Welded Connections in High Strength Cold-Formed Steels

by

Gregory Hancock1, Tim Wilkinson2, Lip Teh3

Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering
University of Sydney
NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT

Cold-formed steel is being used more widely for routine structural steel design including portal
frames composed of open and/or closed sections. In Australia, cold-formed channel and Z-
sections made of G450 (zinc coated 450 MPa yield) sheet steel are used to construct frames by
welding. The cold-formed steel structures are normally designed to the Australian/ New Zealand
Cold-Formed Steel Structures Standard AS/NZS 4600:1996 which is based on the 1996 Edition
of the AISI Specification. The design rules for welded connections in the AISI Specification and
AS/NZS 4600 are based mainly on testing of mild steel (300 MPa) connections at Cornell
University in the 1970s and so may not be applicable to high strength steels.

Cold-formed tubular sections made of C450 steel (In-line galvanised 450 MPa yield) are also
used to construct portal frames with welded and sleeved knee connections. They are designed
to the Australian Steel Structures Standard AS 4100-1998 which is similar to the AISC LRFD
Specification. Recent research by Wilkinson and Hancock reported in the Journal of Structural
Engineering of the ASCE (March 2000) has shown that fracture may occur in the heat affected
zone of connections of this type.

The paper describes the results of two ongoing research programs investigating welded
connections in high strength cold-formed steel sections. The results of butt welds and fillet
welds are described at this stage. The nature and stress of fracture in the heat affected zone
are described in detail. The effect of heat input has also been investigated and is described.

1
BHP Steel Professor of Steel Structures, Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering,
University of Sydney, Australia, 2006
2
Lecturer, Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering, University of Sydney, Australia, 2006
3
Senior Researcher, Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering, University of Sydney,
Australia, 2006

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1. INTRODUCTION

This paper describes research on the effects of welding on the strengths of G450 Sheet Steel
manufactured to the Australian Standard AS 1397-1993 “Steel Sheet and Strip – Hot Dipped or
Aluminium/Zinc Coated” (1) and C450 Steel to the Australian Standard AS 1163-1991
“Structural Steel Hollow Sections” (2). The steels are quite different in their methods of
manufacture and so need to be studied independently for the effect of welding. However, both
steels suffer degradation in the tensile strength in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) of the welds
and so their structural behaviour is quite similar when tested for a welded connection in tension
and/or shear. Consequently, although the paper describes similar phenomena, it is based on
two separate research studies. The full study for the “Strength of Fillet Welded Connections in
G450 Sheet Steel” can be found in Teh and Hancock (3) and the full study of the “Effect of
GMAW on the Mechanical properties of In-Line Galvanised Cold-Formed Steel” can be found in
Wilkinson and Hancock (4). This paper separates the descriptions from the two studies, and
concentrates on material properties in the HAZ.

During the welding process, the grains of the cold-worked steel recrystallise, and the heat
affected zone will soften compared to the cold-formed hardness. Consequently, the ultimate
tensile strength (fu) in the heated affected zone (HAZ) may be less than the yield stress of the
parent material. There are several instances in which a steel structure has to demonstrate
ductile behaviour. In plastic design, the plastic hinges must rotate sufficiently for moment
redistribution to take place in the structure, in order to obtain the strength increase afforded by
plastic design. For seismic design, deformation capacity is essential to dissipate the energy
caused by the earthquake motion. In such cases, the joints of a steel structure are required to
show ductile behaviour. However, if there is a small HAZ in a welded joint, where the ultimate
tensile strength is less than the yield stress in the adjacent unaffected steel, the HAZ will
fracture before significant plastic deformations occur near the joint. This renders the structure
unsuited for plastic design or seismic applications. A previous investigation examining the
suitability of portal frame knee joints for use in a plastically designed structure constructed from
cold-formed rectangular hollow sections (RHS), found that under opening bending moment, the
connection fractured in the HAZ before large plastic deformation occurred. It should be noted
that the connection displayed adequate strength, as opposed to ductility, which means that it
was still suitable for use in elastic design.

1.1 G450 Cold-Reduced Zinc-Coated Steel to AS 1397

In Australia and New Zealand, the design rules for cold-formed steel members including
connections are specified in AS/NZS 4600 (5) which is similar to the AISI Specification (6). The
design equations for welded connections in thin sheet steels less than 3.0 mm (2.5 mm for fillet
welds) specified in the standard are adapted from the AWS D1.3 Structural Welding Code (7),
which is based on the testing results of Pekoz & McGuire (8) on double-lap welded connections
in mainly mild sheet steels. Since the welds in thin sheet steels are generally as thick as or
thicker than the sheets, and the weld metal must be at least as strong as the weaker of the
sheets being joined, these equations use the sheet material strength and the sheet thickness
(rather than the weld metal strength and the weld throat size) in determining the nominal
capacity of the connections. Unfortunately, it is not clear how applicable the equations are to
welded connections in high-strength sheet steels manufactured to AS 1397. In Clause 1.5.1.4 of
AS/NZS 4600, it is stated that “The effect of welding on the mechanical properties of a member
shall be determined on the basis of test on the full section containing the weld within the gauge
length. Any necessary allowance for such effect shall be made in the structural use of the

362
member.” However, no significant research has been conducted on welded connections in cold-
reduced high-strength sheet steels such as G450, G500 and G550 steels, which are
manufactured to AS 1397. Zhao and Hancock (9) have pointed out that as the tensile strength
of the steel is increased by cold working, the heat-affected-zone (HAZ) may play a more
important role in the strength of welded connections.

