume of sand, including void
spaces between grains, is usually measured and expressed as a percentage
by volume of the drilling fluid.
7.3.1.9 Methylene Blue Capacity:
Determines the capacity of a clay to absorb cations from a solution, and thereby
predict how the clay will react in its intended use. The clay may be component of
a drilling fluid, a binder in foundry sand, or a clay used for some other purpose.
The Methylene Blue Test is based on the property of clays known as base
exchange capacity, that is, clays can exchange some of their ions for the ions
of certain other chemicals. The number of ions available for this exchange
varies with different types of clay.
Flocculant Efficiency Test:

Figure 7.8: Methyl blue capacity test kit. Figure 7.9: A pH meter.
7.3.1.10 pH:
Indicator sticks and/or pH meter are used to determine the hydrogen ion con-
centration in the mud and in the filtrate.
7.3.1.11 Chemical Analysis of Water–Base Fluids (Titration)
• Alkalinity (Pf, Mf, Pm and Lime Content)
• Garrett Gas Train (GGT) Test for Carbonates
• Chloride (Cl)
• Calcium Qualitative
• Total Hardness
• Hardness in Dark Filtrates
• Sulfate
• Potassium (K+)
• Nitrate Ion Concentration
• PHPA Polymer Concentration
7.3.1.12 Chemical Analysis Relating to Corrosion
• SULF-X (ZnO) and Basic Zinc Carbonate (ZnCO3 Zn(OH)2 )
• Iron Sulfide Scale (Qualitative)
• Hydrogen Sulfide (H2 S)
• Phosphate

Figure 7.10: A titration kit.
Figure 7.11: A permeameter kit.
• Oxygen Scavenger: SO3 2- Content
• Resistivity
• Resistivity of the mud, filtrate and filter cake is sometimes needed in order
to help evaluate the electric logs.
7.3.1.13 Permeability Plugging Test
The Permeability Plugging Apparatus (PPA) is designed to provide accurate

simulation and measurement of downhole static filtration. The PPA is very use-
ful in predicting how a drilling fluid can form a permeable filter cake to seal
off depleted/under pressure intervals. The PPA utilizes a conventional HTHP
Heating Jacket to simulate reservoir temperature.
7.3.2 Oil-Base Mud Testing
7.3.2.1 Aniline Point Determination
The test indicates if an oil is likely to damage elastomers that come in contact
with the oil. It is the lowest temperature (°F or °C) at which equal volumes of
aniline (C6 H5 NH2 ) and the oil form a single phase. A low AP is indicative of
higher aromatics, while a high AP is indicative of lower aromatics content.

Figure 7.12: An aniline point kit. Figure 7.13: Electrical stability tester.
7.3.2.2 Electrical Stability:
Indicates the emulsion and oil–wetting qualities of the sample. The test is per-
formed by inserting the ES probe into a cup of 120 ◦ F (48.9 ◦ C) mud and push-
ing a test button. The ES meter automatically applies an increasing voltage
(from 0 to 2000 volts) across an electrode gap in the probe. Maximum voltage
that the mud will sustain across the gap before conducting current is displayed
as the ES voltage.
7.3.2.3 Chemical Analysis of Oil-Base Drilling Muds:
• Alkalinity (Pom) (VSAAPI)
• Salinity Chlorides
• Whole Mud Calcium Calculation
• Sulfides
7.4 Fluid Density and Viscosity Calculations
Additives are added to the drilling fluid in order to bring the fluid parameters to
the required values. Density and viscosity are the two most basic parameters
to control.
The drilling fluid technician or engineer should carry some calculations, and
laboratory measurements and tests to determine the correct additive and the
correct amount to be mixed to the fluid system. Fluid volumes are normally
measured in barrels. Useful conversion factors are:
1 bbl = 42 gal
1 gal = 231 in3
1 ft3 = 1728 in3
1 in3 = 2.543 cm3

1 lbm = 453.59 g
Powder and dry additives are normally measured in pounds, and liquid ad-
ditives are normally measured in gallons or barrels. Pilot tests are laboratory
(small scale) tests that aim to determine the amount of additive required to
bring some fluid parameters to determinate values. Small scale tests are fast
and cheap to perform. A handy conversion for is that of lbm/bbl to g/cm3:
1in3

lbm 453.59g 1bbl 1gal 1g
1 × × × 3
× 3 3
=
bbl 1lbm 42gal 231in 2.54 cm 350cm3
Therefore, in a pilot test with 350 ml of fluid, 1 gram of added additive cor-
responds to the addition of 1 lbm of dry additive to 1 barrel of fluid. A similar
conversion shows that 25 ml of liquid additive in 350 ml or fluid corresponds to
3 gallons of additive per barrel of fluid.
7.4.1 Density Calculations
It is frequently necessary to compute the density of a mixture from the amount

of the substances in the mixture. It is also important to be able to calculate
the amount to be added of a given substance in order to increase or decrease
the density of the mixture. The density and specific gravity of some common
substances used in drilling fluids are shown in the following table:
Substance Specific Gravity Density (lbm/gal)

water 1 8.33
Diesel oil 0.86 7.2
bentonite 2.6 21.7
attapulgite 2.89 24.1
sand 2.63 21.9
barite 4.2 35
drilling cuttings 2.6 21.7
cement 3.14 26.2
CaCl2 1.96 13.3
NaCl 2.16 18.0
The assumption that the mixture is ideal, that is, that the volume of the
mixture is equal to the volume of the components (not valid for highly soluble
substances like NaCl in water) facilitates the volume–density calculations. The
relations are: X
Vmix = Vi ,
where Vmix is the volume of the mixture and Vi is the volume of the component
i of the mixture, and
X X
Mmix = ρmix Vmix = Mi = ρi Vi ,

where M is mass and ρ is density. In general, the final density of a mixture of

substances (assuming ideal mixture) is:
P
ρi Vi
ρmix = P .
Vi
Example 28: Calculate the volume and density of a fluid composed of 25 lbm
of bentonite, 60 lbm of barite, and 1 bbl of fresh water.
Solution:
The volume and the mass of the mixture are:

42gal 25lbm 60lbm
Vmix = 1bbl × + + = 44.87gal
1bbl 21.7lbm/gal 35lbm/gal

42gal lbm
Mmix = 1bbl × × 8.33 + 25lbm + 60lbm = 434.9lbm
1bbl gal
434.9lbm
ρmix = = 9.69 lbm/gal
44.87gal
7.4.2 Density Treatment
The density control of a drilling fluid is obtained usually with the use of barium
sulfate (BaSO4) commonly called barite. The specific gravity of pure barite is
4.5, and the average specific gravity of API barite is 4.2 or 35 lbm/gal.
To keep the barite in suspension, a minimum gel strength of 3 lbf/100ft2 is
required and normally obtained with water–bentonite fluid. The bentonite itself
adds viscosity and density to the water.
The most common weight treatment is that of increasing the density of the
fluid by adding barite. Four basic different procedures exist and must be under-
stood. They are:
1. Increase fluid density by adding barite (no volume limit). In this case it is
not necessary to discard part of the original fluid.
2. Increase fluid density by adding barite (volume limit). In this case it is

necessary to discard part of the original fluid before adding barite to the
system. We assume that the final volume is equal to the original volume.
3. Increase fluid density by adding barite and water (no volume limit). In this
case, hydration water is added to avoid increasing the viscosity.

4. Increase fluid density by adding barite and water (volume limit). In this
case it is necessary to discard part of the original fluid before adding
barite and hydration water.
5. Reduce fluid density by adding water and bentonite (no volume limit).
6. Reduce fluid density by adding water and bentonite (volume limit).
7.4.2.1 Increase Density – No Volume Limit – No Hydration Water
Let V1 and ρ1 be respectively the volume and the density of the fluid before
the treatment. The required density of the fluid after treatment is ρ2 . Since
there is no limit for the final volume V2 , no discard of fluid is needed before the
treatment. Using volume and mass continuity we have:
V1 + VB = V2 ,
ρ1 V1 + ρB VB = ρ2 V2 ,
where VB and ρB are respectively the volume and density of the barite. Solving
for VB in terms of V1 we get:
ρ2 − ρ 1
VB = V1 . (7.1)
ρ B − ρ2
The barite is added to the fluid in mass quantity (usually in lbm), and since
mB = ρB VB we can write:
mB = ρB VB . (7.2)
This is the mass of barite needed to add to obtain a fluid with density ρ2 . The
final volume V2 is given by:
V2 = V1 + VB . (7.3)
7.4.2.2 Increase Density – Volume Limit – No Hydration Water
In this case, since the volume is limited (and assumed to be the initial volume
V1), it is necessary to discard a volume Vd before increasing the density. Using
volume and mass continuity we have:
V1 − Vd + VB = V1 → Vd = VB ,
ρ1 V1 − ρ1 Vd + ρB VB = ρ2 V1 .
Note that the discarded volume will be equal to the volume of barite added to
increase the density. Substituting Vd for VB in the second equation and factoring
out Vd we obtain:
ρ2 − ρ1
Vd = VB = V1 . (7.4)
ρB − ρ1
With VB , the mass of barite to be added is given by
mB = ρB VB . (7.5)

7.4.2.3 Increase Density – No Volume Limit – Hydration Water
If barite is added to the mud, a part of the free water in the mud will be adsorbed
by the particles of barite (particle sizes in the silt and fine sand range - 2 µm to
100 µm). The water will come from the fluid and, as consequence, an increase
of viscosity will occur. To avoid this increase in viscosity, a volume of water is
added along with the barite to serve as hydration water, and thus keeping the
viscosity under control. The amount of water added depends on the amount
of barite added. Normally, 2 to 3 gallons of water are required for 100 lbm of
barite.
Let vh be volume of hydration water per mass of barite, and Vw and ρw the
volume and density of the hydration water. Then we have:
V1 + VB + Vw = V2 ,
ρ1 V1 + ρB VB + ρw Vw = ρ2 V2 .
The volume of water and the volume of barite are related by the specific volume
vh :
Vw = mB vh = ρB VB vh .
Substituting this value in the system above we get:
V1 + (1 + ρB vh ) VB = V2 ,
ρ1 V1 + (1 + ρw vh ) ρB VB = ρ2 V2 .
Solving for VB in terms of V1 we get:
ρ2 − ρ1
VB = V1 . (7.6)
(1 + ρw vh ) ρB − (1 + ρB vh ) ρ2
With VB , the mass of barite, volume of water, and the final volume are given by:
mB = ρB VB , (7.7)
Vw = mB vh , (7.8)
V2 = V1 + VB + Vw . (7.9)
7.4.2.4 Increase Density – Volume Limit – Hydration Water
The final volume is V1 , and a volume Vd must be discarded before the treatment.
The continuity equations are:
V1 − Vd + VB + Vw = V1 → Vd = VB + Vw ,
ρ1 V1 − ρ1 Vd + ρB VB + ρw Vw = ρ2 V1 .
Using Vw = ρB VB vh and the first equation above gives:
Vd = (1 + ρB vh ) VB .

Substituting these two results in the second equation and solving for VB results
in:
ρ 2 − ρ1
VB = V1 . (7.10)
(1 + ρw vh ) ρB − (1 + ρB vh ) ρ1
With VB , the volume to discard, the mass of barite, and the volume of hydration
water are:
Vd = (1 + ρB vh ) VB , (7.11)
mB = ρB VB , (7.12)
Vw = mB vh . (7.13)
Example 29: It is required to increase the density of 300 bbl of a drilling mud
from 9.3 ppg to 10.5 ppg. Calculate the amount of barite and the suitable
procedure (discard, hydration water, etc) for the four cases above. (Assume
ρB = 35 ppg, vw = 2.4 gal/100 lbm of barite, and ρw = 8.34 ppg.)
Solution:
Case 1: No volume limit, no hydration water. Using Equations 7.1 to 7.3:
10.5 − 9.3
VB = × 300 bbl = 14.69 bbl
35 − 10.5

lbm 42 gal
mB = 35 × 14.69 bbl × = 21, 600 lbm
gal 1 bbl
V2 = 300 + 14.69 = 314.69 bbl ≈ 315 bbl
Case 2: Volume limit, no hydration water. Using Equations 7.4 and 7.5:
10.5 − 9.3
Vd = VB = × 300 = 14.01 bbl
35 − 9.3
mB = 35 × 14.01 × 42 = 20, 591 lbm
The final volume is equal to the original volume, i.e., 300 bbl.
Case 3: No volume limit, hydration water. Using Equations 7.6, to 7.9:
10.5 − 9.3
VB = 2.4
2.4
× 300 = 15.87 bbl
1 + 8.34 × 100
× 35 − 1 + 35 × 100
× 10.5
mB = 35 × 15.87 × (42) = 23, 328 lbm

2.4
Vw = 23, 328 × = 560 gal = 13.33 bbl
100
V2 = 300 + 15.87 + 13.33 = 329.2 bbl ≈ 329 bll
Note that the volume of barite is larger than in case 1 because its density is
reduced by the hydration water.

