CONTENTS

WELDING

S.No. DESCRIPTION PAGE No

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 REFERENCES 1

3.0 JOINT DESIGN 1

3.1 TYPES OF WELD 1
3.2 DESIGN OF WELDS 2
3.3 DESIGN OF GROOVE WELDS 2

4.0 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING 2

4.1 PROCESS SCOPE 3

5.0 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 4

5.1 GENERAL PROCESS APPLICATION 4
5.2 TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES 5

WELDABILITY AND WELDING OF MATERIALS

1.0 WELDING OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL 6

1.1 MARTENSITIC TRANSFORMATION 6
1.2 HOT CRACKING 6
1.3 STRAIN AGEING 6

2.0 WELDING OF LOW ALLOY STEEL 7

2.1 INTRODUCTION 7
2.2 CARBON EQUIVALENT 7
2.3 JOINT DESIGN 8
2.4 WELDING CONSUMABLE 8
2.5 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT 9

3.0 WELDING OF CAST IRON 9

3.1 INTRODUCTION 9
3.2 PROBLEMS IN CAST IRON WELDING 10
3.3 PRECAUTION TO TAKEN DURING CAST IRON WELDING 10
3.4 WELDING ELECTRODE 11

3.4.1 NICKEL BASE ELECTRODE 11

3.4.2 CAST IRON ELECTRODE 11
3.4.3 STEEL ELECTRODE 11
3.4.4 COPPER BASE ELECTRODE 11

4.0 WELDING OF STAINLESS STEEL 12

4.1 WELDING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL 12
4.1.1 ELECTRODE OR FILLER MATERIAL SELECTION 13
4.2 WELDING OF FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL 14
4.2.1 SELECTION OF FILLER MATERIAL 15
4.3 WELDING OF MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEEL 15

5.0 WELDING OF NICKEL ALLOYS 16

5.1 JOINT DESIGN 16
5.2 PREHEAT 16
5.3 FILLER MATERIAL 17
5.4 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT 17

6.0 WELDING OF DISSIMILAR METALS 17

6.1 DILUTION 17
6.2 MELTING TEMPERATURE 18
6.3 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY 18
6.4 THERMAL EXPANSION 18
6.5 FILLER METAL SELECTION 18
6.6 SELECTION CRITERIA 18
6.7 SPECIFIC DISSIMILAR METAL COMBINATION 19
6.7.1 STAINLESS STEEL TO CARBON STEEL 19
6.7.2 NICKEL ALLOYS TO STEEL 19

1.0 INTRODUCTION :
Welding is the most efficient and flexible of all methods used to join metals. Most metallic products and components
associated with industry are welded. In fact, the efficiency and economy of industrial plants used in power generation, steel
production, oil drilling and refining, fertiliser manufacturing, etc. depend largely on the correct application of welding.
Welding is a joining process of two materials, where weld is defined as coalescence of metals or alloys produced by
application of heat with or without application of pressure . Filler material may or may not be used. Welding, in combination
with allied process like thermal cutting, brazing, braze welding and metal spraying has provided ample freedom to designer
to develop metallic products in which optimum mechanical properties, lightness and aesthetics are harmoniously blended.
A large number of welding and allied processes have come into industrial use in the last 30 years. Variations and extensions of
these processes are being developed to put practical use from time to time. The wide range and variety of these processes
enables the engineer to join almost all commercial metals and alloys in many different shapes and sizes and in thicknesses
ranging from a fraction of a millimetre to over 500mm.
Plain carbon steel, low-alloy steels, stainless and heat-resisting steel, and many non-ferrous metals and their alloys (such as
aluminium, nickel, titanium etc.) are welded extensively. Modern industrial products such as automobiles, pipelines, pressure
vessels, storage tanks, machinery, power generation equipment, offshore platforms, oil refineries and fertiliser plants, owe
their development and efficient performance to welding.
Welding processes, that use an electric arc are the most widely used in industry. The arc may be established between an
electrode and base metal, as in Shielded metal arc welding and Gas metal arc welding, or the arc may occur with in welding
heat source, as in Plasma arc welding. Furthermore, the arc and molten metal may be protected by an inert gas, granulated
flux, or gaseous slag products of a consumable electrode.

2.0 WELD JOINT DESIGN AND PREPRATION:

A weld joint serves to transfer the stresses between the joined members and throughout the welded assembly. Forces and
loads, which are introduced at different points, are transmitted to different areas throughout the weldment.
Terminology describing various joints and welds is confusing. Types of joints and welds recognised by AWS are illustrated in
Fig. 2.1 & 2.2 respectively. Joints are the junctions where the members join and welds are the mechanisms ( groove or
preparation) which complete the joints.

2.1 Type of joints:

1. Butt Joints : Butt joints are joints between two abutting members lying approximately in the same plane.
2. T - Joints: T - joints are the joints in which the members are positioned to form a ‘T’.
3. Corner Joints : Corner joints are joints between members located at approximately right angle to each other that meet
to form an ‘L’.
4. Lap Joints : Lap joints are joints made with two overlapping members.
5. Edge Joints : Edge joints are joints between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly parallel members.
Sketches of all above joints are shown in Fig. 2.1

Type of joint is selected primarily on the basis of load requirements. The choice of weld to complete the joint should be
determined by the effects of the structural design, layout on weld metal, accessibility, and the preparation requirement.
These are the variables which directly affect the cost of welding.

Types of welds :
1. Fillet welds : Fillet welds are the weld approximately triangular in cross-section, joining two surfaces essentially at right
angle to each other.
2. Square Groove welds : These are the welds in which the abutting surfaces are square (included angle is zero).
3. Bevel Groove Weld : These are the welds in which only one member is bevelled
4. V-Groove Welds : These are the welds the total included angle of the groove between the members to be joined is the
sum of two bevel angles.
5. J-Groove Welds : These are the welds made in J shaped grooves between the two members to be welded.
6. U-Groove Welds : These are the welds made in U shaped grooves between the two members to be welded.
Sketches of the all above welds are shown in Fig 2.2

2.2 Design of Fillet welds :

A fillet weld is measured by leg length of the largest right angle triangle that may be inscribed within the cross-sectional area
of the weld. The leg length is equal to the base/perpendicular of the triangle, but does not extend from root to toe of the
weld. Unequal leg length should be avoided as larger leg adds nothing to strength but does add to cost. For efficient weld
filler metal use, the convexity of the weld should be minimised. The 45 degree flat fillet, very slightly convex weld achieves
maximum strength.
When sizing the fillet welds, the direction of the loading must be considered. Normally strength requirement for the traverse
loading condition is less than the parallel loading condition.

2.3 Design of groove welds:

The important design consideration for the groove weld selection are the included angle, root opening, root face, and the
radius at root (in case of U or J groove). The included angle (which is the angle of the groove weld) and root opening (Which
is the portion of the joint before welding where the weld members are closet) are directly related. The root opening should
be increased as the included angle decreases for electrode to access and to obtain good fusion at root.
Included angle vary from 20 degree to 70 degrees. Generally, the smaller the included angle, the less weld metal is required
and vice-versa. Root opening is normally selected on the basis of diameter of filler wire or electrode being used (in case
where no backing ring or strip is used). Diameter of filler wire is normally selected on the basis of thickness of the base metal.

2.4 Welding symbols :

Standard symbols are used to indicate the desired welding information on engineering drawing. They are used universally to
convey design requirements to the fabrication shop in a concise manner. For example a symbol can be used to specify the
type of weld, groove design, welding process, face & root contour, sequence of welding, length of weld, effective throat and
other information. However, there are cases where all information cannot be conveyed by a symbol alone . Supplementary
notes and dimensional details, or both, are some times required to provide the shop with complete requirements. Non-
destructive examination requirements for welded joints can also be called out with symbols.
The terms weld symbol and welding symbol have different meanings. A weld symbol ( Fig. No. 2.4 A) indicates required type
of weld. Welding symbol ( Fig. No. 2.4 B ) includes the weld symbol and supplementary information. A complete welding
symbol consists of following elements.
1. Reference line ( Always shown horizontally )
2. Arrow
3. Basic weld symbol
4. Dimension and other data
5. Supplementary symbols
6. Finish symbols
7. Tail
All element need not to be used unless required. The elements of a welding symbol have standard locations with respect to
each other.

2.4.1 Non-destructive Examination Symbols :

Non-destructive examination symbols may be combined with welding symbol by using an additional reference line or by
specifying the examination method in the tail of the welding symbol. The symbol of various non-destructive examinations are
as follows.
Type of Examination Symbol Type of Examination Symbol
Acoustic Emission AET Penetrant PT
Eddy Current ET Proof PRT
Leak LT Radiographic RT
Magnetic Particle MT Ultrasonic UT
Neutron Radiography NRT Visual VT

The elements of a non-destructive examination symbol are as follows.

1. Reference line
2. Arrow
3. Basic examination symbol
4. Number of Examination
5. Examine in field
6. Tail
The standard locations of these elements with respect to each other are shown in Fig. No.2.4.1 .

The complete system of symbols is described in AWS A2.4, symbols for welding and non-destructive testing, published by
American Welding Society and should be referred when selecting appropriate symbol for describing the desired joint and
inspection requirement.

3.0 WELDING PROCESS :

3.1 Commonly used arc welding processes are :

1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
2. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
3. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
5. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
6. Electroslag / Electrogas Welding (ESW/EGW)
7. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Out of the above, SMAW & GTAW are mainly used for RIL requirement. Hence only these two are discussed in detail.
However, only introduction of other welding processes are discussed.

3.2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Shielded metal arc welding is an arc welding process in which coalescence of metal is produced by heat from an electric arc
that is maintained between the tip of a coated electrode and the surface of base metal in the joint being welded. (See Fig
3.2)

Arc shielding is obtained from the gases that form as a result of the decomposition of certain ingredients of covering. The
shielding employed, along with the core wire, largely controls the mechanical properties, chemical composition and
metallurgical structure of the weld metal.
However the main functions of electrode covering are:
1. Provides a gas to shield the arc.
2. Provides de-oxidisers and fluxing agents that prevent excessive
3. grain growth.
4. Establishes the electrical characteristics of the electrode.
5. Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the air.

Besides these functions, some times some alloying elements are also present
to change the mechanical properties of weld metal.

3.1 Process scope:

The shielded metal arc welding is used in joining and surfacing application on a variety of base metals. The suitability of the
process for any specific base metal depends on the availability of a covered electrode, whose weld metal has the required
composition and properties. Electrodes are available for the following base metals.
1. Carbon steel
2. Low alloy steel
3. Corrosion resisting steel
4. Cast iron
5. Aluminium & Aluminium alloys
6. Copper & Copper alloys
7. Nickel & Nickel alloys
8. Cobalt & Cobalt alloys

The Shielded metal arc welding is adaptable to any material thickness within certain practical and economical limitations. For
material thickness less than 2 mm, the base metal will melt through and molten metal will fall away before weld can be
established. Because of limited deposition rate, it is economically not advisable to go beyond 38 mm (1.5”). Most of the
Shielded metal arc welding application are on thickness between 3 to 38 mm. One of the major advantages of Shielded metal
arc welding is that welding can be done in any position on most of materials for which this process is suitable. Therefore, it
is useful on joints that can not be placed in flat position.