It is noteworthy that with regard to milder steels including cold-formed tubular sections, it has
previously been concluded that welding does not affect the steel properties significantly
(Wardenier & Koning (10)). This conclusion supports the existing design equation for the
nominal capacity of a transverse fillet welded connection in sheet steel, as specified in Clause
5.2.3.3 of AS/NZS 4600. It is also consistent with the statement of Pekoz & McGuire that a butt
or transverse fillet welded connection can be expected to develop the full strength of the sheet.
However, recent research by Chen et al. (12) shows that the tensile strength of the heat-
affected-zone (HAZ) of G550 sheet steel drops substantially from a nominal value of 550 MPa
to about 450 MPa. This considerable decrease in tensile strength due to welding puts into
question the applicability of current design equations to welded connections in cold-reduced
high-strength sheet steels such as G450, G500 and G550 sheet steels. Additionally, there is a
concern about the effect of reduced ductility especially of G550 steel on the ability of a (long)
welded connection to redistribute the stresses prior to fracture in the stress concentration area.
It may be noted that with regard to the tensile strength assumed in the design of bolted
connections in G550 sheet steel, liberalisation of the design rule which requires that the yield
and ultimate strengths be reduced to 75% was recently proposed by Rogers and Hancock (13).

This paper describes the laboratory tests conducted on full width transverse fillet welded
connections in 1.5-mm and 3.0-mm G450 sheet steels, which are cold-reduced high-strength
steels having a design yield strength of 450 MPa and a design tensile strength of 480 MPa.
These thicknesses represent the minimum and the maximum thicknesses commonly available,
respectively, for G450 sheet steel. The use of these thicknesses ensures that any proposed
design rules are applicable to the whole range of thicknesses available to the designer. The
G450 sheet steel materials used in the laboratory tests, which have a trade name GALVASPAN,
were manufactured and supplied by BHP Coated Products, Port Kembla. The coating class
designation is Z350, which indicates zinc coating of a nominal mass density of 185 g/m2 on
each side of the sheet steel. Tensile testing of the specimens was performed using a 2000-kN
capacity Dartec servo-controlled testing machine manufactured in Stourbridge, England, and an
MTS Teststar digital controller. Tensile loading of all specimens was in the rolling direction of
the G450 sheet steel. The main objective of the tests was to determine the tensile strength in
the HAZ of the G450 steel.

1.2 C450 In-line Galvanised ‘DuraGal’ Section Steel

A recent innovation in steel products in Australia is the DuraGal range of cold-formed in-line
galvanised hollow and open sections produced by BHP Structural and Pipeline Products
(formerly known as Tubemakers) (14). The typical steel strip used in the manufacturing process
has a nominal yield stress (fy) of 300 MPa. After cold-forming and in-line galvanising, the final
product has a nominal yield stress in the range 350 - 450 MPa, depending on the exact process
and the shape of the product.

If the sections are tubular, they can be designed to the Australian Steel Structures Standard AS
4100-1998 (15) where the weld strength is usually based on weld metal strength. If the sections
are open sections, they can be designed to AS/NZS 4600:1996 where the weld strength is

363
based on parent metal strength as described in 1.1 above. C450 tubular sections are specified
to the Australian Standard AS 1163 Structural Steel Hollow Sections (2).

This paper summarises the initial portion of a research project on C450 steel examining the
strength in the HAZ of butt welded connections.

2. TENSILE STRENGTHS IN THE HAZ

2.1 G450 Cold-Reduced Zinc Coated Steel to AS 1397

Each specimen was a double-lap transverse fillet welded connection consisting of two
350 u 130 u 10mm hot-rolled plates of Grade 450, manufactured to AS/NZS 3678 (16), abutted
together and joined by two 100 u 100mm G450 sheets as illustrated in Fig. 1. The weld length is
the same as the sheet width so that the tensile stresses are assumed to be uniform in the cover
sheets. As mentioned previously, the tensile load, which was transverse to the welds, was in the
rolling direction of the cover sheets. Each specimen was gripped at the hot-rolled plates on both
ends, and the distance between the two grips was approximately 400 mm. Such a set-up was
also used for subsequent double-lap connection specimens used to verify the reliability of
existing design equations and described fully in Teh and Hancock (3).

Although it is not the purpose of the present work to find the optimum welding procedure for
G450 sheet steel, two different electrodes and two different shielding gases were used for the
specimens. The two electrodes are 0.8-mm ES6-GC/M-W503AH wire and 0.9-mm ES4-GC/M-
W503AH wire, both of which are manufactured to AS/NZS 2717.1 (17) and are pre-qualified
welding consumables for gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) of G450 sheet steel according to
Clause 4.5.1 of AS/NZS 1554.1 (18). Both shielding gases are argon and carbon-dioxide based,
with one containing helium. The settings of the GMAW machine were varied from specimen to
specimen while ensuring that acceptable welds were produced. The welding voltage, current
and time were recorded using a WeldPrint monitoring machine (19).