Case 4: Volume limit, hydration water. Using Equations 7.10 to 7.13:
10.5 − 9.3
VB = 2.4
2.4
× 300 = 14.46 bbl
1 + 8.34 × 100
× 35 − 1 + 35 × 100
× 9.3
2.4

Vd = 1 + 35 × 100
× 14.46 = 26.6 bbl
mB = 35 × 14.46 × (42) = 21, 258 lbm

2.4
Vw = 21, 258 × = 510 gal = 12.15 bbl
100
7.4.3 Initial Viscosity Treatment
Bentonite is a clay mineral that is composed principally of three–layer clays,

such as montmorillonite, and widely used as a mud additive for viscosity and
filtration control. Commercial bentonite ores vary widely in amount and quality
of the swelling clay, sodium montmorillonite. Ores of lower quality, those with
more calcium–type montmorillonite, are treated during grinding by adding one
or more of the following: sodium carbonate, long–chain synthetic polymers,
carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), starch, or polyphosphate. These help make
the final product meet quality specifications.
Clays, in general when ground to colloidal size (less than 2µm in diameter)
and, mixed with water, form a colloidal suspension that causes the increase
in viscosity and gel strength. Different clays produce different levels of viscos-
ity. The term yield is used to specify the quality of a clay according to the
number of barrels of 15 cP viscosity mud (measured at 600 RPM in a API stan-
dard rotational viscometer) that one ton of the clay would produce (sometimes
it is used 30 cP). Clays can be classified as high–, medium– or low–yield. A
bentonite produces at least 85 bbl of mud per ton. High–yield clays produced
30 to 50 bbl/ton, and low–yield clays produced 15 to 30 bbl/ton. The graph
in Figure 7.14 shows typical performances for different types of clay. We can
clearly see that bentonite can produce large viscosities with low densities. With
the right selection of clay and other additives (like barite) a wide range of vis-
cosity/density can be obtained. It is important to stress that viscosity is also
affected by other additives, and pilot tests are always required to obtain the
correct properties.
Example 30: It is required to produce 350 bbl of a water–base drilling fluid

with 15 cP and 9.4 ppg using premium clay and barite. Specify the amount of
material needed. Assume the same material properties of the Example 29.
Solution:

From the graph in Figure 7.14, we see that premium clay produces 15 cP
mud at the density of 8.94 ppg. We have 3 continuity equations and 1 relation-
ship to solve: Final mud volume and mass equations:
Vw + Vc + Vh + VB = Vm
ρw Vw + ρc Vc + ρw Vh + ρB VB = ρm Vm
Mass of the initial mud (water and premium clay):
ρi (Vw + Vc ) = ρw Vw + ρc Vc
Hydration water requirement:
Vh = ρB VB vh
With numbers (watch out for the units):
Vw + Vc + Vh + VB = 350
8.34 × Vw + 21.7 × Vc + 8.34 × Vh + 35 × VB = 9.4 × 350

Mass of the initial mud (water and premium clay):
8.94 × (Vw + Vc ) = 8.34 × Vw + 21.7 × Vc
Hydration water requirement:

2.4
Vh = 35 × VB ×
100
Solving the system we find:
Vw = 323.21 bbl
Vc = 15.2 bbl
Vh = 5.29 bbl
VB = 6.3 bbl
Therefore, the total water volume, and the mass of clay and barite are:
Vt = 323.21 + 5.29 = 328.5 bbl
mc = 15.2 × 21.7 × (42) = 13, 851 lbm

mB = 6.3 × 35 × (42) = 9, 261 lbm

Figure 7.14: Clay performance for viscosity.


Chapter 8
Rheology and Rheometry
Rheology is the science that study the flow behavior of fluids. Rheometry is the
process or processes to measure the various rheological parameters of a fluid.
Both are important to the study of drilling fluids.
8.1 Rheological Classification of Fluids
All fluids encountered in drilling and production operations can be character-

ized as either Newtonian fluids or non–Newtonian fluids. Newtonian fluids, like
water, gases, and thin oils (high API gravity) show a direct proportional relation-
ship between the shear stress τ and the shear rate γ̇, assuming pressure and
temperature are kept constant. They are mathematically defined by:
τ = µ γ̇ , (8.1)
where τ is shear stress, γ̇ is shear rate. The proportionality coefficient µ is the
(dynamic) viscosity of the fluid. A dimensional analysis shows that dynamic
viscosity has the dimension [F L−2 T ] or [M L−1 T −1 ]. Typical units are Nm2s =
P a s, P (poise in regard to Poiseuille), cP (centipoise), and lbf
f t2
s
. Conversion
factors are:
g
1P=1 ,
cm s
Ns
1 2 = 10 P = 1000 cP ,
m
1 lbf s
1 cP = .
47880.259 ft2
A plot of τ versus γ̇ produces a straight line that passes through the origin
and has a slop µ. Viscosity usually changes with pressure and temperature.
(See Figure 8.1).
Most fluids encountered at drilling operations like drilling mud, cement slur-
ries, heavy oil, and gelled fracturing fluids do not show this direct relation-
ship between shear stress and shear rate. They are characterized as non–
Newtonian fluids. To describe the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids, various

Figure 8.1: Typical graph of Newtonian fluids.
models like the Bingham plastic and the Power Law fluid models (two parame-
ter models), the Herschel–Bulkley and the Robertson–Stiff fluid models, which
are time–independent models. There exist time–dependent fluid models, which
present change of viscosity and other parameters based in time and shear
history. Time–dependent fluids model are sub-classified as thixotropic(time–
thinning) and rheopetic (time-thickening).
It shall be understood that all the models mentioned above are based on
different assumptions that are hardly valid for all drilling operations, thus they
are valid to a certain extend only. Most commonly drilling fluids are treated
behaving either aa a Bingham plastic or a power–law fluid. These two models
can describe relatively well most of the common drilling fluid for all ordinary
drilling operations.
8.1.0.1 Bingham–Plastic Fluid Model:
The Bingham plastic fluid model is a linear model (although not proportional),
and is expressed mathematically as follows.

 τ = τy + µp γ̇ γ̇ > 0
τ = −τy + µp γ̇ γ̇ < 0 (8.2)
γ̇ = 0 −τ y ≤ τ ≤ τy

The constant τy is called the yield point usually denoted “YP” and µy is called
plastic viscosity, usually denoted “PV”. The typical graph of a Bingham plastic
fluid is shown in Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: Typical graph of Bingham-plastic fluids.
8.1.0.2 Power–Law Fluid Model:
The power law fluid model is non–linear and do not present a yield stress, and
can be expressed as follows.
τ = K (γ̇)n

γ̇ ≥ 0
n (8.3)
τ = −K (−γ̇) γ̇ < 0
The constant K is called the consistency index and n is called behavior in-
dex.The typical graph of a power–law fluid is shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: Typical graphs of power–law fluids.
When the plot is done on a log–log scale it results in a straight line. Here
the slope determines the flow behavior index n and the intercept with the verti-
cal the value of the consistency index (log K). The flow behavior index, which
ranges from 0 to 1.0, declares the degree of non–Newtonian behavior, where
n = 1.0 indicates a Newtonian fluid. Mathematically n can be greater than 1.0,
but drilling fluids do not present this characteristic. Another characteristic (er-
roneously shown in the graph) is that the power–law presents an infinite slope
at γ̇ = 0. This, and other experimental results lead to the proposal of other fluid
models. The consistency index K on the other hand gives the thickness fluid,

where larger K represent thicker (more viscous) fluids. It should be under-

stood, however, that K has not the dimension of viscosity. Consistency index
K is usually expressed in equivalent viscosity units.
8.2 Rheometry
To determine the rheological properties of a particular fluid a rotational vis-

cometer or rheometer is commonly used. Rheometers may have two, six, or
continuous (variable) speeds. The typical rotational rheometer (see Figure 7.3
has an arrangement of two concentric cylinders in which the outer cylinder ro-
tates and the inner cylinder actuate a torsion spring with a dial, as depicted in
Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4: Arrangement of a rotational viscometer.
The rotation of the rotor (external cylinder) shears the fluid between the rotor
and the bob (internal cylinder), which transmits torque from the rotor to the bob.
The torque causes a deflection of the dial (proportional to the torque), against
the resistance of the torsion spring. The wide use of rheometers in the field
leaded to the design of special dimensions that made easy the measurement
of fluid parameters.

8.2.1 Viscosity of Newtonian Fluids
The dimensions of the rotor and bob, and the coefficient of the torsion spring
are determined such that the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid in centipoise (cP) is
obtained directly by reading the deflection of the dial in degrees, when the rotor
rotates at 300 rpm.
8.2.2 Parameters of Bingham–Plastic Model Fluids
Two measurements at different rotation speeds are required. The parameters

are obtained with the following formulas (please note the units):
300
µp = (θN 2 − θN 1 ) [cP]
N2 − N1
N1
τy = θ N 1 − µp [lbf/100 ft2 ]
300
Note that any two rotation speeds can be selected, but 300 rpm and 600 rpm
lead to the simplification of the calculation, in addition to cover a range of shear
rates that typically occurs in drilling operations. The simplified expressions for
N1 = 300 rpm and N2 = 600 rpm are:
µp = θ600 − θ300 [cP]
(8.4)
2
τy = θ300 − µp [lbf/100 ft ]
The general formulas are useful to determine the parameters in other ranges
of interest (too small or too large).
8.2.3 Parameters of Power–Law Model Fluids
The parameters are obtained with the following general formulas:

log (θN 2 /θN 1 )
n= [1]
log (N2 /N1 )
510 θN
K= [eq.cP]
(1.703 N )n
Again, any two rotation speeds can be selected. For 300 rpm and 600 rpm the
expressions reduce to:
log (θ600 /θ300 )
n= [1]
log 2
(8.5)
510 θ300
K= [eq.cP]
511n

Example 31: A fluid rheometry test results in dial readings of θ300 = 13 and
θ600 = 22. Calculate the parameters using power–law and Bingham–plastic
models Solution:
(a) Power–law
log (22/13)
n= = 0.759
log 2
510 × 13
K= = 58.3 eq.cP
5110.759
(b) Bingham
µp = 22 − 13 = 9 cP
τy = 13 − 9 = 4 lbf/100 ft2
8.2.4 Gel Strength
Gel strength is the shear stress measured at low shear rate after a mud has
set quiescently for a period of time (10 seconds and 10 minutes in the standard
API procedure, although measurements after 30 minutes or 16 hours may also
be made).
To measure the gel strength a rheometer with low rotary speed (3 rpm) is
needed. The sample is sheared at 600 rpm for a period (1 to 5 minutes) and
set to rest for the determined time (10 seconds or 10 minutes). Then the shear
is applied at 3 rpm and the maximum deflection of the dial is read. The value
indicates the gel strength at 10s or 10m in lbf/100ft2 .

Chapter 9
Flow in Pipes and Annuli
This chapter discuss the flow of fluids, Newtonian and non–Newtonian, both
in pipes and concentric annuli, for the laminar and turbulent regimes. It is as-
sumed also that the flow is steady (not time dependent). We will be primarily
dp
interested in calculating the frictional pressure drop gradient dLf as function of
the flow rate q or vice-versa.
The formulas to be presented are valid for horizontal conduits but since the
flow potential gradient is equal to the frictional pressure drop gradient they can
also be used for inclined and vertical conduit.
To force a fluid to flow inside a horizontal conduit, it is required a pressure
differential between upstream and downstream points along the conduit. Or,
conversely, if a fluid flows on a horizontal conduit, a pressure differential occurs
between an upstream and a downstream points. This pressure differential is
viewed as a friction pressure drop.
9.1 Laminar Flow in Pipes and Annuli
For this, we need to understand the concept of flow potential. Considering the
Bernoulli equation for real flow, we have:
1
ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − ∆pf .

p2 = p1 + ρ g (D2 − D1 ) − (6.1)
2
If there is no pump between points 1 and 2, and if the conduit has constant
cross section, we can write for the friction pressure drop:
∆pf = p1 − p2 + ρ g (D2 − D1 ) = − (∆p − ρ g ∆D) .
For incompressible fluids (constant density) the expression can be written as:
∆pf = −∆ (p − ρ g D) .
The term −∆ (p − ρ g D) is called flow potential, which is responsible for the

flow. In a conduit, it is balanced by the frictional pressure drop as shown in the

equation. If the flow is horizontal, the gravitational term is zero and the friction
pressure drop between two points along the flow path is equal to the pressure
differential between the upstream and downstream points.
What characterizes a fluid is its ability to continuously deform when sub-
mitted to a shear stress τ (some restrictions apply for some non–Newtonian
fluids). The continuous deformation is called shear rate γ̇ and there should
exist a functional relationship between τ and γ̇,
τ = f (γ̇) ,
which characterizes the fluid behavior and is called the rheological model or
constitutive equation of the fluid. Several rheological models were presented in
Chapter 8.
Independently of the rheological model, however, there exist a relationship
involving the forces acting on the flowing fluid, associated directly with the ge-
ometry of the conduit. This is the equilibrium equation of the flow (also called
field equation) and we will be interested in the field equation for pipes and annuli
and open slots.
9.1.1 Equilibrium Equations
The following equilibrium equations can be easily obtained from the balance of
forces acting in an infinitesimal element of fluid. The only forces considered are
due to the pressure between the fluid and its surroundings and shear stresses
between the fluid and conduit. Body forces due to mass are irrelevant for steady
state situations.
9.1.1.1 Equilibrium Equation for Pipes
The equilibrium equation is

1 dpf
τ= r, (9.1)
2 dL
where τ is the shear stress at any radial distance r from the axis of the conduit.
For constant area conduits and incompressible fluids, it is assumed that dpf /dL
is constant. Figure 9.1 (left) shows the velocity profile of laminar flow in pipes.
The dash–dot line corresponds to the axis of the pipe.
9.1.1.2 Equilibrium Equation for Annuli
The equilibrium equation is