Electrode Classification : American Welding Society has classified the Shielded Arc Welding electrodes for different
materials. A numbering system has been devised for electrodes of different materials.

1.AWS A5.1-81 “Specification for Carbon Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes”
This coding system starts with the prefix E, which designates an electrode. Then comes a two-digit number 60 or 70. The
number 60 indicates tensile strength of at least 60 ksi of the weld deposit. Similarly, 70 means minimum weld metal tensile
strength of 70 ksi.
The third digit indicates the position in which the electrode can be used satisfactorily, as follows:
1 F, V, OH, H
2 F, H-fillet
4 F, OH, H, V-down
the last two digits taken together indicates current condition (type of current) and the type of covering. Following table
shows the complete classification, as also the significance of the last two digits.

AWS Type of covering Welding position Type of current

Classification
E6010 High cellulose sodium F, V, OH, H D+
E6013 High titania potassium F, V, OH, H D+, A
E6020 High iron oxide H-fillet D-. A
E7018 Low hydrogen potassium iron F, V, OH, H D+, A
powder
E7048 Low hydrogen potassium iron F, OH, H, V-down D+, A
powder

2. AWS A5.5-81, “Low alloy steel covered arc welding electrodes”

This classification system is the same as for carbon steel electrodes, i.e., the prefix E designates the electrode; the first two
digits (or three of a five digit number) designate the minimum tensile strength of the weld in ksi.
The third digit (or fourth digit of a five digit number) indicates the welding position. The last two digits, taken together,
indicate the current condition as well as the coating type exactly as in the carbon steel electrode classification. In addition, a
letter suffix such as A1, B1, C2, etc., designates the chemistry of deposited metal.

3. AWS A5.4-81, “Specification for corrosion resisting chromium and chromium-nickel steel covered welding electrodes:

This is a very exhaustive standard covering 38 classes with chromium in the weld deposit ranging from 4.0 to 32% and nickel
from nil to 37%.
In this standard, the electrodes are classified on the basis of the chemistry and mechanical property requirements of the weld
metal. The classification system consists of suffix letter E (to indicate an electrode) followed by various combination of digits
and letters to to indicate the chemical composition of weld metal , which is further followed by -15 or -16 to indicate position
of welding and type of current.
In stainless steel electrode, the core wire chemistry and weld metal chemistry need not necessarily be identical. For
example, an E308 Mo electrode or an E310 electrode may have 304 SS type core wire and flux covering alloyed with requisite
proportions of Cr, Ni or Mo (if necessary). Hence it would be incorrect to verify an electrode class by analysing its core wire.
One must get at un diluted all weld metal and determine its core wire chemistry.
In designation -15 and -16, 1 indicates that the electrode (in size 4 mm and lower) can be used in all positions. The last digit 5
means that the electrode works only on DC+ ; 6 means the electrode works either on AC or DC+.
A few classes carry suffix L, which indicates that the carbon content in the deposits is restricted to 0.04% maximum, in order
to obtain resistance to intergranular corrosion caused by carbide precipitation , which can occur when the carbon content is
higher and welded joint is exposed to corrosive media in service. Where suffix ‘H’, it indicate high carbon content. These are
meant for the welding of high alloy, heat and corrosion resistant castings of same general composition.

3.3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

Gas tungsten arc welding is a welding process wherein coalescence of metals is produced by heating them with an electric arc
between a tungsten (non-consumable) electrode and the work . Shielding of electrode, the arc, and weld zone is obtained
from a inert gas or mixer of inert gases. Filler material may or may not be added (See fig 3.3)
Gas tungsten arc welding is very good for joining thin base metals because of excellent control of heat input. The process
itself leads to high quality welding. In very critical service application, for very expensive metals or parts , the materials
should be carefully cleaned off surface dirt , grease and oxides in preparation for welding . However the limitations of the
process are:
1. Slower process than consumable electrodes
2. Tungsten contamination
3. Higher equipment and welding cost than other processes

3.3.1 General process application :

This process is being applied increasingly to industrial pipe welding and it is extensively used on almost all of the ferrous and
non-ferrous piping materials . The root passes of substantial quantities of carbon steel piping, especially those for critical
application, are welded with Gas tungsten arc welding process . For pipe wall thickness more than 1/4”, it is economical to
complete the pipe weld with other welding process such as Shielded metal arc welding or Gas metal arc welding ,after the gas
tungsten arc root pass has been made. Root run by GTAW is also preferred where flushing of the lines after welding is not
possible.
Virtually all the tube to tube sheet welding is done with automated gas tungsten arc welding equipment, with or without the
addition of filler material .

3.3.2 Tungsten electrodes :

Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are classified as pure tungsten, tungsten with one or two percent thoria, tungsten
with 0.15 to 0.4 percent zirconia . These tungsten electrodes are generally available in diameters ranging from 0.25 to 6.4
mm.
Tungsten electrodes of 99.5 % purity are less expensive and are generally used in less critical operation. A pure tungsten
electrode has a relatively low current carrying capacity with A.C power and has a low resistance to contamination.
Tungsten electrodes with 1 or 2% thoria are superior to pure tungsten electrode in several respects. They have higher electron
emmissivity, better current carrying capacity, higher life and greater resistance to contamination.
Tungsten electrodes that contain some zirconia have properties that generally fall between those of pure and thoria
containing tungsten electrodes.

3.3.3 Filler Wire :

American Welding society has classified filler wire for different materials:
1. AWS A5.9 has listed corrosion resisting chromium and chromium-nickel steel filler wires suitable for used with GTAW /
GMAW.

3.4 GAS METAL ARC WELDING

Gas metal arc welding is an electric arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc
established between a continuous filler (consumable ) electrode and the work. Shielding of arc and molten weld pool is
obtained entirely from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
All commercially important metals such as carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminium, and copper can be welded with this
process in all positions by choosing appropriate shielding gas, electrode and welding conditions. The vast majority of gas
metal arc welding applications require the use of direct current reverse polarity (electrode positive ).This type of electric
connection yields a stable arc, smooth metal transfer, relatively low spatter loss and good weld bead characteristics for the
entire range of welding current used
GMAW is operated in semiautomatic, machine and automatic modes. It is utilised particularly in high production welding.

3.5 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Submerged arc welding produces coalescence of metal by heating them in an arc (or arcs) maintained between a bare metal
electrode (or electrodes) and the work. The arc is shielded by a blanket of granular, fusible material placed over the welding
area. Filler metal is obtained from the electrode and some times from a supplementary welding rod or other metallic
addition.
The features that distinguishes submerged arc welding from other arc welding processes are the granular material that covers
the welding area. In common use of this material is termed as flux although it performs several important functions in
addition to those strictly associated with a fluxing agent.
SAW is used extensively in ship and barge building, railroad car fabrication, pipe manufacturing, and the fabrication of
structural members where long welds are required.

3.6 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING :

Flux cored arc welding is an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metal by heating them with an arc between a
continuous filler metal (tubular and consumable ) electrode and the work. Shielding is provided by a flux contained within the
tubular electrode and may be supplemented by an externally supplied gas.
The feature that distinguishes the flux cored arc welding process from other arc welding process is the enclosure of fluxing
ingredients within a continuously fed electrode. The benefit of flux cored arc welding are achieved by combining two general
features
1.The productivity of continuous welding.
2.The metallurgical benefits that can be achieved from a flux.
FCAW has found wide application in shop fabrication, maintenance and field erection work.

3.7 ELECTROSLAG WELDING :

Electroslag welding is a welding process producing coalescence of metal with molten slag which melts the filler metal and the
surface of the work to be welded. The molten weld pool is shielded by the molten slag, which move along the full cross-
section of the joint as welding progresses.
The process is initiated by starting an electric arc between the electrode and joint bottom. Granulated flux is then added and
melted by the heat of arc. As soon as a sufficient thick layer of molten slag is formed, all arc action stops and the welding
current passes from the electrode through the slag by electrical conduction. Welding is started in a sump or on a starting tab
to allow the process to stabilise before the welding reaches the work. Heat generated by the resistance of molten slag, to the
passage of welding current, is sufficient to fuse the edge of the work piece and the welding electrode.
The flux is a major part in successful operation of the Electroslag welding process. Flux composition is of at most importance
since its characteristics determines how well the process operates. During the welding process, the flux is melted into slag
that transforms the electrical energy into thermal energy to melt the filler metal and base metal.
This welding process is extensively used for welding of thicker sections. Process is used in structural, ship, pressure vessels
and castings welding.

3.8 PLASMA ARC WELDING :

Plasma arc welding is an arc welding process where coalescence of metals is produced by heating with a constricted arc
between an electrode and the work piece (transferred arc ) or between the electrode and constricting nozzle (non-
transferred arc). Shielding is generally obtained from the ionised gas issuing from the orifice of the constricting nozzle.
Low-current plasma arc welding application are :
1. Thin wire mesh screen filters
2. Small wire butt welds
3. Relay case fabrication
4. Bellows assemblies
High-current plasma arc welding application are :
1. Stainless steel and titanium tubing (longitudinal welds)
2. Girth joints in pipe fabrication
3. Missile tankage
4. Turbine engine components

3.9 SURFACING :
Surfacing is the deposition of filler metal on the surface of a base metal. Its purpose is to, provide the properties or
dimensions necessary to meet a given service requirement. there are several types of surfacing, categorized as :

3.9.1 Buttering :
Buttering denotes the deposition of weld on the surface of one member of a joint to be welded with another member of
different metallurgy. Buttering is only done to satisfy the metallurgical needs of a joint. For example, high nickel alloy weld
metal is deposited on a carbon steel base metal , when carbon steel is to be welded with high alloy steel.

3.9.2 Build up :
Build up also denotes the deposition of weld metal to a base metal surface, the edge of a joint, or a previously deposited
weld metal for the restoration of the component to the required dimensions.
3.9.3 Cladding :
Cladding is a relatively thick layer (1/8” or more) of filler metal applied to a carbon or low alloy steel base metal for
providing a corrosion resistant surface when that surface is to be exposed to a corrosive environment. As a rule, the strength
of the cladding is not included in the design of the component.
Cladding must resist general corrosion (uniform thinning) in the corrosive environment. Cladding must also resist localised
corrosion, such as pitting, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking . The corrosion resistance
of the cladding is, in many cases, the limiting factor in the life of a component. So that corrosion resistance is the primary
consideration in selecting an alloy, a welding process and the procedure.