1 dpf c
τ= r+ , (9.2)
2 dL r
where τ is the shear stress at any radial distance r from the axis of the conduit,
and c is a constant to be determined. Note that the equilibrium equation for

pipes can be obtained from the equilibrium equation for annuli, in which, since
the radius can be zero, the value of c must be zero. Figure 9.1 (right) shows the
velocity profile of laminar flow in annuli. The dash–dot line corresponds to the
axis of the annulus.
Figure 9.1: Velocity profiles of laminar flow.
9.1.1.3 Equilibrium Equation for (open) Slots
Although an open slot is not a typical cross section for drilling fluid conduits,
in some situations, it is advisable to approximate an annulus by an slot. This
assumption simplifies the expressions for frictional pressure drop gradient for
non-Newtonian fluids. It is usually accepted that slot approximation are accu-
rate enough for annuli in which Di /Do ≥ 30%. By “open” slots we mean that
only the upper and lower surfaces of the slot are subjected to shear stresses.
The lateral surfaces are free of shear stress. The equilibrium equation is
dpf
τ= y. (9.3)
dL
where τ is the shear stress at any distance y from the axis of the slot. Fig-
ure 9.2 shows the velocity profile of laminar flow in a slot. The dash–dot line
corresponds to the plane in the median of the slot.
9.1.2 Continuity Equations
In was seen in Chapter 6 that the average velocity of the fluid in a conduit is
given by
q
v̄ = ,
A
and this expresses the assumption that every “particle” of fluid in a given sec-
tion of the flow has the same velocity. This average velocity is a very good
representation of the flow velocity in a given section if all we want is to calculate

Figure 9.2: Velocity profile of laminar flow in a slot.
the kinetic energy of the fluid at that point of the flow path. Since the velocity
of any interior “particle” of fluid in a cross section is the same, no shear exists
in the fluid. In Figures 9.1 and 9.2, the dotted lines correspond to the average
velocity profile.
However, the real fluid velocity a section varies with the position of the in
the section. In special, the fluid velocity adjacent to the wall of the pipe is zero,
otherwise the shear rate at that point would be infinite. If at the contour of the
section the velocity is zero, and in order to have a non–zero average velocity
(the fluid is flowing), then the flow should present a non–zero continuous veloc-
ity profile inside the cross section. It the velocity profile is known, then the flow
rate can be calculated using the expression
Z
q = v dA
A
where v is the velocity profile of the flow and dA is an infinitesimal area of the
flow cross section.
Due to the axial symmetry of pipes and annuli, we can write dA = 2π r dr.
For pipes we integrate from r = 0 to r = R:
ZR
q = 2π v r dr .
0
If this equation is integrated by parts gives:(Note that v(R) = 0.)

ZR ZR ZR
R dv dv
q = 2π v r dr = πvr2 0 −π r 2
dr = −π r 2
dr . (9.4)
dr dr
0 0 0
For annuli we integrate from r = Ri to r = Ro

ZRo
q = 2π v r dr .
Ri

Integrating by parts gives: [v(Ri ) = v(Ro ) = 0.]
ZRo
2 dv
q = −π r dr . (9.5)
dr
Ri
For slots of width w and thickness t, DA = w dy and we integrate from −t/2

to t/2:
Zt/2
q=w vdy .
−t/2
Integrating by parts gives: [v(−t/2) = v(t/2) = 0.]
Zt/2
dv
q = −w y dy . (9.6)
dy
−t/2
The shear rate is in general defined for pipes annuli as

dv
γ̇ = − .
dr
For slots is is defined as
dv
γ̇ = − .
dy
The minus sign is an arbitrary choice, and its purpose is to produce positive
shear rates in pipes and outer flow regions of annuli and slots. On the other
hand, the inner flow regions for annuli and slots will have negative shear rates.
All expressions so far are completely general and independent of the fluid.
In the following, constitutive equations of fluids are coupled with equilibrium
equations of conduits to produce various flow models. The whole process will
be presented for Newtonian fluids. Only the final expressions will be presented
for non–Newtonian fluids, but the steps are basically the same.
9.1.3 Newtonian Flow in Pipes – Poiseuille’s Equation
A Newtonian fluid is expressed by Equation (8.1)

dv
τ = µ γ̇ = −µ .
dr
Considering the equilibrium equation for flow in pipes [Equation (9.1)] we ob-
tain:
dv 1 dpf
τ = −µ = r,
dr 2 dL
dv 1 dpf
=− r.
dr 2µ dL

To obtain the flow rate (and ultimately the relationship with the pressure drop
gradient) we use the expression for dvdr
and Equation (9.4):
ZR
π dpf π dpf 4
q= r3 dr = R ,
2µ dL 8µ dL
0
The area of the pipe is A = π R2 , and we can write:

A dpf 2
q= R .
8µ dL
dpf
Solving for dL
we obtain the Poiseuille’s equation:
dpf 8µq
= ,
dL A R2
or, in terms of average velocity
dpf 8µv̄ 32µv̄
= 2 = . (9.7)
dL R D2
In field units this expression is written as:

dpf µv̄
= , (9.8)
dL 1500 D2
dpf
for dL
in psi, µ in cP, v̄ in ft/s, and D in inches.1
9.1.4 Newtonian Flow in Concentric Annuli – Lamb’s Equa-

tion
Considering the equilibrium equation for flow in annuli [Equation (9.2)] we ob-
tain:
dv 1 dpf c
τ = −µ = r+ ,
dr 2 dL r

dv 1 dpf C
=− r + .
dr 2µ dL r
Separating variables and integrating, and considering that for pipes the velocity
is zero for r = Ri , we obtain:
Zv(r) Zr
1 dpf C
dv = − r + dr ,
2µ dL r
0 Ri
1 dpf 2 r
r − Ri2 − C ln

v(r) = − .
4 µ dL Ri
1
A more accurate figure for the conversion factor is 1496.26.

Using the fact that v(R0 ) = 0, we can determine the value of the constant C:
1 dpf Ro
Ro2 − Ri2 − C ln

v(Ro ) = 0 = − ,
4 µ dL Ri
1 dpf Ro2 − Ri2
C=− (9.9)
4µ dL ln RRoi
dv
To obtain the flow rate we again use the expression for dr
and Equation (9.5):
ZRo
1 dpf 3
q=π r +C r dr ,
2µ dL
Ri

1 dpf C
Ro2 Ri2 Ro2 Ri2

q=π − + +
8µ dL 2
Since π (Ro2 − Ri2 ) is the area of the annulus, and using the definition of
the average velocity for annuli and the value of the constant C [Equation (9.9)]
yields: !
2 2
1 dpf R −R
v̄ = Ro2 + Ri2 − o Ro i
8µ dL ln Ri
dpf
Solving for dL
,results in the Lamb’s equation:
!
1 dpf R2 − R2
v̄ = Ro2 + Ri2 − o Ro i
8µ dL ln Ri
dpf 8µv̄ 32µv̄

= Ro2 −Ri2
= Do2 −Di2
(9.10)
dL Ro2 + Ri2 − Do2 + Di2 −
ln R
Ri
o ln D
D
o
i

dpf µv̄
= , (9.11)
dL Do2 −Di2
1500 Do2 + Di2 − ln D o
D i
dpf
for dL
in psi, µ in cP, v̄ in ft/s, and Do and Di in inches.
Example 32: A 9 lbm/gal Newtonian fluid having a viscosity of 15 cp is being

circulated in a 10,000 ft well containing a 7 in ID casing and a 5 in OD, 19.5 lb/ft
drill pipe at a rate of 250 gal/min. Compute the pump pressure and the equiv-
alent circulation density (ECD) at the bottom of the well. Assume laminar flow
regime, and slick drill pipes (no effect of tool joints.
Solution:

The pump pressure in a typical circulation system is governed by Equation (6.10),
∆pp = ∆pb + ∆pf , (6.10)
where ∆pf = (∆pf )ds + (∆pf )ann . There is no bit (∆pb = 0), and we need the
frictional pressure drop along the drillstring and along the annulus. Then we
have:
Pressure drop gradient in the drillstring: [Equation (9.8)]
231 in3

q 250 gal/min 1 min 1 ft
v̄ = = π × × × = 5.585 ft/s
A 4
× (4.276 in)2 1 gal 60 s 12 in

dpf 15 × 5.585
= = 0.00305477 psi/ft
dL ds 1500 × 4.2762
The pressure drop across the drillstring is
(∆pf )ds = 10, 000 ft × 0.00305477 psi/ft = 30.55 psi
Pressure drop gradient in the annulus: [Equation (9.11)]

250 231
v̄ = π × = 4.255 f t/s
4
× (72 − 52 ) 60 × 12

dpf 15 × 4.255
= = 0.015927psi/ft
dL ds
2
1500 72 + 52 − 7ln−57
2
The pressure drop across the annulus is
(∆pf )ann = 10, 000 ft × 0.015927 psi/ft = 159.27 psi
The total frictional pressure drop is
∆pf = 30.55 + 159.27 = 189.82 psi ≈ 190 psi
The ECD is the density of a fictitious fluid whose hydrostatic pressure is equal
to the circulating pressure at a given depth. The circulating pressure at the
bottom is obtained using the Bernoulli’s Equation:
p2 = p1 + 0.0519 ρ (D2 − D1 ) − 8.073 × 10−4 ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − ∆pf , (6.2)

0 = p1 + 0.0519 × 9 × (0 − 10, 000) − 159.27 → p1 = 4830 psi

The ECD is given by:
4830 = 0.0519 × ECD × 10, 000 → ECD = 9.31 ppg

9.1.5 Slot Approximation for Newtonian Fluids
Lamb’s equation is an explicit exact formulation for the flow of Newtonian fluids
in concentric annulus. The purpose of this section is to obtain the slot approx-
imation, and compare it with the exact formulation. The reason is to establish
the procedure to be applied for non–Newtonian fluids since, in general, models
for flow in annulus for non-Newtonian fluids result in implicit formulation.
A slot approximation of an annulus is such that the thickness t of the slot is
equal to the radial clearance of the annulus, and the areas are equal. This is
shown in Figure 9.3. Therefore, the thickness and width of an approximating
slot are given by:
t = (Ro − Ri ) ,
w = π (Ro + Ri ) .
Considering the equilibrium equation for flow in annuli [Equation (9.3)] we

obtain:
dv dpf
τ = −µ = y ,
dy dL
dv 1 dpf
=− y.
dy µ dL
dv
To obtain the flow rate we use the expression for dy
and Equation (9.6):
Zt/2
w dpf w dpf 3
q= y 2 dy = t ,
µ dL 12µ dL
−t/2
dpf
Solving for dL
and using average velocity we obtain:
dpf 12µv̄
= 2 ,
dL t
Using t = Ro − Ri gives
dpf 12µv̄ 48µv̄
= 2 = . (9.12)
dL Ro − Ri2
(Do − Di )2
Figure 9.3: Slot approximation of an annulus.


dpf µv̄
= , (9.13)
dL 1000 (Do − Di )2
dpf
for dL
in psi, µ in cP, v̄ in ft/s, and Do and Di in inches.2
Example 33: Calculate the frictional pressure drop in the annulus of Exam-
ple 32 using the slot approximation model and compare the results.
Solution: Using the Equation (9.13) we have:
dpf 15 × 4.225
= = 0.015957 psi/f t
dL 1000 × (7 − 5)2
The pressure drop for 10,000 ft is
(∆p )ann = 10, 000 ft × 0.015957 psi/ft = 159.56 psi
Comparing with the result using exact approximation (159.27 psi) we see that
the difference is of less than 0.2%.
9.1.6 Pressure Drop Gradient for Non–Newtonian Fluids
The derivation of the expressions for the pressure drop gradient in pipes and
annuli (slot approximation) for both power–law and Bingham–plastic fluids is be-
yond the scope of this work. The derivations, however follow basically the same
steps presented before (for pipes and slot approximation), with some peculiari-
ties, which result in the expressions presented next. One peculiarity (shared by
all fluid models that present yield point) is the fact that for Bingham–plastic fluid
model there exist a region of the cross section where the fluid moves as a plug
(no shear between the adjacent layers).
9.1.6.1 Pressure Drop Gradient for Power–Law Fluids in Pipes
The expression in field units is:

n
K v̄ n

dpf 3n + 1
= 24 (9.14)
dL 143, 640 Dn+1 n
dp
for dLf in psi, K in equivalent centipoises, v̄ in ft/s, and D in inches (n is dimen-
sionless).
2
A more accurate figure for the conversion factor is 997.51.

9.1.6.2 Pressure Drop Gradient for Power–Law Fluids in Annuli (Slot Ap-
proximation)

n
K v̄ n

dpf 2n + 1
= 48 (9.15)
dL 143, 640 (Do − Di )n+1 n
dpf
for dL
in psi, K in equivalent centipoises, v̄ in ft/s, and Do and Di in inches.
9.1.6.3 Pressure Drop Gradient for Bingham–Plastic Fluids in Pipes

dpf µp v̄ τy
= 2
+ (9.16)
dL 1500 D 225 D
dpf
for dL
in psi, µp in cP, τy in lbf/100 ft2 , v̄ in ft/s, and D in inches.
9.1.6.4 Pressure Drop Gradient for Bingham–Plastic Fluids in Annuli (Slot

Approximation)

dpf µp v̄ τy
= 2 + (9.17)
dL 1000 (Do − Di ) 200 (Do − Di )
dpf
for dL
in psi, µp in cP, τy in lbf/100 ft2 , v̄ in ft/s, and Do and Di in inches.
Example 34: Calculate the pressure loss across a 10,000 ft long annulus with
8.5 in OD, 5 in ID. The fluid follows a power–law model with behavior index of
0.3, and consistency index of 850 eq.cP. The flow rate is 250 gpm (assume
laminar flow.)
Solution:
The average velocity is:

231 250
v̄ = π = 2.161 ft/s
60 × 12 4
(8.52 − 52 )
0.3
850 × 2.1610.3

dpf 2 × 0.3 + 1
= 48 = 0.00772 psi/ft
dL 143, 640 × (8.5 − 5)0.3+1 0.3
∆pf = 10, 000 × 0.00772 = 77.22 psi

9.2 Turbulent Flow in Pipes and Annuli
All formulas for fluid flow in the previous section were developed assuming that
the flow is laminar. In a laminar flow, the “particles” of the fluid move in orderly
layers (laminae), although the velocities may change between those layers.
The particle velocities along the conduit change with regularity, and there is no
eddies or streamline crosses. If a dye is carefully poured in the flow it flows as
a streamline. On the other hand, in a turbulent flow, particles follows irregular
paths, with large change in velocity and flow direction compared with other near
particles. Eddies and vortices may occur, and if a dye is poured in the flow, it
promptly looses it streamline shape and get mixed with the flowing fluid. Factors
that govern the laminar flow are:
1. the velocity of the fluid,
2. its density, and
3. the size, shape, and surface roughness of the conduit.
There is a transition between laminar and turbulent flow. In these transition

periods or regions, the flow is normally turbulent in the central portion of the
flow section but may remain laminar close to the boundaries.
Flow equations for laminar flow exist for various conduit shapes and fluid
types. However, analytical mathematical models for turbulent flow have not yet
been suitably developed.
Studies of turbulent flow of Newtonian fluids in pipe have been extensively
done. Most results are empirical and the subject is still not exhausted, although
the results are quite accurately. Treatment for other geometries (annulus, open
channels, slots, etc), and also for non-Newtonian fluids is normally made by
some analogy with Newtonian fluid in pipes. Therefore, it is important to study
the latter case in detail, and then to extend the results for other cases (in par-
ticular to those related to drilling engineering).
9.2.1 Turbulent Flow of Newtonian Fluids in Pipes
9.2.1.1 Reynolds Number
An important step is to determine or at least to evaluate the boundary between

laminar and turbulent flow.
In a series of classical experiments in 1883, Reynolds3 showed that the
flow would remain laminar (continuous dye streak) if a dimensionless group
3
Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912), scientist, engineer.

now called Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000, and that the flow will be
turbulent if Re greater than 3000. The Reynolds number is given by
ρ v̄ D
Re = , (9.18)
µ
where D is the diameter of the pipe in cm (glass pipe in Reynolds experiments),

v̄ is the average velocity of the fluid in the conduit in cm/s, ρ is the density in
g/cm3 , and µ is the dynamic viscosity in poises. A dimensional analysis will
confirm that the expression is dimensionless:
In field units the expression for the Reynolds number is:
ρ v̄ D
Re = 928 , (9.19)
µ
for D in inches, v̄ in ft/s, ρ in lbm/gal, and µ in cP. Another common notation for
Reynolds number is NRE .
The value of Re for a particular situation serves as an indicative of the flow
regime. In most scenarios the ranges [0 to 2000] for laminar, [2000 to 3000] for
transitional, and [3000 to infinite) are reasonably correct.
Example 35: Determine the flow pattern for a brine of 8.9 ppg and 1.1 cP
flowing inside a 5 in drillpipe (4.276 in ID) at 480 gpm.
Solution:
The average velocity is:

231 480
v̄ = π = 10.73 ft/s
60 × 12 4
× 4.2762
8.9 × 10.73 × 4.276

Re = 928 = 252, 630
1.5
Note that the Reynolds number is far above 3000, which indicates that the flow
inside the drillpipe is clearly turbulent.
9.2.1.2 Friction Factor, Fanning Equation, and Colebrook Equation
When a fluid flows in a pipe, the resistance to the flow, measured by the pres-
sure drop gradient, is caused by the effect of the boundary of the pipe (its
internal wall) upon the fluid, more specifically, by the shearing stress occurring
in the the fluid in contact with the pipe wall.
A dimensionless group that relates shear stress τ at the surface between a
length of fluid in a circular conduit and the specific kinetic energy ek (energy per

Figure 9.4: Fluid particle flowing in a pipe.
unit of volume) is the friction factor f (because it relates the resistance to flow
to the velocity of flow), which is defined by the following relation:
τ
f= (9.20)
ek
Figure 9.4 shows a fluid element of length ∆L flowing with average velocity
v̄ = q/Ap .
The force equilibrium in the flow direction results in the following expression
relating the shear stress and the pressure drop gradient:

X dpf
0= F = Pp − P − ∆L p − τ Ac ,
dL
where Ap = π4 D2 is the cross–sectional area of the pipe and Ac = π D ∆L is

the lateral area of the fluid element. Simplifying we obtain:
1 dpf
τ= D.
4 dL
The specific kinetic energy ek of the fluid element is:
1
Ek m v̄ 2 1
ek = = 2
= ρ v̄ 2 .
V V 2
where ρ is the density of the fluid. Substituting these two expressions into the
expression for the friction factor and solving for the pressure drop gradient we
obtain:
1 dpf
τ 4 dL
D 1 dpf D
f= = 1 = ,
ek 2
ρ v̄ 2 2 dL ρ v̄ 2
dpf 2 ρ v̄ 2
= f. (9.21)
dL D
This is called the Fanning equation. In field units we have
dpf ρ v̄ 2
= f, (9.22)
dL 25.8 D

Figure 9.5: Stanton chart.
dpf
for dL
in psi/ft, ρ in lbm/gal, v̄ in ft/s, and D in inches.
If we compare (and equate) the Fanning equation with Equation (9.7) (Poiseuille’s
equation) we obtain:
dpf 32 µ v̄ 2 ρ v̄ 2
= = f,
dL D2 D
16 µ 16
f= = (9.23)
ρ v̄ D Re
This expression for the friction factor f is valid only if the flow is laminar.
For turbulent flow, however, the friction factor must be determined exper-
imentally. Extensive series of experiments performed by Nikuradse in 1933
resulted in an empirical correlation obtained by Colebrook 4 for the friction fac-
tor f , which depends on the Reynolds number Re and on the pipe relative
roughness D , where is the absolute roughness (the average depth of the
microscopic irregularities of the internal surface of the pipe). The empirical
correlation called modified Colebrook equation, is an implicit formula given by:

1 /D 1.255 1
√ = −4 log10 + √ . (9.24)
f 3.7 Re f
This implicit expression requires an iterative solution.
A log–log plot of this expression for various values of relative roughness,
called Stanton chart, is shown in Figure 9.5.
The solution of the implicit expression, however results in much more accu-
rate values for the friction factor and should. The Stanton chart also include the
curve for the friction factor for laminar flow.
4
Cyril Frank Colebrook, “Turbulent flow in pipes”

Example 36: Calculate the friction factor with four figures for Re = 125, 500
and (/D) = 0.0037. Compare the result with the Stanton chart.
Solution:
Substituting the value for the Reynolds number and relative roughness into
the modified Colebrook equation, and simplifying we obtain:

1 0.0037 1.255 1
√ = −4 log10 + √
f 3.7 125, 500 f
Any value can be used to start the iterative process. A reasonable guess is
16 16
f0 = = = 0.00012749
Re 125500
Starting and proceeding the iterations we obtain:
→ f f →
0.0001275 0.0084196
0.0084196 0.0071572
0.0071572 0.0071746
0.0071746 0.0071744
0.0071744 0.0071744
f = 0.0071744
Comparing this value with the Stanton chart we notice that a much higher de-
gree of accuracy is obtained with the iterative procedure.
In most drilling situations, the relative roughness is less than 0.0004 and the
Reynolds number is less than 100,000. For these conditions we can consider
the flow as occurring in a hydraulically smooth pipe, and the simplified equation
is
1 1.255 1
√ = −4 log10 √ . (9.25)
f Re f
Attention: It is common in the industry another definition of friction factor
whose value is four times the value obtained with the modified Colebrook equa-
tion. The log-log plot of this friction factor is called the Moody chart. If this chart
is used to obtain the friction factor, it must be divided by four before it is is used
in the pressure drop gradient formula obtained previously.
9.2.1.3 Alternative Expressions for the Friction Factor
Blasius Formula– An approximation for the friction factor for 2100 < Re <
100000 and hydraulic smooth pipes was presented by Blasius, and is given by:
0.0791
f= . (9.26)
Re0.25

This expression is shown in the Stanton chart (Figure 9.5), where the curves
for the various relative roughnesses converge to the Blasius approximation in
the range mentioned.
The range of applicability of Blasius’s approximation covers quite well most
conditions in drilling. If this expression is used in Equation (9.21) (Fanning
equation) gives:
dpf 2 ρ v̄ 2 0.0791 2 ρ v̄ 2 0.0791 µ0.25 ρ0.75 v̄ 1.75

= = 0.25 = 0.1582 .
dL D Re0 .25 D D1.75

ρ v̄ D
µ
Expressing v̄ in terms of flow rate we obtain:
dpf µ0.25 ρ0.75 q 1.75

= 0.2414 . (9.27)
dL D4.75
dpf µ0.25 ρ0.75 q 1.75
= . (9.28)
dL 8624 D4.75
dp
for dLf in psi/ft, µ in cP, ρ in ppg, q in gpm, and D in inches. This expression for
the frictional pressure drop gradient for turbulent flow in pipes was the motiva-
tion of the general expression
∆pf = c q m
used to determine the total frictional pressure drop in our study of nozzle op-
timization. The reason for using "m" in place of the “theoretical” value 1.75 is
for the various different flow regime (turbulent, laminar, transition) that occurs
in the circulation system.
Swamee–Jain Formula– Another explicit expression for the friction factor is

given by Swamee–Jain for 10−6 < D < 10−2 and 5, 000 < Re < 108, 000 which
differs less than 1% from the value obtained with the modified Colebrook implicit
formula:
1
f=h i2 . (9.29)
/D 5.74
4 log10 3.7 + Re0.9
Example 37: Calculate the pressure loss across a 5,000 ft of 5 in OD, 4.276 in
ID drillstring. The fluid (assumed Newtonian) has density 9.3 ppg and viscosity
20 cP. The flow rate is 370 gpm. Calculate the friction factor using (a) the
modified Colebrook formula, (b) the Blasius approximation, and (c) the Swamee
and Jain explicit formula.
Solution:

The first step is to confirm if the flow is turbulent. The average velocity inside
the pipe is:
231 370
v̄ = π = 8.266 ft/s
60 × 12 4 × 4.2762
9.3 × 8.266 × 4.276
Re = 928 = 15, 253
20
This in an indication that the flow is turbulent.
(a) Assuming smooth pipe, we determine by iterative calculation the value for
the Colebrook friction factor:

1 1.255 1
√ = −4 log10 √
f 15, 253 f
16
Starting with f0 = 15253
= 0.0010490, and proceeding iteratively we obtain:
→ f f →
0.0010490 0.0092807
0.0092807 0.0066380
0.0066380 0.0069644
0.0069644 0.0069162
0.0069162 0.0069231
0.0069231 0.0069221
0.0069221 0.0069223
0.0069223 0.0069222
0.0069222 0.0069222
f = 0.0069222
In this case (Colebrook) the frictional pressure drop gradient using Equation (9.22)
(Fanning equation) is
dpf ρ v̄ 2 9.3 × 8.2662

= f= × 0.0069222 = 0.03987 psi/ft ,
dL 25.8 D 25.8 × 4.276
and the pressure drop for 5,000 ft is:
∆pf = 5, 000 × 0.03987 = 199 psi
(b) Using the formula resulting from Blasius approximation [Equation (9.27)] we
have:
dpf µ0.25 ρ0.75 q 1.75 200.25 × 9.30.75 × 3701.75
= = = 0.04100
dL 8624 D4.75 8624 × 4.2764.75
∆pf = 5, 000 × 0.04100 = 205 psi

Figure 9.6: Selection of the correct pressure drop value.
(c) Using Swamee and Jain approximation [Equation (9.29)] we have:

1
f= 2 = 0.0069163
0 5.74
4 log10 3.7
+ 152530.9
In this case the frictional pressure drop gradient using Equation (9.22) is
dpf 9.3 × 8.2662

= × 0.0069163 = 0.03984 psi/ft ,
dL 25.8 × 4.276
∆pf = 5, 000 × 0.03984 = 199 psi
9.2.2 Criterion for Laminar – Transition – Turbulent Flow
One of the questions usually raises is the criterion for laminar, transition, and
turbulent flow for pressure drop calculation. The best procedure is to calculate
the friction factor using the laminar relation, and using one of the turbulent
friction factors (Colebrook, Blasius, Swamee and Jain, etc) and use the larger
to obtain the frictional pressure drop gradient using the Fanning formula. This
is depicted in the graph in Figure 9.6.
In fact, it suffices to select the larger of the friction factors and use Fanning
equation.