3.9.4 Hard facing :

Hard facing is the form of surfacing that is applied for the purpose of reducing wear or abrasion, impact, erosion, or
cavitation. As with cladding, the strength of hard facing is not included in design of the component.
Hard facing usually is deposited by manual, semiautomatic or automatic arc (or gas) welding processes. Suitable surfacing
metals are available in the form of bare welding rods, covered electrodes, coiled wire.

3.9.5 Filler material for surfacing :

Commonly used surfacing electrodes and their hardness are listed below :

AWS No or trade name Nominal composition Hardness

RCoCrA Co-28Cr-4W-1.1C 39 - 40 HRC
RCoCrB Co-29Cr-8W - 1.35C 40 - 48 HRC
RCoCrC Co-30Cr-12W - 2.5C 52 - 54HRC
Alloy20 Co-32Cr-17W-2.5C 53 - 55HRC
Alloy21 Co-27Cr-5Mo-2.8Ni-0.2C 24 - 27 HRC
Haynes 25 Co-20Cr-15W-10Ni-3Fe-1Si-1.5Mn-0.1C
Tribaloy T800 Co-28Mo-17Cr-3Si 54-64 HRC
STELLITE No.1 Co-30Cr-12W-3C 46 HRC
STELLITE No. 6 Co-28.5Cr-4W-1.1C 49(Oxy-Fuel)
STELLITW No 12 Co-29Cr -8W-1.35C 52 -54 HRC
RNiCr-C Ni-15Cr-4Si-3.5B-0.75C 57 HRC
RNiCr-B Ni-12Cr-3.5Si-2.5B-0.35C 51 HRC
HastelloyC Ni-17Cr-17Mo-0.12C HRB 95
Haynes 40 Ni-15Cr-4Fe-4Si-3.5B-0.65C 57 (Oxy-Fuel)
Haynes 41 Ni-12Cr-3Fe-3.5Si-2.5B-0.35C 51 (Oxy-Fuel)
Haynes 273 Ni-16Cr-17Mo-4.5W-5.3Fe-0.1C 96HRB
Haynes716 Ni-11Co-26Cr-29Fe-3.5W-3Mo-1.1B-0.5C 32 HRC
Tribaloy T700 Ni-32Mo-15Cr-3Si 45 HRC

3.10 THERMAL CUTTING :

Thermal cutting is used for removal of metal by a heat source. Oxygen cutting (OC) is the group of cutting process used to
remove metal by high temperature reaction of oxygen with base metal. This method is widely used for cutting of plates, pipes
etc. for any fabrication.
Arc cutting (AC) is a group of cutting process which melts the metal to be cut with the heat of an arc between an electrode
and base metal. Arc cutting method typically include Air carbon arc (AAC), Plasma arc (PAC) etc. .

3.10.1 Oxygen Cutting :

Oxygen cutting is commonly used method for cutting metals which react with oxygen to produce enough heat to remove both
molten metal and oxide slags. Many iron and titanium alloys can be cut with this process.
The torches used are designed to
1. Produce a small diameter high velocity stream of oxygen to oxidise and remove metal in a narrow section.
2. Surround that stream with a ring of flame to preheat the metal.
The torch is moved at a speed set to produce a continuous cutting action. Because the jet and flame are symmetrical, the
torch can be moved in any direction, allowing curved shapes to be cut easily. The cut quality is dependent on the tip size and
type, distance from plate, the oxygen and preheat gas flow rate and cutting speed.
The process is limited to cutting ferrous material and titanium. For carbon steels, it is almost always selected to make cuts in
plate as thick as 300 mm. Titanium can be cut faster than mild steel. The oxidised cut surface must be removed before
welding titanium.

3.10.2 Plasma Arc Cutting :

Plasma arc cutting (PAC) is accomplished with an extremely hot, high velocity jet produced by forcing an arc and inert gas
through a small diameter orifice. The arc energy concentrated on a small area melts the plate and the jet of hot expanding
gases forces the molten metal through the kerf.
This process is very versatile. All metal can be cut with it and carbon steel can be cut faster the is possible with oxygen
cutting. However, more metals are removed because kerf is wider.

3.10.3 Air Carbon Arc Cutting :

Air carbon arc cutting process uses an arc to melt metal which is blown away by a high velocity jet of compressed air. The
electrodes are hard rods made from a mixture of graphite & carbon and coated with a layer of copper to increase their
current carrying capacity.
In this cutting process the depth and contour of the groove are controlled by the electrode angle, travel speed and current.
Grooves up to 25 mm deep can be made in a single pass in this process.

4.0 WELDABILITY & WELDING METALLURGY

AWS defines weldability as “Weldability is the capacity of a metal to be welded under the fabrication condition imposed, into
a specific, suitable designed structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service”. The definition underlines the
fact that weldability is not an intrinsic property of the a metal like density or hardness, but is determined by several
extraneous factors. Also a metal can have several degrees of weldability depending on the process, procedure and service
conditions. For examples Aluminium is not easily weldable if SMAW is used but is readily weldable by TIG welding. Cast Iron is
considered weldable if the given purpose is repair a crack but is unweldable if the purpose is to fabricate a pressure vessel
out of it. Carbon Steel is normally considered to have excellent weldability but is not suitable for sub zero applications in the
welded form, because of its low notch toughness at low temperatures.

4.1 WELDING OF CARBON STEEL

Carbon steel represents a broad range of steel that content 1.0% Carbon (maximum), 1.65% Manganese (maximum) and 0.6%
Silicon (maximum). These steel do not contain alloying elements like Chromium, Nickel or Molybdenum. Carbon steel are sub-
divided into four categories based on their carbon content. Typical use and their weldability of these steels are as follows:

Common Name Carbon content Typical Use weldability

(%)
Low Carbon Steel 0.15 maximum Special plates and Excellent
shapes, sheet, strip,
Mild Steel 0.15 - 0.30 Structural shapes, Good
plates and bar
Medium Carbon Steel 0.30 - 0.50 Machine part and tools Fair (preheat and post weld heat
is normally required)
High Carbon Steel 0.50 - 1.0 Spring, dies, rails Poor (preheat post weld heat and
low hydrogen welding process is
required)

4.1.1 Main problems that are associated with welding of carbon steel are :

Martensite transformation :
Martensite transformation is more predominant in steels where carbon percentage is more than 0.35%. Martensite is the
supersaturated solution of carbon in alpha iron. It is very hard and brittle. Martensite formation from austenite is
accompanied by increase in specific volume (about 3 percent) This is the main reason why larger stresses are set up in
weldment and crack can occur.
To avoid, this preheating is done prior to welding and post welding heat treatment is also done.
Hot cracking :
The other problem in plain carbon steel is due to presence of sulphur in steel. In steel sulphur easily forms iron sulphide,
which has a very low melting point, which remains liquid even when whole structure is solidified.
To avoid this we add Mn so that sulphur will form MnS because thermodynamically the formation of MnS is more favourable
than FeS. However in absence of Mn the maximum allowable sulphur is 0.04%. Phosphorous has also similar effect as sulphur.
But it if both sulphur and phosphorous are present we use high oxide (FeO) electrodes. These electrodes have oxygen
percentage of 0.2%.
Hydrogen induced Cracking :
Such cracking is also known as underbead cracking or delayed cracking. It generally occurs at temperature below 100 0C
immediately upon cooling or after a period of several hours. The time depends on type of steel, magnitude of welding stress
and hydrogen content of weld and HAZ. Hydrogen induced cracking in welded joints may be caused by stresses developed
from transformation hardening or by excessive stresses imposed upon the joint. Such cracking is associated with the combined
presence of three conditions,
1. The presence of hydrogen in the steel.
2. A microstructure that is partly or wholly martensitic.
3. A tensile stress at the sensitive location.
Hydrogen induced cracking will not take place if any one of these conditions is absent or at low level.
Strain ageing :
At certain position in solid's, nitrogen atoms diffuse to dislocations and cause segregation. This segregation of nitrogen atoms
block the movement of dislocation, preventing the plastic deformation and leading to embrittlement. This phenomenon
occurs at 2500 C. Strain ageing is avoided by heating the weld at 600 0C.

Although carbon is the most significant alloying element affecting weldability, the effects of other elements can be estimated
by equating them to an equivalent amount of carbon. Thus, the effect of total content can be expressed in terms of a carbon
equivalent (CE).

CE = %C + (%Mn + %Si)
4
Fig. Shows in a general way the relationship between carbon steel composition (CE) and cracking sensitivity, or
weldability

Selection of electrodes :
Selection of welding electrode (or filler wire) is based on compatibility between base metal to be joined and service
requirement of the weldment. Carbon steel can be welded with essentially any classification of covered carbon steel
electrodes within certain limitation and service requirement. These limitations are the carbon and strength level of the base
metal and the restrain condition. The essential factors in selection of electrodes for carbon steel are
1. Mechanical Properties.
2. Material composition.
3. Cost .

1. Mechanical Properties : Carbon steel electrodes classified in the type E60xx series may be used for welding lower carbon
content steel. Where higher strengths are required, electrodes possessing higher weld metal deposits strength i.e. E70xx
series, are used. For full penetration welds, an electrode must be selected to ensure compatibility with the minimum
strength level of the base metal. For fillet welds, the matching of minimum strength properties may be compromised to
the extent of modifying the weld size.
2. Material Composition : Carbon steel which posses less than 0.3% carbon are readily weldable with any class of low carbon
steel electrode. Steels which posses a carbon content on the range of 0.3% to 0.6% carbon have restriction in the applied
welding procedure and electrode selection. In this range , low hydrogen electrodes are necessary. Preheating may be
required depending on carbon content, condition of restraint and service temperature. Post weld heat treatment may be
required depending upon service requirement. With carbon content above 0.6%, the welding procedure requires the same
precautions, but uses higher preheat temperature. Carbon steels containing over 0.05% Silicon require low hydrogen
electrode.
3. Cost : The principal factor when considering welding cost is deposition rate. This influences overall welding cost in two
areas: coat of labour and productivity. The higher the deposition rate, the greater the number of inches of weld that can
be produced per unit of time. Deposition rate, however, with its effect upon welding travel speed should not exceed the
maximum travel speed capability required to maintain quality welds.

1.3 Quality of Carbon Steel welds :

The welds in plain carbon steel can be divided into two groups depending upon their tensile strength.
1. Welds of high yield and ultimate tensile strengths.
This type of welds are produced by coated electrode or oxy-acetylene welding because these processes have high rate of
cooling thus having fine grain size which lead to high yield strength and high ultimate tensile strength.
2. Welds of low yield and ultimate tensile strength.
This type of welds are produced by submerged arc welding. In submerged arc welding whole weld metal is submerged in flux
blanket so heat dissipation is low leading to low cooling rate and thus large grain size, low yield and ultimate tensile
strength of the.