It is important to stress that this approach does not determine the correct
flow regime. In some situations, as for example in cementing operations, it is
desirable that during the cement displacement the flow regime of the flush5 in
the annulus is turbulent.
9.2.3 Other Geometries – Turbulent Flow in Annuli (Newto-

nian)
A large amount of experimental data has been obtained for pipes, but relatively
few have been obtained for other geometries, in special for annuli. There are
several empirical procedures to apply the results for pipes to other geometries.
All these empirical procedures try to determine an equivalent pipe diameter
Deq of the flow cross section geometry, and use this value to determine the
equivalent Reynolds number and in the Fanning equation. Note, however, that
the average velocity must be calculated using the real area of the cross section.
Three criteria are used to determine the equivalent diameter Deq :
1. The hydraulic radius
2. Exact annulus to pipe analogy
3. Slot annulus to pipe analogy
9.2.3.1 Hydraulic Radius
One approach to calculate pressure drop for other conduit geometries is using
the hydraulic radius concept. The hydraulic radius rH is defined as the ratio of
the area of flow to the wetted perimeter. For a circular pipe, the hydraulic radius
is:
π R2 R D
(rH )pipe = = = .
2πR 2 4
For a concentric annulus, the hydraulic radius is:
π (Ro2 − Ri2 ) Ro − Ri Do − Di
(rH )annulus = = = .
2 π (Ro + Ri ) 2 4
The concept states that “sections with the same hydraulic radius are equiv-
alent for turbulent flow calculation purposes.” Therefore, equivalent diameter
is
Deq = Do − Di . (9.30)
5
The flush is a special fluid displaced in front of the cement to help remove mud and mud
cake in the annulus to improve the bonding between the cement sheath and the formation.

9.2.3.2 Exact Annulus to Pipe Analogy
An equivalent diameter is obtained if we compare (and equate) Equation (9.7)

for pressure drop in pipes (Poiseuille’s equation) with Equation (9.10) for pres-
sure drop in annuli (Lamb’s equation). The purpose is to determine the diame-
ter of the pipe that will produce the same pressure drop gradient for the same
average velocity (for laminar flow).
dpf 32µv̄ 32µv̄
= 2
= D2 −D2
.
dL D Do2 + Di2 − lno Do i
Di
Therefore, the equivalent diameter is:

s
Do2 − Di2
Deq = Do2 + Di2 − . (9.31)
ln D o
Di
9.2.3.3 Slot Annulus to Pipe Analogy
In this criterion (useful for non–Newtonian fluids) we compare (and equate)

Equation (9.7) for pressure drop in pipes (Poiseuille’s equation) with Equa-
tion (9.12) for slot approximation of the pressure drop in annuli.
dpf 32µv̄ 48µv̄
= = .
dL D 2
(Do − Di )2
Therefore, the equivalent diameter is:

r
2
Deq = (Do − Di ) = 0.8165 (Do − Di ) . (9.32)
3
Example 38: Calculate the frictional pressure drop gradient using the three
criteria above for the following flow condition: 9.2 ppg brine with 8 cP viscosity,
circulating in an annulus of 81 /2 in OD and 5 in ID, at a flow rate of 280 gpm.
Use the Blasius formula for the friction factor. (Compare with the friction factor
for laminar flow.)
Solution:
The average velocity in the annulus is:

231 280
v̄ = π = 2.421 ft/s
60 × 12 4 × (8.52 − 52 )
a) Hydraulic radius criterion:
Deq = Do − Di = 8, 5 − 5 = 3.5 in

9.2 × 2.421 × 3.5

Re = 928 = 9043
8
0.0791 0.0791
f= 0.25
= = 0.008111
Re 90430.25
16
Comparing with laminar, f = 9043
= 0.001769, we see that turbulent dominates.
dpf ρ v̄ 2 9.2 × 2.4212

= f= × 0.008111 = 0.004844 psi/ft
dL 25.8 D 25.8 × 3.5
b) Exact annulus to pipe analogy:

s s
D2 − D2 8.52 − 52
Deq = Do2 + Di2 − o Do i = 8.52 + 52 − = 2.864 in
ln Di ln 8.5
5
9.2 × 2.421 × 2.864

Re = 928 = 7400
8
0.0791 16
f= 0.25
= 0.008529 > = 0.002162
7400 7400
dpf 9.2 × 2.4212
= × 0.008529 = 0.006224 psi/ft
dL 25.8 × 2.864
c) Slot annulus to pipe analogy:

r r
2 2
Deq = (Do − Di ) = (8.5 − 5) = 2.858 in
3 3
9.2 × 2.421 × 2.858

Re = 928 = 7384
8
0.0791 16
f= 0.25
= 0.008533 > = 0.002167
7384 7384
dpf 9.2 × 2.4212
= × 0.008533 = 0.006240 psi/ft
dL 25.8 × 2.858
9.2.4 Turbulent Flow for Non–Newtonian Fluids
Turbulent flow for non–Newtonian fluids is treated by analogy with the results
for Newtonian fluids. The approach is similar for Bingham–plastic fluids and
power–law fluids.
The key problem is to determine the Reynolds number and the criterion for
turbulence.

9.2.4.1 Pressure Drop Gradient for Bingham Fluids
To calculate the Reynolds number we need to determinate an apparent viscos-

ity for the fluid at a given condition. One approach is comparing the expressions
for the pressure drop gradient for Newtonian and Bingham fluids and determine
the apparent Newtonian viscosity µa that would cause the same pressure drop
gradient (for laminar flow). The strategy is to determine the viscosity of a New-
tonian fluid that would cause the same pressure drop as the Bingham fluid
under the same flow conditions.
Bingham Fluids in Pipes: Comparing and equating Equation (9.8) (Poiseuille’s

equation in field units) with Equation (9.16) (pressure drop gradient in pipes for
Bingham fluids) gives:
µv̄ µp v̄ τy
= +
1500 D2 1500 D2 225 D
Solving for the dynamic viscosity and renaming for apparent viscosity µa we
obtain:
τy D
µa = µp + 6.66 (9.33)
v̄
The apparent viscosity is used to calculate the Reynolds number and then
the friction factor using the same procedure for Newtonian fluids, and then the
pressure drop gradient using Fanning equation.
Bingham Fluids in Annulus: Comparing and equating Equation (9.13) (pres-

sure drop gradient in annuli for Newtonian fluids – slot approximation), with
Equation (9.17) (pressure drop gradient in annuli for Bingham fluids – slot ap-
proximation) gives:
µv̄ µp v̄ τy
2 = 2 +
1000 (Do − Di ) 1000 (Do − Di ) 200 (Do − Di )
Note that here we opted in using the slot approximation formula for Newtonian
fluid for consistency, since there is no explicit exact formula for Bingham fluid in
annuli.
obtain:
τy (Do − Di )
µa = µp + 5 (9.34)
v̄
For consistency also, we should choose to use the equivalent diameter for
annulus based on the slot approximation [Equation (9.32)].
The apparent viscosity and the equivalent diameters are used to calculate
the Reynolds number, and then the friction factor using the same procedure for
Newtonian fluids, and then the pressure drop gradient using Fanning equation.

Example 39: Calculate the frictional pressure drop gradient for the following
flow condition: 10 ppg Bingham fluid with µp = 40 cP and τy = 15 100lbfft2 , circu-
lating in an annulus of 63 /4 in OD by 41 /2 in ID, at a flow rate of 600 gpm. Use
the Colebrook formula for the friction factor (assume smooth pipe).
Solution:

231 600
v̄ = π = 9.683 ft/s
60 × 12 4 × (6.752 − 4.52 )
The apparent viscosity for the fluid at this flow conditions is:
τy (Do − Di ) 15 × (6.75 − 4.5)
µa = µp + 5 = 40 + 5 × = 57.43 cP
v̄ 9.683
The equivalent diameter is:
r r
2 2
Deq = (Do − Di ) = (6.75 − 4.5) = 1.837 in
3 3
The Reynolds number is:
ρ v̄ Deq 10 × 9.683 × 1.837
Re = 928 = 928 × = 2874
µa 57.43
16
The laminar friction factor is f = 2874 = 0.0056672. This is used to start the iter-
ative process and to compare with the converging value. Using the Colebrook
equation for smooth pipe [Equation (9.25)] we have:

1 1.255 1
√ = −4 log10 √
f 2874 f
Proceeding iteratively gives:
→ f f →
0.0056672 0.0124949
0.0124949 0.0107768
0.0107768 0.0110702
0.0110702 0.0110160
0.0110160 0.0110259
0.0110259 0.0110241
0.0110241 0.0110244
0.0110244 0.0110244
f = 0.0110244
The pressure drop gradient is:
dpf ρ v̄ 2 10 × 9.6832
= f= × 0.0110244 = 0.2181 psi/ft
dL 25.8 Deq 25.8 × 1.837

9.2.4.2 Pressure Drop Gradient for Power–Law Fluids
Here a procedure similar to Bingham fluids is conducted. The only difference is

that the Colebrook formula (and consequently Blasius and Swamee–Jain) does
not provide an accurate calculation of the friction factor. An special formulation
is Needed.
The friction factor must be calculated with the following implicit formula:
1 4 n 0.395
√ = 0.75 log10 Re f 1− 2 − 1.2 (9.35)
f n n
This implicit formula was developed by Dodge and Metzner for hydraulic smooth
pipe, and is acceptable for most drilling situations.
Power–Law Fluids in Pipes: We calculate the apparent viscosity equating

Equation (9.8) (Poiseuille’s equation in field units) with Equation (9.14) (pres-
sure drop gradient in pipes for power–law fluids):
n
K v̄ n

µv̄ 3n + 1
= 24
1500 D2 143, 640 Dn+1 n
obtain: n
K v̄ n−1

3n + 1
µa = 24 (9.36)
95.9 Dn−1 n
The apparent viscosity is used to calculate the Reynolds number and then
the friction factor using Dodge and Metzner formula, and then the pressure drop
gradient using Fanning equation.
Power–Law Fluids in Annulus: We calculate the apparent viscosity equat-

ing Equation (9.13) (pressure drop gradient in annuli for Newtonian fluids –
slot approximation) with Equation (9.15) (pressure drop gradient in annuli for
power–law fluids – slot approximation):
n
K v̄ n

µv̄ 2n + 1
= 48
1000 (Do − Di )2 143, 640 (Do − Di )n+1 n
Again we need to use the slot approximation formula for Newtonian fluid for
consistency, since there is no explicit exact formula for power–law fluid in annuli.
obtain: n
K v̄ n−1

2n + 1
µa = 48 (9.37)
143.9 (Do − Di )n−1 n
Again we should choose to use the equivalent diameter for annulus based
on the slot approximation [Equation (9.32)].

The apparent viscosity and the equivalent diameters are used to calculate
the Reynolds number, and then the friction factor using Dodge and Metzner
formula, and then the pressure drop gradient using Fanning equation.
Example 40: Calculate the frictional pressure drop gradient for the following
flow condition: 10 ppg fluid with K = 205eq cP and n = 0.7885, circulating in an
annulus of 63 /4 in OD by 41 /2 in ID, at a flow rate of 600 gpm. (The fluid has the
same θ600 and θ300 of Example 39.) Solution:

231 600
v̄ = π = 9.683 ft/s
60 × 12 4 × (6.752 − 4.52 )
The apparent viscosity for the fluid at this flow conditions is:
n
K v̄ n−1

2n + 1
µa = 48 =
143.9 (Do − Di )n−1 n
0.785
205 × 9.6830.7885−1

2 × 0.7885 + 1
= 48 × = 56.34 cP
143.9 (6.75 − 4.5)0.7885−1 0.7885
The equivalent diameter is:
r r
2 2
Deq = (Do − Di ) = (6.75 − 4.5) = 1.837 in
3 3
The Reynolds number is:
ρ v̄ Deq 10 × 9.683 × 1.837
Re = 928 = 928 × = 2930
µa 56.34
16
The laminar friction factor is f = 2874 = 0.0054608. This is used to start the
iterative process and to compare with the converging value. Using the (Dodge
and Metzner) equation [Equation (9.35)] we have:
1 4
1− 0.7885
0.395
√ = 0.75
log 10 2930 × f 2 −
f 0.7885 0.78851.2
Proceeding iteratively gives:
→ f f →
0.0054608 0.0110749
0.0110749 0.0092606
0.0092606 0.0096750
0.0096750 0.0095711
0.0095711 0.0095966
0.0095966 0.0095903
0.0095903 0.0095918
0.0095918 0.0095915
0.0095915 0.0095915

f = 0.0095915
The pressure drop gradient is:
dpf ρ v̄ 2 10 × 9.6832
= f= × 0.0095915 = 0.1898 psi/ft
dL 25.8 Deq 25.8 × 1.837


Chapter 10
Drilling Bits
The bit is the active drilling tool. Different from any other drilling equipment, it
is designed to perform (drill a length of formation in an economical time), and
eventually it wears out and is discarded. The average life of bits (depending
on the diameter and drilling conditions) can be as short as hours and they may
cost tens of thousand Dollars.
The drill bit performance is a very important issue in drilling design and
operation. There is an extremely large variety of bit types and models made
currently by the bit industry, each one suitable to one or more different kind of
rocks and drilling conditions. Formation rocks can be roughly classified as
1. Soft (low compressive strength, high drillability).
2. Medium soft/hard (low compressive strength, medium drillability).
3. Hard (high compressive strength. low drillability).
4. Abrasive (high compressive strength, low drillability).
5. Plastic (low compressive strength, low drillability).
Drill bit selection is in general a complicated process but, when performed prop-
erly, has a major impact on the total well cost. First in this chapter, the different
types of drill bits are discussed. Then, applying their classification and wear
considerations, a drill bit selection is presented. Finally, various parameters
that influence the rate of penetration are discussed.
10.1 Drill Bit Types
Different bits perform differently in different rocks. Bits can be generally classi-
fied in two major groups: roller cone bits, and fixed cutter bits (drag bits).

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.1: Typical roller cone bits.
10.1.1 Roller Cone Bit
Roller cone bits are designed to crush rock efficiently while incurring a minimal
amount of wear on the cutting surfaces. Invented by Howard Hughes, the roller–
cone bit has conical cutters or cones that have spiked teeth around them. As
the drillstring is rotated, the bit cones roll along the bottom of the hole in a circle.
As they roll, new teeth come in contact with the bottom of the hole, crushing
the rock immediately below and around the bit tooth. As the cone rolls, the
tooth then lifts off the bottom of the hole and a high-velocity fluid jet strikes
the crushed rock chips to remove them from the bottom of the hole and up
the annulus. As this occurs, another tooth makes contact with the bottom of
the hole and creates new rock chips. Thus, the process of chipping the rock
and removing the small rock chips with the fluid jets is continuous. The teeth
intermesh on the cones (but with no interaction), which helps clean the cones
and enables larger teeth to be used. There are two main types of roller-cone
bits, steel milled-tooth bits and tungsten carbide insert bits. Typical roller cone
bits are shown in Figure 10.1. Figure 10.2 shows a cut view it a roller cone bit.
The basic elements in a roller cone bit are the bit body, the bearings, and
the cutting cones.
10.1.1.1 Bit Body
The bit body is composed of the following parts:
• Connection pin: API thread of various sizes depending on the size of the
bit.

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.2: Cut view of a roller cone bits.
• Bit legs: 3 elements welded together to form the bit body. Each leg has a
pin in the shirttail with a bearing where the cone is mounted.
• Fluid channels: Flow ways for the drilling fluid. They end in the nozzles.
Most bits have 3 nozzles (each between two cones.) Some bits have 4 nozzles.
In this case, the fourth nozzle is centered with the bit, located above the cones
and, in most of the cases, it is not interchangeable (fixed nozzle area). The bit
body may also contain a lubricant reservoir (only in sealed bearings).
10.1.1.2 Bearings
There are basically three types of bearings for tricone bits:
1. non–sealed roller bearing,

2. sealed roller bearing,
3. sealed journal bearing.
The type of bearing and sealing will determine the range of weight on bit, rotary
speed, life, and also the price of the bit. All three types have a ball bearing
whose function is to support axial load and keep the cone connected to the
bearing pin. Roller bearing bits normally operate in medium load and medium
to high speed ranges.

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.3: Cut view of a non–sealed bearing bit.
Non–sealed Roller Bearing Bits Non–sealed roller bearing bits are the sim-
plest and cheapest of all bits. A channel connects the outside of the bit leg
to inside the bearing. The drilling fluid penetrates in the roller compartment,
which helps to cool down the parts, but also causes wear in the parts due
to the solids in suspension in the fluid. The fluid also “lubricates” the bear-
ing parts. Non–sealed roller bearing bits are manufactured normally with steel
teeth. Figure 10.3 shows a cut view of a non–sealed bearing bit.
Sealed Roller Bearing Bits Sealed roller bearing bits have a seal between
the internal side of the cones (where the bearings are located) and the outside.
Drilling fluid cannot penetrate in the bearing. A lubrication system keeps the
bearing lubricated. The lubrication system has a reservoir holding a supply of
lubricant located in the upper flank of each bit leg. A passage in the bit body
extends from the reservoir to the bearing to allow flow of lubricant to the bear-
ing. A diaphragm at the reservoir provides pressure compensation between the
lubricant and the drilling fluid in the annulus between the bit and the wellbore.
The lubrication system increases significantly the life of the bearings. Sealed
bearing bits are in the intermediate range of price. The life expectancy however,
in most cases, compensates the higher price compared to a similar non–sealed
bearing bit. Figure 10.5 shows a cut of a sealed roller bearing cone.
In roller bearings (both sealed and non-sealed) the rollers are responsible to
support the radial force of the cones, and consequently the axial force applied
to the bit. The ball bearing prevents the cone from falling. As the rollers wear,
however, part of the radial load is transferred to the ball baring. Ball bearing

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.4: A sealed bearing bit.Figure 10.5: Cut view of a roller bearing cone.
is not designed to work under radial forces, and if the balls wear out, the cone
may fall out from the bit. Therefore, it is very important to keep the drilling
parameters within the working range and monitor the bit performance so that a
worn bit is changed before extreme wear causes the fall of the cones.
Sealed bearing type roller cutter bits further have a lubrication system in-
cluding a reservoir holding a supply of lubricant. A passage in the bit body
extends from the reservoir to the bearing to allow flow of lubricant to the bear-
ing. A seal is disposed between the roller cutter and the bearing journal that
holds lubricant in the bit. A diaphragm at the reservoir provides pressure com-
pensation between the lubricant and the drilling fluid in the annulus between
the bit and the wellbore.
Journal Bearings Bits In bits with Journal bearings, the internal surface of
the cones maintains direct contact with the bearing pin of the bit legs. An
extremely rigorous tolerance and special metallurgical treatment are required in
this type of bearing, in addition to permanent lubrication. In higher priced bits, a
silver alloy is deposited in the internal surface of the cone, increasing the radial
capacity of the bearing. Journal bearing bits are expensive but have longer life
compared to roller bearing bits. Since Journal bearings are more compact than
roller bearings, more room exists to increase the cone wall thickness and pin
diameter so that the bit can be designed with more robust specifications (larger
weight on bit rating). Figure 10.6 shows a cut of a sealed roller bearing cone.
10.1.1.3 Cutting Cones
The cutting cones are of fundamental importance in the performance of the

bits. In general, two things determine the type of cone: The cutting structure

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.6: Cut view of a journal bearing cone.
(steel teeth or tungsten carbide inserts,) and the cone offset.
Steel (Milled) Teeth Bits In steel teeth cones, the teeth are machined in the
cone and normally receive heat and surface treatment. These bits are very ro-
bust and tolerate severe drilling conditions but wear out relatively quickly. From
this reason they are not well suited for deeper wells where tripping constitutes a
large time factor. A typical milled teeth bit is shown in the left side of Figure 10.1.
Large teeth are designed for soft to medium hard formations. Steel teeth
bits for hard formations have smaller and more robust teeth (shorter, and wider
base). The teeth are distributed circularly in the cones in an intermeshing fash-
ion but without interference. This promotes a better teeth cleaning action.
Tungsten Carbide Inserts Bits Tungsten carbide, WC or W2C, is a chem-

ical compound containing tungsten and carbon. Tungsten carbide insert is a
powder metallurgy technology in fine powder of tungstan carbide cristal are ce-
mented together using tough cobalt as agglutinant in a process called sintering.
Tungsten carbide insert bits designed to drill soft formations have large and
chisel shaped chips, and those designed to drill hard formations have small and
round shaped inserts. Inserts are mounted in the steel cones by pressing the
compacts in precisely bored holes on the cone surface.
These bits do not tolerate shock loadings but they can drill long sections
before being worn out. In general, insert bits of the same bit size are more
expensive than milled tooth bits.
Coating the inserts with a thin layer (about 5 µm) of titanium carbide made
by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) process may improved the lifetime of tools

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.7: Geometry of bit cones.
by a factor of 2 to 5.
10.1.1.4 Cone Geometry
The cone geometry affects the selectivity and action of the bit. Three parame-
ters are important in the cone geometry:
1. cone angle (or angles),
2. offset angle,
3. offset distance.
The shape of the cone is determined by one or more angles (normally two).
The cone angles and the pin angle will define the crown profile of the bit.
The pin angle (relative to hole bottom) is reduced for softer bits and in-
creased for harder bits. This alters the cone profile which in turn affects tooth
action on the hole bottom and gage cutter action on the wall of the hole. Softer
bits have more highly profiled cones than harder bits. This increases the scrap-
ing action of both bottomhole and gage teeth. The scraping action is beneficial
for drilling soft formations but it will result in accelerated tooth and gage wear if
the formation is abrasive. Scraping action is minimized on hard formation bits
where strength and abrasion resistance are emphasized in the design. (See
Figure 10.7.)
The bit profile also affects the direction tendency of the bit (to cut straight for
straight drilling, or for direction changes in directional drilling). Concave crown
profiles tend to keep the drilling straight, and more flatten crown profiles favor
to direction change (some other important drilling parameters like bit tilt and
lateral force define the actual tendency of the bit).
During operation, the cones are subjected to two rotations. One about its
own axis, and one due to the rotation of the cone axis itself about the axis of

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.8: Cone offsets.
the bit, as the bit rotates. The cone offset determines basically the action of the
teeth on the formations. The offset is a measure of the distance of the cone
apexes to the center of the bit.(See Figure 10.8.)
If the offset is zero, the cones roll as the bit rotates and the teeth crushes
the formation. This is suitable to hard formations. If an offset exists, in addition
to roll, the cones tend to scrape the formation. This is suitable to soft to medium
hard formations. The offset distance is the distance of the cone centerline to
the bit centerline. This distance also increase the scrape action of the teeth.
10.1.2 Air Drilling Bits
Bits used for air drilling have special design. In particular, air drilling is appro-
priated for hard to very hard formations. Therefore, these bits have zero cone
offset, small and round tungsten carbide inserts and non–sealed bearings. A
system of channels conducts part of the drilling gas (air, N2 , or natural gas),
through the bearings. In addition to cool the moving parts, the flowing gas
keeps the bearings clean from small abrasive particles. A screen in the en-
trance of the channels filters the gas from large particles, which could damage
the bearings. Figure 10.9 shows a cut of an air drilling bit.
10.1.3 Fixed Cutter Bits (Drag Bits)
Drag bits have an integral cutting element and no moving parts. In the begin-
ning of the drilling industry, the bits were all of the drag type, with cutters (or
blades) made out of hardened steel. Drag bits cut the formations plowing the
rock by the blades under the action of axial force and rotation. It is the same
mechanism used in drill bits to bore holes in metal and masonry. The fact that
drag bits have no moving parts reduces the possibility of leaving junks in the
borehole.

Drilling Bits
(a) (b)
Figure 10.9: Air drilling bits.
10.1.3.1 Steel Blade Bits
Steel drag bits works well in soft formations, but wear rate increases rapidly in
medium and hard formations, making them inappropriate for deep drilling. With
the advent of the roller cone bits early last century, the steel blade drag bits be-
comes obsolete and drag bits, in general, were banned from the drilling industry
(except diamond drag bits for hard and abrasive formations and for coring op-
erations) until recently with the introduction of PDC bits. (See Figure 10.10).
10.1.3.2 Diamond Bits
Until early 70’s, diamond bits were used exclusively in hard and abrasive for-
mations and for coring. They take advantage of the properties of the (natural)
diamonds like extreme hardness, compressive strength, and thermal conduc-
tivity. Nowadays, however, with the advance of the manufacturing technology,
diamond bits have been designed and made to drill also medium hard forma-
tions.
The body of diamond bits is made from sintering powdered tungsten carbide
using copper or cobalt as agglutinating agent. A graphite cast with diamonds
suitably distributed on the internal surface is filled with powdered tungsten car-
bide. A hollow rod is positioned centered with the cast creating the way for the
drilling fluid. The cast is put in a high temperature (1050 ◦ C to 1170 ◦ C) and the
molten agglutinant infiltrates under pressure in the pores of the powder. After
the brazing process, a larger rod is welded to the previous one and the pin is
lathed.
When properly operated (right formation and right drilling parameters), only

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.10: Steel blade drag bits.
Figure 10.11: A diamond bit.

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.12: Schematic and nomenclature of diamond bit.
the diamonds contact the formation, letting a narrow space between the body
of the bit and the formation. Drilling fluid flows from the central hole of the bit
and across groves molded in the body of the bit, and then across these nar-
row spaces, cooling the diamonds and carrying the small rock fragments. The
number, size, and distribution of the diamonds in the bit determine its char-
acteristics. Bits designed for medium hard formations have fewer and larger
stones (0.75 to 2 carats) than bits designed for hard formations (0.07 to 0.125
carats.) The distribution of the diamonds is also important (manufacturers have
their own design), and the shape of the cutting face (crown profile) basically
determines the drilling characteristics (concave for straight holes, long taper to
build and drop angle in directional drilling, etc). Figure 10.12 presents a typi-
cal schematics and the nomenclature of a diamond bit. Note that some grooves
serve to conduct the fluids from inside the bit to the borehole, and others collect
and drive the ground rock from below the bit.
Since diamond bits have no nozzle, the hydraulic calculation is quite differ-
ent from that for bits with nozzles. Experimental results from different manufac-

Drilling Bits
turers indicate that the ideal hydraulic parameters should be 2.0 to 2.5 hp/in2
and pressure drop between 500 to 1000 psi across the face of the bit to prop-
erly cool and clean the diamonds. Since the pressure drop depends on the
area open to flow, which in turns depends of the groves distribution and the
distance of the bit body to the formation (and therefore on the weight on the
bit and formation hardness), the pressure drop is determined by the difference
between the pressure when the bit is off the bottom and when weight is applied
to the bit. The hydraulic pressure is determined using Equation (10.1)
∆pb q
Pb = , (10.1)
1714.29
where ∆pb is the pressure increase when the bit is forced against the formation.
Manufacturers provide tables with the estimate required flow rate and pressure
drop for different bit models and formations.
Example 41: A 81 /2 in diamond bit is used to drill a hard formation at 9000 ft.
The flow rate required to suitably carrying the cuttings is 400 gpm. How should
the driller apply the weight on the bit.
Solution:
Using the criterion of 2 to 2.5 hp/in2, the power developed at the bit must be
in the following range:
π
Pmin = 2 [hp/in2 ] × × 8.52 = 113.4 hp
4
π
Pmax = 2.5 [hp/in2 ] × × 8.52 = 141.9 hp
4
The pressure drop across the bit for these power rates are:
1714.29 × 113.4 hp
∆pmin = = 486 psi
400 gpm
1714.29 × 1141.9 hp
∆pmax = = 608 psi
400 gpm
Assuming that a minimum of 500 psi is required to properly cool and clean the
diamonds, the driller should apply weight so that the pump pressure increase
remains between 500 psi and 608 psi.
10.1.3.3 PDC Bits
Since late 70’s, bits using artificial diamonds, called Polycrystalline Diamond
Compact (PDC), have been used with increasing success in the drilling indus-
try.