2.0 WELDING OF LOW ALLOY STEELS:

2.1 Introduction:
Alloy steel of these family contain0.5 to 9.0 percent of Chromium and 0.5 or 1 percent Molybdenum. The carbon content is
normally less than 0.20 percent for good weldability, but the alloys have high hardenability . The chromium provides
improved oxidation and corrosion resistance and molybdenum increases strength at elevated temperatures .Chromium-
Molybdenum (Cr-Mo) Steels are widely used in petroleum industries and in steam power generation and elevated temperature
application.
The Cr-Mo steels are readily joined by arc welding and brazing processes commonly used for carbon steels. The combined
carbon and alloy content of these steels is sufficient to promote the formation of Martensite from austenite on rapid cooling
which may be hard and brittle. Steels in this group are also very sensitive to hydrogen induced cracking. Therefore, the
welding process and procedures should minimise the presence of hydrogen during welding as well as the formation of
Martensite. To avoid these problems preheating and post weld heat treatment are done. Extent of preheat and post weld
heating is decided by “Carbon Equivalent” in the particular steel.
2.2 Carbon equivalent:
Although carbon is the most significant alloying element affecting weldability. The effects of other elements can be
estimated by equating them to an equivalent amount of carbon. Thus the effect of total alloy content can be expressed in
terms of carbon equivalency (CE).
CE = %C + %Mn +{ %Cr + %Mo + %V} +{ %Si + %Ni + %Cu}
6 5 15
Steels having CE less than 0.35 usually require no preheating and post heating. Steels having CE between 0.35 and 0.55
usually require preheating, and steels with CE 0.55 and above may require both preheating and post heating.
Because the carbon equivalent is calculated from base metal composition and includes no other variable, it is only an
approximate measure of weldability or susceptibility to weld cracking. Section thickness or weldment restraint are of equal or
greater importance.

2.3 Joint design :

Joint design used for welding carbon steel by a specific process are suitable for welding the Cr-Mo steels. Sharp corners and
rapid change in section size are to be avoided. Butt joints are to be preferred, Fillet welds should only be used under
condition of low stress. Fit -up for single welded joints should assure complete joint penetration without melt thru.

2.4 Preheating:
Preheating is required in most cases to prevent hardening and cracking. Recommended minimum preheat and inter pass
temperatures for various thickness of Cr-Mo steels are given bellows.
Base metal group Nom. wall thick. (mm) Min. Temperature (0C)
Alloy steel Cr < 1/2 % <12.7 >12.7 10 80
1
Alloysteel /2%< Cr All 150
< 2%
Alloysteels 2 1/4 <Cr All 175
< 10 %
The method of heating should be one that will provide a uniform temperature along the entire joint length before welding is
started. Also the width of the heated area should be sufficient to ensure that the temperature is nearly uniform through out
the thickness.
2.5 Welding consumables:
The filler metal should have the same nominal composition as the base metal, except for the carbon content. Normally the
carbon content is lower than that of the base metal. Suggested welding consumables are given below.

Alloy steels Electrode for SMAW Filler wire for GTAW

1
/2 Cr -1/2 Mo E80XX-B1 ER80X-B2L
1Cr- 1/2Mo, 1- 1/4Cr- E80XX-B2, orB2L ER80X-B2 or B2L
1
/2Mo
2Cr- 1/2Mo, 2- 1/4Cr- E90XX-B3 or B3L ER90X-B3 or B3L
1Mo
3Cr-1Mo E90XX-B3 E502-XX ER90X-B3 ER502
5Cr-1Mo E502-XX ER502
7Cr- 1/2Mo E7Cr-XX ER502; or ER505
9Cr-1Mo E505-XX ER505

2.6 Postweld Heat Treatment:

A stress relief heat treatment is used to reduce welding stresses and also to increase the ductility and toughness of the weld
metal and heat affected zone(HAZ). The welded joint or the entire weldment is heated to some temperature below the
temperature at which the steel will begin transformation to austenite. Recommended temprature and holding time for alloy
steels are given below :
Base metal group Nominal wall temperature Hr/in nomi. wall Min. Time
thickness range thick.
Alloy steel Cr < 1/2 <19 >19 none 595- -- 1 -- 1
% 720
Alloy steel <12.7 none 705- -- 1 -- 2
1
/2%<Cr<2% >12.7 745
Alloy steel All 705 1 2
21/4<Cr<10%

3.0 WELDING OF CAST IRON

3.1 Introduction :
Normally carbon percentage in cast iron is 1.7 to 4.5. Carbon may be in graphite form or in combination.
(I) Graphite may be present in form of
(a) Flakes------ known as grey cast iron
(b) Nodules-----known as Nodular cast iron
(c) Semi-nodules-known as Malleable cast iron
(I) When carbon is present in combination (as Fe C) the cast iron is known as white cast iron.
Cast iron can be thought of steel and graphite. The steel part forms the matrix and like steel it can be hardened and soften
with suitable heat treatment.
 3.2 Problems in Cast iron welding :
Unlike steels, in cast iron an excess of carbon is immediately available in the matrix. When cast iron is heated during welding,
the matrix becomes locally enriched in carbon and upon rapid cooling (which normally occurs in welding) the weld can
become very hard and brittle due to martensite transformation. Because of this metallurgical factor, cast irons are more
difficult to weld than carbon steel.
The ferritic grade of grey and nodular cast iron do not form austenite on heating and no martensite on cooling, because
nearly all the carbon is in the form of graphite and the time at temperature above the transformation range is too short for
diffusion of carbon from graphite.
The pearlitic grade of grey and semi-nodular cast readily form martensite, when rapidly cooled after welding from above the
transformation temperature, because combined carbon content of pearlitic matrix is readily dissolved by diffusion, to form
high carbon austenite. Hence preheating and post heating are required for these welds.

3.3 Precautions to be taken during cast iron welding :

1. Use stringer bead technique.
2. Use as low as possible temperature.
3. When no preheating is done, interpass temperature should not exceeds 110 0C.
4. When preheating is done, interpass temperature should not exceed
the preheat temperature.
5. Avoid excess melting of cast iron than is necessary for fusion.
6. When ever possible deposit two or more than two layers for good
machinability.

3.4 Welding electrode :

There are essentially four types of electrodes that are in use of cast iron welding.
3.4.1 Nickel base electrodes :
Nickel base electrodes are widely used for welding of grey, nodular and malleable cast iron. In these electrodes Nickel
content is 50 to 85% and Copper is 2.5 to 35% depending on weld property requirement. Iron and Manganese are also present.
ENi-CI and ENiFe-CI electrodes contain about 2% carbon also. When welding with these electrodes, excess carbon is rejected
and graphite causes an increase in volume which reduces shrinkage
stresses. Welds made by Ni base electrodes are relatively ductile and therefore easily machinable.
The hardness of deposited welds form Ni-base electrodes depend upon cooling rate. Preheating of 165 0C to 300 0C will add
machinability and help to reduce thermal stress.
3.4.2 Cast iron electrodes :
Cast iron electrodes are available for SMAW. The high temperature preheat is required for this type of electrodes. The
preheat temperature depend upon the degree of restrain and the requirement of machinability. A preheat of 220 0C is enough
where good machinability can be sacrificed. Temperature between 550 0C to 770 0C are necessary when restraint is high and
good machinability is desired.
3.4.3 Steel electrodes :
These contain low carbon steel core with special flux covering. Since the deposit is the steel, it readily picks up carbon and
produces a hard constituent in fusion zone. So these electrodes are used with a high temperature preheat and resulting welds
are annealed.
3.4.4 Copper base electrodes :
These electrodes are Cu-Sn and Cu-Al types. Arc welding with these electrodes can be considered a form of braze welding,
since filler materials are at much lower temperature so deposited welds do not harden with carbon pick up. A preheating of
1650C to 2000C and slow cooling is necessary to benefit the HAZ. These electrodes are also used in surfacing application for
producing surfaces that resist corrosion and wear.

4.0 WELDING OF STAINLESS STEEL:

Normally stainless steels are kept in five groups
(I) Austenitic stainless steel
(II) Ferritic stainless steel
(III) Martensitic stainless steel
(IV) Duplex stainless steel
(IV) Precipitation hardening stainless steel

4.1 Welding of Austenitic stainless steel :

Austenitic stainless steels, except for the free machining, are more weldable than ferritic and martensitic stainless steel. The
welded joint of this steel is characterised by high degree of toughness. Satisfactory welds are readily obtained if the welding
condition adopted are competent enough with physical and mechanical properties of austenetic stainless steel being welded.
However, the problems which arise during welding of Austenitic stainless steels are :

(a)Carbide precipitation :
This is also known as “sensitisation” of stainless steel. At high temperature 650 0C Chromium carbide is formed, which is very
hard and remains in weld as non-metallic inclusion. So in weld and HAZ a chromium depleted zone is formed and corrosion
resistance property of stainless steel is reduced in this zone. To prevent carbide precipitation, the following precautions are
being taken.
# Heat the welded structure to about 1100 0C and quench is taken
 # Add Niobium or tantlum or both in steel
# Use a steel of very low carbon ( C<0.015%)

(b) Microfissuring or Hot cracking:

In austenitic stainless steel microfissuring is predominantly related to micro-structure of weld metal. In the case of austenitic
stainless steel weld metal with wholly austenitic structure is more susceptible to microfissuring than weld metal with a
duplex structure of delta ferrite in austenite. This can be reduced by small increase of carbon / nitrogen or a substantial
increase in manganese.
It is important to minimise amount of stress imposed on austenitic stainless steel weld metal as it cools from solidus down to
about 9500C. It is in this temperature range that weld metal is most susceptible to microfissuring.

(c) Under bead cracking :

Under bead cracking often occurs when thickness is more than 3/4” and particularly if weld metal contains Cb or Ta.
The cracking is more susceptible if the Columbium forms Columbium carbide leading to cracking beneath the weld.

4.1.1 Electrodes or filler material selection :

TYPE OF AUSTENITIC ELECTRODE OR FILLER

STAINLESS STEEL MATERIAL RECOMMENDED
301, 302, 304, 305, 308, 308
302B, 309
304L 347, 308L,
303, 303(Se) 312,
309, 309(Se) 309
310, 310S 310
316 316
316L 316L, 318
317 317
321, 347, 348 347

 Preheating is not required in austenitic stainless steel.

 Stress relieving or post weld heating could be used to take care of stress dilution and stability. This is carried out at 660
C for 4 hrs per inch thickness. Though it is not necessary but desirable. But this could lead to carbide precipitation in the
weld.

4.2 Welding of Ferritic stainless steel :

Ferritic stainless steel is less weldable than austenitic stainless steel but better weldable than martensitic stainless steel. The
main problems involved in welding of this type of stainless steel are-

(a) Martensite formation :

Although most ferritic stainless steels have composition that ensures a ferritic structure, variation in composition in regular
limits can result in formation of martensite in a matrix of ferrite. the martensite reduces both ductility and toughness of
steel.

(b) In addition to formation of martensite, heating to temperature above 950 0C results in grain coarsening, which also reduces
the ductility and toughness of steel. Although martensite can be eliminated by annealing, the coarsened ferrite grain remains
unaffected.

Preheating :
Preheating of ferritic stainless steel is essential. Recommended temperature range for ferritic stainless steel is 175 0C to
2500C. The need for preheating is decided to a large extent by the composition, mechanical properties and thickness of steel
being welded. Ferritic stainless steel less than 1/4” thickness are much less likely to crack in welding when thickness is more
than 1/4” thick. However other factors like type of joint, joint location, restraints imposed by clamping and jigging, welding
process and rate of cooling from welding temperature also affect the weld cracking.

Post weld annealing :

The temperature range for post weld heat treatment of ferritic stainless steel is 800 0C to 8500C, which is safely below the
temperature for austenitic transformation. Annealing transforms a mixed structure to wholly ferritic structure and restores
the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance, that may have been adversely affected by high temperature encountered
during welding. Annealing, except for its inability to refine coarsened ferrite grain, is generally beneficial. However annealing
has disadvantage of consuming time and heat energy as well as producing scale on surface.
4.2.1 Selection of filler material :
Type of ferritic Electrode or filler material
405 405(Cb), 430
405, 430 308, 309, 310
430F, 430F(Se) 308, 309, 312
430, 430F, 430F(Se) 430
440 440, 308, 309, 310

Thus we see that both Ferritic & Austenitic stainless filler materials are used in the arc welding of ferritic stainless steel.
Ferritic stainless steel rods give similar properties as the parent metal but the use of austenetic stainless steel rods produces
welds of higher ductility.

4.3 Welding of martensitic stainless steel :

Welding of this type of stainless steel is more difficult than other stainless steels. Martensitic being hard phase, its weld metal
is most susceptible to cracking during solidification. Preheating and post weld heating are normally done during welding of
these stainless steels. For preheating following guidelines are used.
(I) Carbon below 0.1% - in general neither preheating nor post weld heating are required.
(ii) Carbon 0.1 to 0.2% - preheating of 250 0C is done
(iii) Carbon 0.2 to 0.5% - preheating of 300 0C is done
(iv) Carbon more than 0.5% - preheating of 350 0 C is done
Normally two type of post weld annealing are done, namely “subcritical annealing” and “full annealing”. The temperature
range for subcritical annealing and full annealing of martensitic stainless steels are as follows :

Type of martensitic stainless Subcritical annealing Full annealing temp. (deg C)

steel temperature (deg c)
403, 410,416 690 - 800 850-880
420 750 - 780 880 - 900
404 675 - 710 --
431 625 - 675 --
440A, 440B, 440C 690 - 800 880
Austenitic stainless steel filler materials are often used to weld the martensitic stainless steels. These welding rods provide a
weld deposit of somewhat lower strength but with greater toughness. However, 410 and 420 are only standard martensitic
stainless steel available in the form of electrode.

5.0 WELDING OF NICKEL ALLOYS:

The welding of nickel alloys (Monel, Inconel, incolloy) is similar to the welding of austenitic stainless steels. However, not all
of the processes are applicable to every alloy because of metallurgical characteristics or the unavilabilty of the suitable
welding material. Almost every commercially pure nickel and solid solution nickel alloys are readily welded by SMAW and
GTAW.
Gas tungsten arc welding is widely used for joining nickel alloys, especially for thin sections and for application where a flux
residue would be undesirable.
Direct current electrode negative (straight polarity) power is recommended for both manual and automatic welding.The
welding torch should be positioned with the electrode in a nearly vertical position. If the electrode is more than 35 0 from the
vertical air may be drawn into the shielding gas and cause porosity in the weld metal.

5.1 Joint design:

Molten nickel alloys weld metals do not flow and wet the base metal so readily as do carbon or stainless steels weld metals.
The groove angle must be large enough to permit proper manipulation of the filler metal and deposition of stringer weld
beads. Normally root gap is kept more (apporximately twice of root height) in comparison of carbon or stainless steels.

5.2 Preheat:
Preheat is not required nor recommended for welding nickel alloys. However, the area to be welded should be at about 20 0C
or above to avoid moisture condensation that could produce weld metal porosity. The interpass temperature should be low to
help minimize total heat input. A maximum temperature of 100 0C is recommended for some corrosion resistant alloys.
5.3 Filler metals:
Filler metals selection for nickel alloys are, in general, of same composition to that of base metal. Nickel filler metals
frequently contain additions such as titanium, manganese and columbium to control porosity and hot cracking.
A list of commonly used nickel alloys filler metal are given below:

Base metal Filler metal for GTAW

Monel 400 / R405 / K500 ERNiCu-7
Monel 450 ERCuNi
Inconel 600 / 601 ERNiCr-3
Inconel 625 ERNiCrMo-3
 Inconel 718 ERNiFeCr-3
Incolloy 800 / 800H / 800HT ERNiCrMo-3

5.4 Postweld Heat Treatment :

Postweld heat treatment are usually not needed to restore the corrosion resistance of nickel,nickel-copper, nickel-chromium
alloys. The nickel-chromium and nickel-iron-chromiumalloys, like some austenetic stainless steels, can exhibit carbide
precipitation in the weld HAZ.
Welding of Ni-Mo and Ni-Si can influence the corrosion resistance of the metal in the HAZ. Generally the weldments should be
solution annealed to restore corrosion reisitance.

WELDING OF TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS :

Titanium and most of Titanium alloys can be welded by Gas Tungsten Arc, Plasma Arc, and Gas Metal Arc welding. Because
Titanium and Titanium alloys are extremely reactive above 500 Deg C, additional precaution must be taken to shield the weld
and hot root side of the joint from air.

Titanium alloys can be divided into five major groups as :

1. Commercially pure Titanium
2. Alpha Alloys
3. Near Alpha Alloys
4. Alpha Beta Alloys
5. Beta Alloys

Important alloys of each group and their weldability rating is given as below :

ALLOYS RATING
Commercially pure Titanium Excellent
ALPHA ALLOYS
Ti-0.2 Pd Excellent
Ti-5 Al-2.5 Sn Fair to good
Ti-5 Al - 2.5 Sn ELI Excellent
NEAR ALPHA ALLOYS
Ti -8 Al -1 Mo -1V Excellent
Ti - 6Al - 2Cb - 1Ta -0.8Mo Excellent
Ti -6Al-4Zr-2Mo-2Sn Fair to Good
ALPHA BETA ALLOYS
Ti-6Al-4V Fair to Good
Ti-6Al-4V ELI Excellent
Ti-7Al-4Mo Limited to special applications
Ti-7Al-6V-2Sn Limited to special applications
Ti-8Mo Welding not recommended
BETA ALLOYS
Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al Fair to Good

WELDING PROCEDURE :
Gas Tungsten arc welding is most widely used for Titanium and Titanium alloys, except large thickness. Square groove butt
joints can be welded without filler material in base metal up to 0.1 inch thick. Gas metal arc welding is required to join
Titanium and Titanium alloys more than 1/8 inch thick. Plasma arc welding is also suitable for welding of Titanium and
Titanium alloys. It is faster than GTAW and can be used on thicker sections, such as one pass welding of Titanium plate up to
0.5 inch thick.

FILLER METALS:
For welding Titanium thicker than 0.1 inch by GTAW process, a filler metal must be used. For PAW a filler metal may or may
not be used for welding less than half inch thick.
Fourteen Titanium and Titanium alloys filler metal classifications are given in AWS A5.16. Five of these are essentially
commercially pure Titanium and rest are Titanium alloy filler metals.
Filler metal composition is usually matched to the grade of Titanium being welded. For improved joint ductility in welding the
higher strength grades of unalloyed Titanium, filler metal of yield strength lower than that of base metal is used. The use of
unalloyed filler metals lowers the beta content of the weldment thereby reducing the strength of transformation which
improves the ductility.

JOINT PREPARATION :
If the welding is done outside a controlled atmosphere welding chamber, joint must be carefully designed so that both top
and the underside of the weld can be shielded. For welding Titanium and Titanium alloys, the joint fit up should be better
than for welding other metals, because of possibility of entrapping air in the joint. Dimension of typical joints are given in
table :
BASE METAL THICKNESS ROOT OPENING (in) GROOVE ANGLE WELD BEAD WIDTH
(in.) (deg) (in)
SQUARE GROOVE
0.01 to 0.09 0 -- --
0.09 to 0.125 0 to 0.1t -- --
SINGLE V-GROOVE
0.62 to 0.125 0 to 0.1t 30 to 60 0.1 to 0.25t
0.125 to 0.250 0 to 0.1t 30 to 60 0.1 to 0.25t
DOUBLE V-GROOVE
0.25 to 0.5 0 to 0.2t 60 to 120 0.1 to 0.25t

CLEANING :
To obtain a good weld, the joint and the surfaces of the workpieces at the at least 2” both side of the weld must be
meticulously cleaned. Grease and oil accumulated during forming and machining must be removed to avoid weld
contamination.

PROTECTION DURING WELDING :

Gas shielding process are most commonly used for welding titanium alloys. These processes are normally designed to shield
only the molten metal pool and adjacent base metal from atmosphere. In the case of titanium, and titanium alloys, such
shielding is totally inadequate, because of the sensitivity of these alloys to embrittlement by oxygen and nitrogen when
heated above 2600C. During welding, inert gas shielding must be provided for :
1. The molten weld pool and adjacent base metal (Primary shielding)
2. The solidified weld metal and HAZ which are still hot after the arc has proceeded (Secondary shielding)
3. The heated back side of the weld joint (Backing).

Primary Gas shielding is provided by the TIG torch nozzle or the MIG gun Nozzle, Whose size ranges between 12.5 and 19 mm.
Usually the largest nozzle size which will good accessibility and visibility is used. It is preferable to use nozzle which provide
laminar flow of the shielding gas, because even slight turbulence in the gas flow induces air to mix with gas.
Secondary shielding is provided by a trailing shield. It consist of a metal chamber clamped to the torch nozzle. The inert gas
flows through a porous metal diffuser screen and impinges itself over the hot weld area. Its length varies according to the
heat input and the rate of arc travel. The shield is made to cover also the width of the HAZ on either side of the weld bead.
Backing gas shielding is achieved through temporary backing bars or ring provided with gas passages. The backing bar serves
to abstract heat from and accelerate the cooling of the weld, which reduces gas consumption. The bar is made of Copper or
Stainless Steel and may be water cooled.