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.13: PDC bits.
A PDC cutter is made of a thin layer of synthetic diamond particles, bonded

in a sintered tungsten carbide chip (in a process very similar to the construction
of a diamond bit, but in a small scale). Important properties of the PDC chips
are abrasion resistance and impact resistance. These properties are influenced
primarily by the size distribution of the synthetic diamonds particles, with large
sized chips being more resistant to impact forces, and small sized chips more
resistant to abrasive wear. In steel base PDC bits, the chips are inserted under
pressure in holes bore in the bit body, and in tungsten carbide bits the chips
are welded in steel supports in the bit body because the temperature of the
sintering process is too high and may cause destabilization of the diamonds
layer. Figure 10.14 presents a typical schematics and the nomenclature of a
PDC bit.
Some PDC bits (all steel base and most carbide base) have interchange-
able nozzles. The hydraulic optimization criteria are similar to those for roller
cone bits, when provided with nozzles. However, some carbide base PDC bits
have structure of groves similar to those in natural diamond bits and the same
criteria (hp/in²) and pressure drop apply (manufacturers also provide tables of
parameters.)
Other important aspects of the PDC bit performance is the number, size,
position (back rake and side rake angles), and shape of the chips, as well as
the shape of the bit body itself. More aggressive back angle is used for soft to
medium formation, and less aggressive back angle is used for hard formations.
These angles are depicted in Figure 10.16.

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.14: Schematic and nomenclature of a PDC bit.
Figure 10.15: Nozzles in a PDC bit.
Figure 10.16: Back rake and side rake angles in PDC bits.

Drilling Bits
10.2 Bit Classification
In 1987, the IADC (International Association of Drilling Contractors) published

a classification system for roller cone bits, revised in 19921 . The purpose of the
system is provide a convenient method for categorizing rock bits according to
their design features and intended application.
The 1992 IADC roller bit classification standard defines a 4–character design–
related code. The first 3 characters are numeric and the character is alpha-
betic. The sequence of numeric characters is defined as series, type, and
bearing/gage. The alphabetic 4th character describes features available.
Roller Bits can be listed on a reference chart according to the digits in the
IADC code. The chart form (see Figure 10.17) is explained as follows:
1. First Character – Cutting Structure Series (1 to 8): Eight categories

or series numbers describe general formation characteristics. Series 1
through 3 refer to steel tooth (milled tooth) bits. Series 4 through 8 refer
to insert (tungsten carbide) bits. Within the steel tooth and insert groups,
the formations become harder and more abrasive as the series numbers
increase.
2. Second Character – Cutting Structure Types (1 to 4): Each Series is
divided into 4 types or degrees of hardness. Type 1 refers to bits designed
for the softest formation in a particular series. Type 4 refers to the hardest
formation within the series.
3. Third Character – Bearing/Gage: Seven categories of bearing design
and gage protection are defined as bearing/gage. Categories 8 and 9 are
reserved for future use.
4. Fourth Character – Features Available (Optional): Sixteen alphabetic
characters are used to indicate features available as shown in the chart.
This includes special cutting structures, bearings, hydraulic configura-
tions, and body gage protection.
Series and types are arranged in numerically–increasing rows from top

to bottom. Bearing/Gage categories are arranged in numerically–increasing
columns from left to right. This creates 224 spaces with an additional 64 spaces
reserved for future use.
Thus, the code 111 indicates a steel tooth bit equipped with standard non–
sealed roller bearings and a cutting structure designed to drill the very softest
formations. At the opposite corner of the chart, an 847 code indicates an insert
bit equipped with sealed friction bearings and gage protection, designed for the
very hardest abrasive formations.
Every roller cone bit can be assigned an exact position on the IADC classi-
fication chart. A comparison of the bits in each manufacturer’s product line is
1
SPE/IADC paper number 23937, February, 1992.

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.17: IADC roller cone bit classification chart.
thus obtained. It is the manufacturer’s responsibility to assign the most appro-

priate IADC code to each bit.
The fact that each bit has a distinct IADC code does not mean that it is
limited to drilling only the narrow range of formations defined by a single box on
the chart. All bits will, within reason, drill effectively in both softer and harder
formations than specified by the IADC code. Also, competitive products with
the same IADC code are built for similar applications but they may be quite
different in design detail, quality, and performance.
The optional 4th character describe features of the roller cone that are not
indicated by the first 3 characters in the IADC code. Such features are impor-
tant since they can affect bit cost, application, and performance. The current
alphabetic characters are shown in Table 10.1. Some bit designs may have
several combination of features available. In such cases, the most significant
feature should be listed.
Following are representative examples of four character IADC roller bit codes.
(1) 124E – a soft formation, sealed roller bearing steel tooth bit with extended
jets

Drilling Bits
Table 10.1: IADC codes for roller cone bits.

Code Additional Feature Description
A Air Application Identifies a bit specifically for applications with air as the drilling fluid.
B Special Bearing Seal Seal configuration that provides special application advantages such
as high RPM capability.
C Center Jet Larger diameter bits are sometimes equipped with center jets (Fig.
5) to provide a more uniform distribution of flow and hydraulic energy
beneath the bit. Almost all extended nozzle bits have center jets to
provide a beneficial tooth–cleaning action that might otherwise be
lost by concentrating all of the hydraulic energy on the bottomhole.
Some manufacturers use diffuser–type center jets while others use
standard rock bit jet nozzles. The pressure drop through these two
types of jets is different and should be taken into consideration when
doing hydraulic calculations for bits equipped with center jets.
D Deviation Control Cutting structure specifically designed to minimize deviation.
E Extended Jets Extended jets (nozzles) are used mainly on soft formation bits for
improved bottomhole cuttings removal. Higher jet impact energy is
delivered to the hole bottom by extended jets. Extended jets (Fig.
6) are generally available on bits larger than 9.5 inches. Miniature
extended jets are not included in the “E” designation.
G Gage/Body Protection Welded tungsten carbide deposits (hardfacing) or carbide inserts
added to the shirttail to protect the seal and/or body in special ap-
plications such as geothermal and directional drilling (Fig. 7).
H Horizontal/Steering Application Designed specifically for horizontal and steerable applications.
J Jet Deflection These bits are used for making trajectory changes where the forma-
tions are soft enough to be fluid-eroded. Such bits usually contain two
standard jet nozzles and one large jet nozzle and can be oriented to
preferentially excavate the hole in a desired direction (Fig. 8).
L Lug pads Steel pads with tungsten carbide inserts applied to the bit body.
These pads generally are very close to gage diameter (Fig. 9).
M Motor Application Specifically designed for application on downhole motors.
R Reinforced welds
S Standard Steel Tooth
T Two-Cone Bits Two-cone bits are relatively uncommon but sometimes utilized for ob-
taining an acceptable combination of deviation control and penetra-
tion rate
W Enhanced Cutting Structure
X Chisel Tooth Insert
Y Conical Tooth Insert
Z Other Shape Inserts

Drilling Bits
(2) 437X – a soft formation, sealed friction bearing insert bit, with gage protec-
tion and chisel–shaped teeth.
10.2.1 PDC Bit Classification System
Four characters are used in a prescribed order to indicate seven fixed cutter
bit design features: cutter type, body material, bit profile, fluid discharge, flow
distribution, cutter size, and cutter density. These design traits were selected
as being most descriptive of fixed cutter bit appearance.
The four–character bit code is entered on an IADC–API Daily Drilling Re-
port Form as shown in Fig. 2. The space requirements are consistent with the
four–character IADC roller bit classification code. The two codes are readily
distinguished from one another by the convention that diamond bit code begin
with a letter, while roller bit codes begin with a number. Each of the four char-
acters in the IADC fixed cutter bit classification code are further described as
follows:
First Character – Cutter Type and Body Material: The first character of
the fixed cutter classification code describes the primary cutter type and body
material (Fig. 1). Five letters are presently defined:
• D – natural diamond/matrix body,
• M – PDC/ matrix body,
• S – PDC/steel body,
• T – TSP/matrix body,
• 0 – other.
The term PDC is defined as “polycrystalline diamond compact .” The term

TSP is defined as “thermally stable polycrystalline” diamond . TSP material
are composed of man–made polycrystalline diamond which has the thermal
stability of natural diamond. This is accomplished through the removal of trace
impurities and in some cases the filling of lattice structure pore spaces with a
material of compatible thermal expansion coefficient. The distinction of primary
cutter types is made because fixed cutter bits often contain a variety of diamond
materials. Typically one type of diamond is used as the primary cutting element
while another type is used as backup material.
Second Character – Profile: The numbers 1 through 9 in the second charac-

ter of the fixed cutter classification code refer to the bit’s longitudinal–sectional
profile (Fig. 3). The term profile is used here to describe the longitudinal–
section of the cutter/bottomhole pattern. This distinction is made because the

Drilling Bits
Table 10.2: Range for IADC bit profile.

G – Gage height C – Cone height
High Medium Low
C > D/4 D/4 ≥ C ≥ D/8 D/8 > C
High: G > 3D/8 1 2 3
Med: 3D/8 ≥ G ≥ D/8 4 5 6
Low: D/8 > G 7 8 9
cutter/bottomhole profile is not necessarily identical to the bit body profile. Nine
basic profiles are defined by arranging two profile parameters – outer taper
(gage height) and inner concavity (cone height) – in a 3 x 3 matrix (see Ta-
ble 10.2). The rows and columns of the matrix are assigned high, medium, and
low values for each parameter. Gage height systematically decreases from top
to bottom. Cone height systematically decreases from left to right. Each profile
is assigned a number. The ranges are based on the bit diameter D.
Third Character – Hydraulic Design: The numbers 1 through 9 in the third

character of the fixed cutter classification code refer to the hydraulic design
of the bit. The hydraulic design is described by two components: the type of
fluid outlet and the flow distribution. A 3 x 3 matrix of orifice types and flow
distributions defines 9 numeric hydraulic design codes (see Table 10.3. The
orifice type varies from changeable jets to fixed ports to open throat from left
to right in the matrix. The flow distribution varies from bladed to ribbed to open
face from top to bottom. There is usually a close correlation between the flow
distribution and the cutter arrangement.
Table 10.3: Range for IADC bit hydraulic design.

changeable jets fixed ports open throat
bladed 1 2 3
ribbed 4 5 6
open face 5 8 9
The IADC has not explicitly defined the difference between the three flow
distribution categories but working definitions are offered as follows. The term
bladed refers to raised, continuous flow restrictors with a standoff distance from
the bit body of more than 1.0 inch. In most cases cutters are affixed to the
blades so that the cutter arrangement may also be described as bladed. The
term ribbed refers to raised continuous flow restrictors with a standoff distance
from the bit body of 1.0 inch or less. Cutters are usually affixed to most of the
ribs so that the cutter arrangement may also be described as ribbed. The term
open face refers to non-restricted flow arrangements. Open face flow designs
generally have a more even distribution of cutters over the bit face than with
bladed or ribbed designs.
A special case is defined: the numbers 6 and 9 describe the crowfoot/water

Drilling Bits
course design of most natural diamond and many TSP bits. Such designs are
further described as having either radial flow, crossflow (feeder/collector), or
other hydraulics. Thus, the letters R (radial flow), X (crossflow), or O (other) are
used as the hydraulic design code for such bits.
Cutter Size and Placement Density The numbers 1 through 9 and 0 in the
4th character of the fixed cutter classification code refer to the cutter size and
placement density on the bit. A 3 x 3 matrix of cutter sizes and placement
densities defines 9 numeric codes (see Table 10.4.
Table 10.4: Range for IADC cutter size and density.

Density
light medium heavy
large 1 2 3
medium 4 5 6
small 5 8 9
The placement density varies from light to medium to heavy from left to right
in the matrix. The cutter size varies from large to medium to small from top to
bottom. The ultimate combination of small cutters set in a high density pattern
is the impregnated bit, designated by the number 0.
10.3 Drill Bit Selection and Evaluation
Since a well is drilled only once and each well penetrated the formations at
different locations with different drilling parameters, a selection of a “best bit”
can not be performed. The next best way to find an “optimum bit” is to compare
bit performances of drilling bits when they were run under similar conditions.
Then a cost–per–foot value of each bit application can be calculated. Along with
this criteria, the individual bit wear are evaluated. This knowledge is applied to
the well to be drilled (length, inclination, drillability, abrasiveness, etc of the
different sections).
In practice, when the well is planned, bits that have been used previously
in this area (by this drilling team) are evaluated according to their applicability.
Sometimes when a bit manufacturer has developed a new bit, it is introduced to
the industry with an expected minimum performance. Thus, when such a new
bit is applied and the proposed performance is met (usually better than ones
of already applied bits), the operator has increased the pool of possible bits to
use for future wells. In case the performance proposed by the manufacturer is
not met, agreements that the bit is given at reduced cost to the operator are
common.
Another way of bit evaluation is the determination of the specific energy

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.18: Tooth wear diagram for milled tooth bits.
using Equation (10.2).