WELDING OF ALUMINIMUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS:

Aluminium is known for its light weight and corrosion resistance. Its density is about 0.1 lb/in 3, which is approximately one
third that of steel or copper. Itr has good corrosion resistance to air, water, oils, and many chemicals.
6.0 WELDING OF DISSIMILAR METALS:
In the fusion welding of the dissimilar metal joints, the most important consideration is the weld metal composition and its
properties. Its composition depends upon the composition of the base metals , the filler metal, if used, and the relative
dilution of these. General considerations are :-

1.1 Dilution : during fusion welding, metal from each member and the filler, if used, are melted together into the weld
pool. Upon solidification the weld metal will be either a single phase or a mixture of two or more phases. A phase can be
a solid solution , an intermetallic compound or an interstitial compound. Solidification and cooling rates also have a
significant effect on the phase present and the metallurgical structure of the weld metal.

6.2 Melting temperature : Jointing of dissimilar metals by fusion welding requires melting of both base metals. If the
melting temperatures are close (200 0F ) normal welding techniques and porcodures are satisfactory. When there is a wide
difference in melting temperature, the problems of the welding are quite complex. Significant difference in melting
temperature of the two base metals can result in rupture of the metal having lower melting temperature. Solidification and
contraction of the metal with the higher melting temperature will induce stresses in the metal while it is in weak, partially
solidified condition. This problem may be solved by depositing one or more layers of a filler metal of intermediate melting
temperature on the face of the higher melting temperature base metal. This procedure is known as buttering. The weld is
then made between buttered surface and the other base metal.

6.3 Thermal conductivity: Most metals and alloys are relatively good conductors of heat, but some are much better than
others. Rapid conduction of heat from the molten weld pool by an adjacent base metal may affect the energy input required
to locally melt that base metal. When two dissimilar metal of significantly different thermal conductivity are welded
together, the welding procedure must provide this difference.

6.4 Thermal expansion: The thermal expansion characteristics of the two dissimilar metal are an important considerations.
Large difference in thermal expansion coefficient of adjacent metals, during cooling, will induce tensile stress on one metal
and compressive stress on other. The metal subjected to tensile stress may hot crack during welding , or it may cold crack in
service.

6.5 Filler metal selection:

Selection of filler metal is an important factor in producing a dissimilar metal joint that will perform well in service. The
filler metal should be compatible with both base metals, and also be capable of being deposited with minimum dilution.

6.6 Selection Criteria :Two important criteria that should govern the selection of a proper filler metal for welding two
dissimilar metals are as follows:
1. The filler metal must provide the joint design requirement.
2. The filler metal must fulfil the weldability criteria with respect to dilution, melting temperature etc.

6.7 SPECIFIC DISSIMILAR METAL COMBINATION :

6.7.1 Stainless steel to carbon steel:

Stainless steel can be readily welded to carbon steel using a filler metal that can tolerate dilution by both base metals
without formation of flaws in the joints. An austenitic stainless steel or nickel alloy filler metal is commonly used. The choice
depends on the application on the application and service condition.

6.7.2 Nickel Alloys to steel :

Nickel alloys can easily be welded to steel using a suitable filler metal and proper control of dilution. Nickel base filler metals
are generally used because of their good ductility and tolerance of dilution by iron.
Sulphur and phosphorous in nickel alloys cause hot cracking . The melting technique used to produce nickel and its alloys are
designed to keep the content of these elements to low level.
Suggested filler metals for welding nickel alloys to CS/.SS

COMMON DESIGNATION FILLER METAL FORM FOR WELDING WITH CS FOR WELDING WITH SS
NICKEL COVERED ELEC. ENi-1 ENiCrFe-2 ENi-1; ENiCrFe-2/3
BARE WIRE ERNi-1; ERNiCr-3 ERNi-1;ERNiCr-3
MONEL 400 COVERED ELEC. ENiCu-7 ENiCrFe-2
MONEL K-500 COVERED ELEC. ENi-1 ENiCrFe-3
MONEL 502 BARE WIRE ERNi-1 ERNiCr-3
ERNiCrFe-6
INCONEL 600 COVERED ELEC. ENiCrFe-2 ENiCrFe-3 ENiCrFe-2 ENiCrFe-3
BARE WIRE ERNiCr-3 ERNiCrFe-6 ERNiCr-3 ERNiCrFe-6
INCOLOY 825 COVERED ELEC. ENiCrMo-3 ENiCrMo-3
BARE WIRE ERNiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3

5.1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

In the case of critical welded structures, destructive tests which verify the properties of external test specimens are not
adequate. To obtain increased assurance of high quality and serviceability of the actual structure, it becomes necessary to
subject all or a certain percentage of its welded joints to non-destructive testing (NDT).

The various commonly used NDT methods are described in the following paragraphs. These methods are complementary and
it is essential that the welding supervisor is thoroughly familiar with the basic physical principles of each method, so that he
can judiciously select one or more of these tests, bearing in mind the costs and the level of inspection demanded.

5.1.1 VISUAL INSPECTION

This is the first step of NDT. In fact, visual inspection should be used for all types of structures, critical and non-critical, even
when 100% radiography is specified. It is an easy and inexpensive method of practical quality control, which can prevent
occurrence of defects or detect their presence at any early stage while the welds are being deposited.

The only tools required for this method are a magnifying glass, a borescope, scales and gauges.

There are three stages of visual inspection : (1) before welding, (2) during welding, and (3) after welding.

5.1.2 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

This inspection method is applicable only to magnetic materials, and can detect surface discontinuities even when they are
too fine to be seen with the necked eye, defects that lie slightly below the surface, and even discontinuities at greater depth
when special equipment is used. The defect it can detect are surface cracks in the weld and the HAZ; laminations on the
prepared joint edges; incomplete fusion and undercut; subsurface cracks, porosity and slag inclusions; and inadequate joint
penetration.
The method is based on the principle that when a magnetic field is set up in a piece of ferromagnetic material having defects
in the path of the magnetic flux, minute magnetic poles are created at these defects. These poles have the property of
attracting magnetic particle more strongly than the surrounding surface of the piece. Thus if the piece to be inspected is
magnetised by passing a sufficiently high current through it and the areas to be inspected covered by finely divided magnetic
particles, these particles form a pattern or indication on surface, and magnetisation takes the rough shape of the defect,
which becomes clearly visible when the surplus magnetic powder is removed. This occurs only when the defect is
perpendicular to the flux path. If the defect lies parallel to the flux path, no such pattern will appear and the defect will lie
undetected. The best indications are obtained when the current is flowing parallel to the discontinuity, because the magnetic
field is always at right angles to the current flow.
For additional information, reference should be made to the following documents:
ASTM E-109, Method for Dry Powder Magnetic Particle Inspection
ASTM E_138, Method for Wet Magnetic Particle Inspection.

5.1.3 LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

This method uses certain types of liquids which have the property of entering into fine surface discontinuities by capillary
action, and remaining there when the excess liquid is removed. A suitable developer is then applied. Against the background
of this developer, the retained penetrant stands out by contrast and reveals the defect.

There are two distinct methods of penetrant inspection, viz. fluorescent and visible dye. The first method involves use of a
liquid that fluoresces under black light, which is near ultraviolet light and just beyond the range of the visible spectrum.
Fluorescent penetrants are either basically water-washable or require the application of an emulsifier to render them water-
washable. Visible dye technique uses a penetrant which carries a red dye that contrasts sharply with the background of a
white developer. Visible dye penetrants also are either directly water-washable or can be made so by the addition of an
emulsifier.

The surfaces to be inspected must be made completely free from slag, scale, grease, oil, paint, etc., and must be perfectly
dry. The penetrant is applied by brushing, spraying or dipping. A dwell time of about 15 minutes is allowed for the penetrant
to enter discontinuities. In the case of a directly water-washable penetrant, the excess is rinsed off with a water spray. If the
penetrant and the excess rinsed off with water.

Developers are either in the form of dry powder, suspension in water or non-aqueous wet developer. Dry developer is applied
by dusting on the completely dry part. Suspension-type wet developers are applied by brushing or spraying.

After the developer has been applied, sufficient time must be allowed to draw or blot out the penetrant from the
discontinuity. In the case of the fluorescent dye, the part is finally examined under black light in a darkened room. The
defects glow brilliantly against the darker background. In the case of the visible dye, the defects show up as bright red
markings against the white background of the developer.

For further details, one should refer to ASTM Spec. E 165, ‘Liquid Penetrant Inspection’.

5.1.4 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

In this method of testing, ultra-high frequency sound waves are projected in the form of a beam into the material being
tested. The sound beam emanating from the transducer (sender and receiver) travels through the homogeneous medium in a
straight line until it meets an acoustic boundary. At the boundary, some of the sound is reflected in the same way as light
reflects from a smooth surface. The reflected sound is termed an echo. The time and amplitude of the echoes received are
analysed to provide the data.

When two different media are bonded together and their acoustic properties are similar (foe example, stainless steel cladding
on carbon steel), the amount of sound reflected is relatively small. When, for example, slag inclusions are present in a
weldment, the consequent difference in acoustic properties resulted in reflections of about 25% of the incident sound beam.
When a metal-gas interface exists, as in the case of a crack or incomplete fusion, the acoustic properties are so widely
different that 100% reflection occurs.

The manner in which sound beam reflected from boundaries is shown in Figure. In the case of normal incidence, the reflected
sound returns to the transducer over the incident path the same happens with a right angle corner. When the sound strikes at
an acute angle, the sound is reflected away from the incident beam. Reflections from smooth surfaces are smooth and direct.
But in the case of rough surfaces, a large amount gets randomly scattered.

The frequency of sound used for weld inspection is around 2.25 Mhz. At lower frequencies, the sound beam has greater
penetrating power, but isolated defects such as scattered porosity are likely to be missed. The higher frequencies, on the
other hand, are capable of picking up minute defects in a weldment.

Ultrasonic testing equipment consists primarily of electronic instruments to produce, receive and display electronic signals,
and a transducer which carries a small piezoelectric element capable of converting electrical signal generated in the
instrument into ultrasound. The element is contained in a solid block having acoustic damping properties.
A transducer may be straight-beam type or angle-beam type. With the former, the transducer is in direct contact with the
part and provides normal incidence. It provides simple test technique, but is not adequate for weld inspection. In the angle-
beam type, the transducer is mounted at an angle behind a wedge, which is either plastic or liquid,. At the interface between
the wedge and the test material, the sound beam may undergo refraction and the longitudinal sound wave in the wedge may
get converted into a shear wave in the test material. The effective angle in the test material is important and this is
controlled by proper selection of wedge material and its angle.

5.1.5 EDDY CURRENT TESTING

In this method, eddy currents are induced in a part by subjected it to the influence of an alternating electromagnetic field.
The frequency chosen to excite the field ranges between 500 and 20,00 Hz (cycles per second). The field is usually produced
by an inductor placed close to the part under test. The indicator can be of any shape and design depending on the geometry
of the part and on the type of defect to be detected.

When discontinuities are present in the part, they alter the magnitude and direction of the eddy currents. The alteration is
detected by a detector coil and the discontinuity is registered. Changes in the eddy current are interpreted by various
electrical variables such as voltage, current, impedance, phase or their combinations. These variables are electronically
analysed and the desired information obtained in useful form.
Eddy current testing is used almost exclusively in the mass production of elongated articles of uniform cross-section, such as
tubes, pipes, bars and billets.

In the case of welded tubular products, the inductor is in the form of coils that surround the material. If they are designed to
induce a circumferential current flowing through the entire tube wall, one can detect defects all over the wall of the tube.
However, to inspect only the longitudinal seam weld of the tube, detector coils are positioned tangent to the tube near the
weld. In this case, one can obtained more accurate information on the presence and magnitude of small defects. The
information picked up by the tangent detector coil is transmitted to the test circuit and analysed electronically.

Eddy current testing can be fully automated to provide automatic inspection at high speed and at relatively low cost. Under
certain conditions, the tests are useful for grading and classifying defects, since the indications produced are proportional to
the actual defect size.

5.1.6 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

Radiographic testing of weldments or brazements employs x-rays or gamma rays, or both, to penetrate an object and defect
any discontinuities by the resulting image on a recording or a viewing medium. The medium can be a photographic film,
sensitised paper, a fluorescent screen, or an electronic radiation detector. Photographic film is normally used to obtained a
permanent record of the test.

When a test object or welded joint is exposed to a penetrating radiation, some of the radiation will be absorbed, some
scattered, and some transmitted through the metal to a recording medium. The variations in amount of radiation transmitted
through the weld depend upon (1) the relative densities of the metal and any inclusions, (2) thru-thickness variations, and (3)
the characteristics of the radiation itself. Non-metallic inclusions, pores, aligned cracks, and other discontinuities result in
more or less radiation reaching the recording or viewing medium. The variations in transmitted radiation produce optically
constrasting areas on the recording medium.

The essential elements of radiographic testing are :

(1) A source of penetrating radiation, such as an x-ray machine or a radioactive isotope

(2) The object to be radiographed, such as a weldment

(3) A recording or viewing device, photographic (x-ray)) film enclosed in a lighttight holder

(4) A qualified radiographer, trained to produce a satisfactory exposure

(5) A means to process exposed film or operate other recording media

(6) A person skilled in the interpretation of radiographs

6.0 WELDING DEFECTS : THEIR CAUSES

IN WELDING, the main objective is to obtain sound, defect-free welded joints, but this is not always easy to attain. It has to
be admitted that perfect welds are almost impossible to obtain on a production scale. Normal welds always contain minute
slag inclusions or porosity as revealed in non-destructive testing. Such small imperfections, which cause some variation in the
normal average properties of the weld-metal are called discontinuities. When a discontinuity is large enough to affect the
function of the joint, it is termed a defect. Defects are caused by substandard welding consumables, faulty welding
procedures, insufficient workmanship, lack of cleanliness, unfavourable properties of the base metal, and extraneous
agencies such as low ambient temperature and atmosphere. Even when all these factors are taken care of, defects can and do
occur and they may be allowed or removed and repaired as dictated by the nature of the fabrication and its intended service.

Having realised that consistent production of radiographically perfect welded joints is an expensive exercise and gouging out
and repairing internal welding defects increases fabrication costs considerably, standard codes do permit limited levels of
defects based on fracture mechanics approach, taking into consideration the service conditions of the fabrication.

6.1 INCOMPLETE PENETRATION

This defect occurs at the root of the joint when the weld-metal fails to reach it or the weld-metal fails to fuse completely
with the root faces of the joint. As a result, a void remains at the root zone, which may contain slag inclusions. In a fillet
weld, poor penetration at the root zone can give rise to cracking.

Incomplete penetration is caused by incorrect size of electrode in relation to the form of joint, low welding current or
inaccurate joint preparation and fit-up. It occurs more often in vertical and overhead positions. A typical defect of this type
in a butt joint is shown in Fig.

In a butt weld where access is possible only from one side, adequate root penetration is ensured by using a temporary or
permanent backing and depositing the first pass with a sufficiently high current. When a butt joint is to be welded from both
sides, care must be taken to chip out or flame gouge the back of the first run before depositing the back run from the second
side of the joint. The groove formed after chipping or gouging must reach the sound metal and be wide enough to permit
proper manipulation of the electrode and ensure full penetration of the weld-metal while the backing run is being deposited.

In a fillet weld, adequate root penetration is ensured by using the correct size of electrode (4 or 5 mm diameter) and
sufficiently high current, and directing the arc towards the root during deposition of the root pass. The use of a small
electrode (3.15 or 2.5 mm diameter) at relatively low current does not necessarily mean improved penetration.

Rectification of this defect is a very costly proposition, because it requires removal of the entire thickness of the weld and
rewelding. Care must be taken that after removing the defective metal, a sufficiently wide groove remains, in which the
electrode can be correctly manipulated.

6.2 LACK OF FUSION

Lack of fusion is defined as a condition where boundaries of unfused metal exist between the weld-metal and base metal or
between adjacent layers of weld-metal. The term should not be confused with lack of penetration

This defect is caused by the presence of scale, dirt, oxide, slag and other non-metallic substances, which prevent the
underlying metal from reaching the melting temperature. It is also caused by improper deslagging of a weld pass, before an
adjacent or overlapping pass is deposited. When individual passes are badly placed or their surfaces are rough, thorough
deslagging becomes difficult. In such cases, the weld should be chipped or gouged before the next pass is deposited.

To prevent the occurrence of this defect, the following steps should be taken :

1) Keep joint surfaces clean

2) Use adequate welding current
3) Deslag each weld pass thoroughly
4) Place weld passes correctly next to each other.

Lack of fusion is rectified in the same way as lack of penetration.

6.3 UNDERCUT

This defect appears as a continuous or discontinuous groove at the toes of a weld pass and is located on the base metal or in
the fusion face of a multipass weld. It occurs prominently on the edge of a fillet weld deposited in the horizontal position.

It is usually caused by excessive welding current. It may also result from too high a speed of arc travel, wrong electrode angle
or excessive side manipulation. In special cases, it is caused by damp or improperly formulated electrodes.

The defect is rectified by filling up the undercut groove with a weld pass. If undercut is deep and contains slag, it should be
chipped away before rewelding. If the rectification is being carried out on thick joints and on high-tensile steels, the welding
procedure including preheating should correspond to the recommended procedure for the particular steel.

6.4 OVERLAP

This defect also occurs at the toes of a weld and consists of weld-metal which has overflowed on to the base metal surface
without actually fusing to the latter. It can be isolated, intermittent or continuous. It occurs more often in fillet welds and
results in an apparent increase in the weld size.
It is caused by an incorrect manipulation of the electrode, whereby the weld-metal flows away from the fusion zone. Use of
too large an electrode in relation to the welding position, and excessive current coupled with too low a welding speed also
promote its occurrence.

Overlap is rectified by grinding, chipping or gouging out the excess unfused weld-metal. Care should be taken to leave a
smooth surface.

6.5 SLAG INCLUSION

Non-metallic particles of comparatively large size entrapped in the weld-metal are termed as slag inclusion. The term should
not be confused with non-metallic inclusions which result from the metal-slag reactions in the molten weld pool and are finely
dispersed throughout the weld. Slag inclusions are detected by the normal non-destructive testing methods, while non-
metallic inclusions are observed in the weld microstructure at high magnification.

Slag inclusion usually occurs in multi-pass welds due to imperfect cleaning of the slag between the deposition of successive
passes. It may also be caused by heavy mill scale, loose rust, dirt, grit and other substances present on the surface of the base
metal or bare electrode.

To prevent slag inclusion, take the following steps:

1) Use proper welding consumables

2) Keep joint surfaces (especially gas cut surfaces) and bare filler wires perfectly clean
3) Avoid undercuts and gaps between deposited passes
4) Clean the slag thoroughly between weld passes.

To rectify this defect, the portions of weld-metal which contain slag inclusions must be removed and then filled with sound
weld-metal.
6.6 POROSITY

The presence of a group of gas pores in a weld caused by the entrapment of gas during solidification is termed as porosity.
The pores are in the form of small spherical cavities, either clustered locally or scattered throughout the weld deposit.
Sometimes the entrapped gas gives rise to a single large cavity, which is termed as a blowhole. In some rarer cases, elongated
or tubular gas cavities are presented. These are referred to as piping or wormholes.

Porosity is caused by:

a) Chemically imperfect welding consumables, for example, deficient in deoxidisers

b) Faulty composition of the base metal or electrode wire, for example, high sulphur content

c) Oil, grease, moisture and mill scale on the joint surface

d) Excessive moisture in the electrode coating or submerged-arc flux

e) Inadequate gas shielding or impure gas in a gas-shielded process

f) Low welding current or too long an arc

g) Quick freezing of the weld deposit.

Presence of small, finely dispersed porosity is normally not expected to affect the static and even dynamic properties of a
welded joint. However, excessive porosity, blowholes or piping must be guarded against, as they seriously impair these
properties. Their presence is detected by the conventional NDT methods. The defective portions must be removed and
rewelded.

6.7 CRACK

Crack is defined as a discontinuity caused by the tearing of the metal while in a plastic condition (hot crack), or by fracturing
of the metal when cold (cold crack). It represents a failure under stress of a metal when it is behaving in a brittle manner,
i.e. it is inclines to fracture without deformation.

Cracking can occur in the weld-metal, at the fusion line or in the base metal. Cracks may be classified according to location
and direction of line and they may range in size from large cracks which can be seen by the naked eye (called macrocracks),
to extremely small fissures which are detected with the aid of a microscope (called microcracks).

Hot cracks : These cracks occur at temperatures above 540C, and when observed under the microscope, are to have
travelled across the boundaries between the grains (intergranular). If the crack has extended to the surface, the fractured
surface is found to be coated with blue scale or possibly black scale.

A typical example is FeS (iron sulphide). In a solidifying steel rich in sulphur, the last trace of the liquid containing FeS will
not solidify until about 980C. Such hot shortness caused by sulphur can be avoided by having enough Mn in the steel, because
sulphur has higher affinity for this element than for Fe.

Hot cracks can also occur in the HAZ of the base metal when it contains complex carbides or intermetallic compounds of
lower melting points. Such cracks have been reported in the welding of Cr-Mo steel tubing having the following composition:
0.35%C, 1.0% Cr and 0.20% Mo.