W OB 2πN T
e= + , (10.2)
Ah Ah ROP
where W OB is the weight applied to the bit, Ah is the cross–sectional area of
the hole, N is the rotary speed, T is the torque at the bit, and ROP is the rate
of penetration.
Here the cutting–performance of various bits are compared to each other.
For this, the mechanical energy of the bit is related to the drilled rock volume.
It should be noted that a bit selection considering the specific energy may not
lead to the finding of the most economic bit.
In all practical cases, to evaluate previously applied bits, the so called bit
records are studied. These bit records include all available information (bit
size, type, manufacturer, nozzles used, rotation time, applied WOB, applied
RPM, etc) about the bits applied within drilled wells.
10.3.1 Tooth Wear
With tooth wear, the reduction of tooth height is graded after a bit was run. The
grading is reported in nearest eighth, thus a bit whose teeth are worn out to half
of its original height, is reported as T–4. Normally the tooth wear of a bit is not
even distributed over the bit, some teeth are worn more than others, some are
broken out. Broken teeth are generally remarked as “BT”. The reported wear is
an average one based on the most severely worn teeth. Reporting of the tooth
wear is possible when the teeth are measured before and after the bit was run.
In general, tooth wear has no direct relationship with the drilling rate realizable.
For insert bits, tooth wear occurs, due to the hardness of the teeth, as breaking
or losing of them. Thus a T-4 graded insert bit may have half of its teeth broken
or lost. A diagram of tooth wear for milled bits is shown in Figure 10.18.
10.3.2 Bearing Wear
Evaluation of bearing wear in the field is difficult since the bit would need to
be disassembled for inspection. Thus it is mainly determined if the bearings
are intact or failed. Failed bearings is the situation that the cones are stuck
(no rotation possible), or that they are worn out and the bearings are exposed.
The classification is similar to the tooth wear, using a B instead of T. Thus a bit
which bearings are worn to 7 is marked as B–7.

Drilling Bits
Often the bearing wear is reported based on the total bit running hours.
Thus, when a bit is expected to have a rotation time of 40 hours and was rotating
on bottom for 10 hours, the bearing wear is reported as B-2.
10.3.3 Gage Wear
When the gauge diameter of a bit is worn, the drilled hole will be undergage
(and tapered) with may lead to damage of the next bit and stuck pipe.
Measurement of the gauge wear is performed with the help of a calliper and
a ruler. The loss of diameter in eighth of inches is reported, denoting with the
letter “O” for “out of gage”. In this way, a bit which diameter is reduced by 0.5 in
is reported as G–O–4 . When the bit is in gauge, it is reported using the letter “I”.
In addition to the wear gradings listed above, the bit record commonly includes
a column of comments. Here the bit conditions are commonly remarked.
10.4 Factors that Affect the Rate Of Penetration
Although throughout the text various aspects that influence the ROP are men-
tioned whenever appropriate, the following considerations are often applied to
determine the recommended drilling parameters.
10.4.1 Bit Type
The type of bit used to drill a certain formation has a large impact on the
achieved penetration rate. Roller cutting bits with long teeth exhibit commonly
the highest penetration rates but they are only applicable at soft formations. At
hard formations where PDC bits dominate, the realized ROP is mainly a func-
tion of size and amount of cutters, along with an optimum combination of drilling
parameters.
10.4.2 Formation Characteristics
The most important formation properties that determine the penetration rate
are the elastic limit and the ultimate rock strength. The strength of a formation
is usually estimated using the Mohr failure criteria.

When drilling is initiated, a threshold force or bit weight W db
has to be
t
overcome. This threshold force can be found when plotting drilling rates as a
function of bit weight per diameter and then extrapolated to zero drilling rate. A
correlation between threshold and shear strength is shown in Figure 10.19.

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.19: Correlation between rock strength and threshold WOB.
Another formation property that has a large influence to the realized ROP
is the permeability. In rocks with high permeability, the drilling mud filtrates
into the rock ahead of the bottom of the hole and thus reduces the differential
pressure. Other rock properties like its abrasiveness and gummy clay minerals
content contribute indirectly to the ROP by influencing the drilling bit (wear,
dulling, etc).
10.4.3 Drilling Fluid Properties
Among the various drilling fluid properties, the following are identified as influ-
encing the penetration rate:
[(a)]
1. drilling fluid density,

2. rheological flow properties,
3. filtration characteristics,
4. solids content and distribution,

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.20: Variation of ROP with different fluid properties.
5. chemical composition.
Penetration rate in general decreases with increasing fluid density, viscosity,

and solids content, and increases with increasing filtration rate. This latter is
mainly caused by the reduction of the differential pressure in the formation right
below the bottom of the hole. The drilling fluid viscosity controls the frictional
pressure losses along the drillstring and thus reducing the available hydraulic
energy at the bit. Solids particles with size less than 1 µm (colloid size) influ-
ence the ROP dramatically since they tend to plug off the porous of the rock,
reducing the filtration below the bit. The effects of these various parameters
are loosely shown in Figure 10.20.
The penetration rate is largely dependent on the differential pressure as
seen in Figure 10.21.
The effective differential pressure at the bottom has several implications in
reducing the ROP. The first is the chip hold–down effect. The second is the
increase of the confining pressure, which increases the strength of the rock.
If the rate of penetration versus pressure differential is plotted in a semi–
log paper, a reasonable linear relationship can be obtained, as seen in Fig-
ure 10.22.
An expression for the relationship can then be written as:
R
log = −m (pbh − pf ) ,
R0
where R is the rate of penetration at a particular overbalance, R0 is the rate of
penetration for zero overbalance, m is the slope or the regressed line, pbh is the

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.21: Effect of differential pressure in the ROP.
bottom hole pressure, and pf is the formation pore pressure at the bottom hole
depth.
10.4.4 Operating Conditions
The effects of changes in the operating conditions, namely WOB and rotary
speed, are shown in Figure 10.23.
Ideally, the ROP should increase linearly with the WOB (for a fixed rotary
speed), as shown in the segment a–b–c in the graph . However, field tests show
that above a given value the response departs from the linear behavior, and an
increase in WOB does not correspond to the expected increase in ROP, as in
the segment c–d. In situations as in the segment d–e, the rate of penetration
may even reduce. This behavior is called “floundering”. Two factors contribute
to the floundering behavior. One is the reduction of hole cleaning capacity due
to the increase of ROP (assumed the hydraulics is kept constant). The second
is the complete imbedding of the cutters (teeth or inserts) into the formation.
It is important, therefore to find the onset of the floundering region. Drillers
conduct a variety of tests to optimize performance. The most common is the
drill rate test, which consists of simply experimenting with various WOB and

Drilling Bits
Figure 10.22: Exponential relationship between of differential pressure and

ROP.
(a) (b)
Figure 10.23: Effect of WOB (a) and rotary speed (b) in the ROP.
RPM settings and observing the results. The parameters are then used that
resulted in the highest ROP. In some sense, all optimization schemes use a
similar comparative process. That is, they seek to identify the parameters that
yield the best results relative to other settings. Another scheme is the drilloff.
In the drilloff test, the driller applies a high WOB and locks the brake to pre-
vent the top of the string from advancing while continuing to circulate and rotate
the string. As the bit drilled ahead, the string elongated and the WOB declined.
ROP was calculated from the change in the rate of drill string elongation as the
weight declined. The point at which the ROP stops responding linearly with
increasing WOB is defined as the flounder point. This is taken to be the opti-
mum WOB. This process has enhanced performance, but does not provide an
objective assessment of the true potential drill rate, only the flounder point of
the current system.

Drilling Bits
10.4.4.1 Bit Wear
As the bit is worn during drilling, the penetration rate decreases. This reduction
of ROP is generally less severe for insert bits as for milled tooth bits.
10.4.4.2 Bit Hydraulics
Practice has shown that effective bit hydraulics can improve the penetration
rate dramatically. The enhanced jetting action promotes a better cleaning of
the teeth as well as the bottom of the hole. To improve the cleaning capacity
of the bit extended nozzles are often used where the discharging nozzle ends
are closer to the hole bottom. Extended nozzles usually requires the use of a
4th central nozzle, to guarantee a suitable cleaning of the cones, particularly in
“gummy” formations
As discussed in well hydraulics, maximum hydraulic horsepower and max-
imum jet impact force are the most used criteria to optimize hydraulics. When
a low WOB is applied and drilling rates are low, the required hydraulics for effi-
cient hole cleaning is small. When the WOB is increased and the well is drilled
faster, efficient hydraulic programs have to be followed to realize the higher
penetration rates.

Drilling Bits
CHAPTER Page –28

Drilling Bits
Appendix A
Drill Pipe Dimensions (as in API

RP7C)
CHAPTER A Page A–1

Drill Pipe Dimensions
Table A.1: New Drill Pipe Dimensional Data

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Size Nominal Weight Section Area Polar Sectional
OD Threads and Plain end Wall ID Body of Pipe Modulus
in. Couplings, Weight Thickness in. sq. in. cu. in.
D lb/ft lb/ft in. d A Z
2 38 4.85 4.43 0.190 1.995 1.3042 1.321
6.65 6.26 0.280 1.815 1.8429 1.733
2 78 6.85 6.16 0.217 2.441 1.8120 2.241

10.40 9.72 0.362 2.151 2.8579 3.204
3 12 9.50 8.81 0.254 2.992 2.5902 3.923

13.30 12.31 0.368 2.764 3.6209 5.144
15.50 14.63 0.449 2.602 4.3037 5.847
4 11.85 10.46 0.262 3.476 3.0767 5.400

14.00 12.93 0.330 3.340 3.8048 6.458
15.70 14.69 0.380 3.240 4.3216 7.157
4 12 13.75 12.24 0.271 3.958 3.6004 7.184

16.60 14.98 0.337 3.826 4.4074 8.543
20.00 18.69 0.430 3.640 5.4981 10.232
22.82 21.36 0.500 3.500 6.2832 11.345
5 16.25 14.87 0.296 4.408 4.3743 9.718

19.50 17.93 0.362 4.276 5.2746 11.415
25.60 24.03 0.500 4.000 7.0686 14.491
5 12 19.20 16.87 0.304 4.892 4.9624 12.221

21.90 19.81 0.361 4.778 5.8282 14.062
24.70 22.54 0.415 4.670 6.6296 15.688
6 58 25.20 22.19 0.330 5.965 6.5262 19.572

27.70 24.22 0.362 5.901 7.1227 21.156

Table A.2: New Drill Pipe Torsional and Tensile Data. Courtesy API

Table A.3: New Drill Pipe Collapse and Internal Pressure Data. Courtesy API

Table A.4: Premium Drill Pipe Torsional and Tensile Data. Courtesy API

Table A.5: Premium Drill Pipe Collapse and Internal Pressure Data. Courtesy
API


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Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Associate Professor Jorge H.B. Sampaio Jr., PhD

2 Rotary Drilling System 2–1

3 Drillstring Tubulars and Equipment 3–1

3.1 Drill Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–1

4 Introduction to Hydraulics 4–1

5 Drillstring Design 5–1

6 Drilling Hydraulics 6–1

6.2.1 Pressure Drop Across the Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–6

7 Introduction to Drilling Fluids 7–1

8 Rheology and Rheometry 8–1

9 Flow in Pipes and Annuli 9–1

9.1.3 Newtonian Flow in Pipes – Poiseuille’s Equation . . . . . 9–5

10 Drilling Bits 10–1

A Drill Pipe Dimensions (as in API RP7C) A–1

1.1 Rig Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–3

2.1 Typical rig components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1

2.26 Mud cleaner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–31

3.1 Typical rotary drillstring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–2

3.12 Manual tongs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–10

4.1 Stress state about a point in a fluid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1

5.1 Assumption 1 – pressure contributes to buckling. . . . . . . . . . 5–2

6.1 Mass balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2

7.1 A mud balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–8

7.9 A pH meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–11

8.1 Typical graph of Newtonian fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–2

9.1 Velocity profiles of laminar flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–3

10.1 Typical roller cone bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2

10.17IADC roller cone bit classification chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–16

2.1 Heating values of fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–6

10.1 IADC codes for roller cone bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–17

A.1 New Drill Pipe Dimensional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–2

– Cable drilling → “Pennsylvanian drilling”

* With mud → Quick percussion drilling

CHAPTER 1 Page 1–1

* Without mud → “Canadian drilling”

– Full cross-section drilling

– Abrasive jet drilling

Throughout this text, rotary drilling technology is discussed exclusively.

CHAPTER 1 Page 1–2

Figure 1.1: Rig Classification.

1.3 Drilling Rig Types

(a) Jackknife rig. (b) Portable mast.

CHAPTER 1 Page 1–3

(c) A cantilever rig on a barge. (d) A self–contained plat-

(e) A tender assisted platform. (f) A submersible platform.

(g) A Jack–Up rig (h) Semi–submersible vessel.

CHAPTER 1 Page 1–4

(i) A drill–ship (j) A tension–leg platform.

(k) Caisson vessel (also called spar– (l) Diagram of a spar–buoy.

1.4 Personnel at Rig Site

CHAPTER 1 Page 1–5

Derrick Man: The derrickman works on the so–called monkeyboard, a small

CHAPTER 1 Page 1–6

are constantly responsible for logging what is happening in the hole as

According to a wells final depth, it can be classified into:

CHAPTER 1 Page 1–7

CHAPTER 1 Page 1–8

Rotary Drilling System

Figure 2.1: Typical rig components.

CHAPTER 2 Page 2–1

3. Drilling fluid circulation system,

5. Derrick and substructure,