Cold cracks : These cracks usually occur in the HAZ of the base metal, when this zone becomes hard and brittle due to its
rapid cooling after the weld-metal has been deposited, and sufficient hydrogen has been absorbed by the weld-metal from
the arc atmosphere. Joint restraint also contributes to its occurrence. Cold cracking is also referred to as hydrogen-induced
cracking and has been dealt with in detail during the discussion of weldability of steels.

Cold cracking is prevented by using:

a) A steel of lower carbon equivalent

b) Higher heat input during welding
c) Preheating
d) Low-hydrogen welding consumables

Crater crack: This crack tends to occur in the crater formed at the end of a weld bead, because the crater cools at a faster
rate than the rest of the bead, and because the crater solidifies from all sides towards the centre. Hence it is a form of
shrinkage cracking. Crater cracking is encouraged by elements like C, S and Cb, which are prone to segregation. To reduce
the possibility of its occurrence, the crater must be filled up properly with the weld-metal and the electrode withdrawn
gradually.
6.8 FAULTY WELD SIZE AND PROFILE

A weld, which is otherwise correctly deposited and formed, is termed faulty when it is different in shape and/or size from
that specified.

A butt weld is considered faulty if it has lack of reinforcement, excessive reinforcement or irregular profile. When the face
of a weld lies below the parent plate surface, the weld is said to have lack of reinforcement. On the other hand, when the
weld-metal is deposited in excess of the reinforcement required or specified, the weld is considered as having excessive
reinforcement.

All these faulty arise from the use of an incorrect welding procedure and will not occur if the following factors are correctly
specified and follow : (a) joint preparation and fit-up; (b) electrode size and welding current; (c) number and locations of
runs; and (d) welding speed or length of run per electrode.

In the case of a fillet weld, faulty weld size refers to undersize weld or weld of variable size as measured by the minimum leg
length. Faulty profile refers to excessive concavity or convexity, unequal leg lengths and irregular weld face.

Excessive concavity or convexity may be caused by an incorrectly formulated electrode, or by use of incorrect welding
current.

7.0 RESIDUAL STRESSES AND DISTORTION

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Because a weldment is locally heated (by most welding processes), the temperature distribution in the weldment is not
uniform and changes take place as welding processes. Typically, the weld metal and the base metal heat-affected zone
immediately adjacent to it are at a temperature substantially above that of the unaffected base metal. As the molten pool
solidifies and shrinks, it begins to exert shrinkage stresses on the surrounding weld metal and heat-affected zone area. When
it first solidifies, this weld metal is hot, relatively weak, and can exert little stress. As it cools to ambient temperature,
however, the shrinkage of the weld metal exerts increasing stress on the weld area and eventually reaches the yield point of
the base metal and the heat-affected zone.

Residual stresses in weldments have two major effects. First, they produce distortion, and second, they may be the cause of
premature failure in weldments. Distortion is caused when the heated weld region contracts nonuniformly, causing shrinkage
in one part of the weld to exert eccentric forces on the weld cross section.

The distortion may appear in butt joints as both longitudinal and transverse shrinkage or contraction, and as angular change
(rotation) when the face of the weld shrinks more than the root.

Distortion in fillet welds is similar to that in butt welds: transverse and longitudinal shrinkages as well as angular distortion
result from the unbalanced nature of the stresses in these welds.

Control of distortion can be achieved by a number of techniques. The most commonly used are those which control the
geometry of the weld joint, either before or during welding. Examples of these techniques include prepositioning the
workpieces prior to welding so that weld distortion leaves them in the desired final geometry, or restraining the workpieces so
they can not move (and distort) during welding.

Residual stress may be eliminated by both thermal and mechanical means. During thermal stress relief, the weldment is
heated to a temperature at which the yield point of the metal is low enough for plastic flow to occur and thus allow
relaxation of stress. In the process, the mechanical properties of the weldment may also change, usually but not always
toward a more uniform distribution across the joint.

Mechanical stress relief treatments will also reduce residual stresses, but will not change the microstructure or hardness of
the weld or heat-affected zone. Peening, proofstressing, and other techniques are applied to weldments to accomplish these
ends.

7.2 CAUSES OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

Residual stresses are those stresses that would exist in a body if all external loads were removed. Various technical terms
have been applied to residual stresses such as internal stresses, initial stresses, inherent stresses, reaction stresses, and
locked-in stresses. Residual stresses that occur when a body is subjected to nonuniform temperature change are usually called
thermal stresses.

Residual stresses in metal structures occur for many reasons during various manufacturing stages. Residual stresses may be
produced in many materials including plates, bars, and sections during rolling, casting, forging, etc. They may occur during
forming and shaping of metal parts by such processes as shearing, bending, machining, and grinding and during fabrication,
such as during welding.
Heat treatments at various stages can also influence residual stresses. For example, quenching produces residual stresses
while stress relieving heat treatments reduce residual stresses.

7.2.1 RESIDUAL STRESSES PRODUCED BY MISMATCH

Figure 6.6 shows a simple case in which residual stresses are produced when bars of different lengths are forcibly connected.
Tensile stresses are produced in the shorter bar, Q, and compressive stresses are produced in the longer bars, P and P’.

Figure 6.7 shows how a heating and cooling cycle causes mismatch resulting in residual stresses. Illustrated is the case in
which three carbon steel bars of equal lengths and cross sectional areas are connected by two rigid blocks. The blocks and the
middle bar are heated to 595C (1100F) and then cooled to room temperature while the side bars are kept at the room
temperature . The diagram of Fig 6.7 plotted with the stress in the middle bar against temperature, shows how residual
stresses are produced. Since the two side bars are resisting the deformation of the one middle bar, the stress in each side bar
is always equal to half the stress in the middle bar and opposite in sign from the equilibrium condition.

When the middle bar is heated, compressive stresses are produced in the bar because its expansion is restrained by the side
bars. As the temperature of the middle bar increases, the stress in it changes as shown by Line AB. The yield stress in
compression is reached when the temperature is approximately 170C (340F) as indicated by Point B. Beyond Point B, as the
temperature rises, the stress in the middle bar is limited to the yield stress at each corresponding temperature, as shown by
Curve BC.

When the temperature decreases below 595C (1100F) on cooling, the action in the middle bar is elastic again. The
compressive stress in the middle bar drops rapidly, changes to tension, and soon reaches the yield stress in tension, as
indicated by Point D. Then, as the temperature decreases further, the stress in the middle bar is once more limited to the
yield stress at each corresponding temperature, as shown by Curve DE. Thus, a residual tensile stress equal to the yield stress
at room temperature is set up in the middle bar. The residual stresses in the side bars are compressive stresses and equal to
one-half of the tensile stress in the middle bar. Line B’E indicates that residual stress of the same magnitude, which is equal
to the yield stress at room temperature, will be produced by heating the middle bar at any temperature exceeding 315 C
(600F).

7.2.2 RESIDUAL STRESS PRODUCED BY THERMAL STRESSES

Figure 6.8 shows schematically changes of temperature and stresses during welding. A bead-on-plate weld is being made along
the x axis. The welding arc, which is moving at a speed, v, is presently located at the origin, O, as shown in Fig. 6.8a.

The crosshatched area, M-M’, in Fig. 6.8a shows the region where plastic deformation occurs during the welding thermal
cycle. The ellipse near the origin O indicates the region where the metal is melted. The region outside the crosshatched area
remains elastic during the entire welding thermal cycle.

Figure 6.8b shows temperature distribution along several cross sections. Along Section A-A, which is ahead of the welding arc,
the temperature change due to welding, T, is almost zero. Along B-B, which crosses the welding arc, the temperature
distribution is very steep. Along Section C-C, which is some distance behind the welding area, the distribution of temperature
change is much less steep. Along Section D-D, which is very far from the welding arc, the temperature change due to welding
again diminishes to nearly zero.

Figure 6.8c shows the distribution of stresses along these sections in the x direction, x. Stress in the y direction, y and
shearing stress, Txy, also exist in a two-dimensional stress field.

Along Section A-A, thermal stresses due to welding are almost zero. The stress distribution along Section B-B is shown in Fig.
6.8c. Stresses in regions underneath the welding arc are close to zero because molten metal does not support loads. Stresses
in regions somewhat away from the arc are compressive because the expansion of these areas is restrained by surrounding
metal that is at lower temperatures. Since the temperatures of these areas are quite high and the yield strength of the
material is low, stresses in these areas are as high as the yield strength of the base metal at corresponding temperatures. The
magnitude of compressive stress passes through a maximum with increasing distance from the weld or with increasing
distance from the weld or with decreasing temperature. However, stresses in areas away from the weld are tensile and
balance with compressive stresses in areas near the weld. Thus, the stress distribution along Section B-B is as shown in Fig.
6.8c.

Along Section C-C, as shown in Fig. 6.8c, the weld metal and base metal regions near the weld have cooled and they try to
shrink causing tensile stresses in regions close to the weld. The distance from the weld increases, the stresses first change to
compressive and then become tensile.

Along Section D-D, high tensile, stresses are produced in regions near the weld, while compressive stresses are produced in
regions away from the weld.

7.3 DISTORTION AND ITS CONTROL

Distortion is a serious problem in welding. It creates difficulties in maintaining correct shape, dimensions and tolerances of a
finished fabrication.

Distortion is caused by unequal heating and cooling of a metallic body during welding. It is also caused by the contraction of
the weld-metal during solidification and cooling to room temperature and the contraction of the surrounding parent metal as
it cools from high welding temperature. When these portions contract, they try to pull the parts together and the result is
distortion.

A metallic body does not distort if it is heated as a whole uniformly and is then cooled as a whole uniformly and has freedom
to expand and contract freely in all directions. In welding, however, only the weld joint and its surrounding area are heated
up. This area has no freedom to expand and correct. Uneven contraction of the weld-metal and parent metal occurs. This
gives rise to stresses in the weld, in the two component parts making up the joint and in the entire fabrication. If the
fabrication is held firmly in a jig that gives no freedom of movement, the stresses will remain in the body as locked-up
stresses. But if there is some scope for movement, the stresses will find relief in distortion. Consequently, the shape and
dimensions of the welded fabrication will have changed when it returns to room temperature.

Thus in welding, selection between distortion and locked-up stresses has to be done as these are opposite effects of welding.

If the stresses are too high, cracking of the weld-metal may occur at a point of highest stress concentration. In such cases,
one must use extra ductile electrodes, that is, those which give high elongation value in all-weld tensile test. The danger of
cracking due to heavy restraint in the joint increases with joint thickness. On the other hand, light structures distort more
readily and have less locked-up stresses.

Distortion can often controlled by adopting a suitable sequence of welding. A correct welding sequence which reduces
distortion to a minimum does not remove or lower the locked-up stresses.