Grade 450 hot-rolled plate

Fillet weld 100mm 130mm

G450 sheet cover

10mm

Fillet weld
Figure 1: Diagram of a HAZ Specimen

The welding procedure for each HAZ specimen is given in Appendix 1 of Teh and Hancock (3).
All the specimens failed in the HAZs of the cover sheets rather than in the welds, as illustrated
in Fig. 2, so it can be inferred that the weld fusion and penetration of each specimen were

364
satisfactory. Hydrogen cracking was not a concern as G450 sheet steel does not have a
sensitive microstructure and the double-lap joints were not highly constrained. It may also be
noted that both the electrodes used in the welding are hydrogen controlled as denoted by the
letter “H” at the end of the classifications.

Figure 2: HAZ Failure in 3.0-mm G450 Sheet Steel

The HAZ tensile strength fuh of each specimen is computed from the ultimate test load Pt and
the actual dimensions of the cover sheets. The actual dimensions are the average sheet width
and the average base metal thickness (with the zinc coating removed). The ultimate test loads
listed in Tables 1 and 2 were obtained using a stroke rate of 0.2 mm/minute, which translates to
strain rates of the order of 10-5 per second for the cover sheets. The average tensile strength of
the HAZs in the 1.5-mm sheet steel was found to be 488 MPa, and that in the 3.0-mm sheet
steel was found to be 495 MPa.

Table 1. Strength of HAZs in 1.5-mm G450 Sheet Steel

Arc energy 1.1 Dimensions Pt fuh fuh/fun
2
(kJ/mm) 1.2 (mm ) (kN) (MPa)

1.2.1.1 HAZ15.1 0.24 101u1.53 152.0 492 1.03

HAZ15.2 0.29 101u1.53 149.0 482 1.00

HAZ15.3 0.28 101u1.53 149.0 482 1.00

1.3 HAZ15.4 0.27 101u1.53 150.0 485 1.01

1.4 HAZ15.5 0.25 101u1.53 150.5 487 1.01

1.5 HAZ15.6 0.29 100u1.48 144.5 488 1.02

1.6 HAZ15.7 0.27 100u1.48 144.0 486 1.01

1.7 HAZ15.8 0.43 100u1.48 143.0 483 1.01

1.8 HAZ15.9 0.43 100u1.48 145.5 491 1.02

1.9 HAZ15.10 0.30 100u1.48 150.0 507 1.06

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The last columns of Tables 1 and 2 show the ratios of the measured HAZ tensile strengths fuh to
the nominal design tensile strength fun of 480 MPa specified in AS/NZS 4600 for G450 sheet
steel. It is evident that irrespective of the arc energy and the welding procedures, the tensile
strengths of the HAZs do not differ significantly from the nominal tensile strength, although they
are significantly lower than the actual tensile strengths of the corresponding coupons cut from
the same sheets. The average tensile strength of the 1.5-mm G450 sheet steel in the rolling
direction was found to be 596 MPa, and that of the 3.0-mm G450 sheet steel was found to be
529 MPa. Thus the close agreement between the tensile strengths of the HAZs and the nominal
tensile strength of 480 MPa used in the design of fillet welded connections is fortuitous.

Table 2. Strength of HAZs in 3.0-mm G450 Sheet Steel

Arc energy Dimensions Pt fuh fuh/fun

2
(kJ/mm) (mm ) (kN) (MPa)

1.9.1.1 HAZ30.1 0.46 101u2.97 302.0 503 1.05

HAZ30.2 0.53 101u2.97 284.0 472 0.98

HAZ30.3 0.55 101u2.97 280.5 466 0.97

1.10 HAZ30.4 0.52 101u2.97 298.0 496 1.03

1.11 HAZ30.5 0.48 100u2.97 298.5 502 1.05

HAZ30.6 0.48 100u2.97 296.0 498 1.04

HAZ30.7 0.63 100u2.97 294.5 496 1.03

HAZ30.8 0.63 100u2.97 305.5 514 1.07

1.12 HAZ30.9 0.65 100u2.97 302.0 508 1.06

More research is required to correlate the tensile strengths of HAZs in G450 sheet steel to the
virgin strength and the welding procedures used to produce the fillet welds. It is also noted that
while the average virgin strength of the 1.5-mm sheet steel is higher than that of the 3.0-mm
sheet steel, the reverse is true with regard to their average HAZ strengths.

2.2 C450/C400/C350 In-line Galvanised ‘DuraGal’ Section

Full strength butt welds were used to test the C400 and C350 steel.

2.2.1 Steel Properties

Rather than testing an entire butt welded connection between two RHS, it is more convenient to
perform a tension test on the flat faces of the RHS that have been welded together in the same
manner. To further simplify the production of test specimens and to avoid having to cut the flat
faces from the RHS, two flat bars of cold-formed DuraGal steel were connected. Currently, there
is no Australian Standard applicable to the manufacture of cold-formed open profiles, and hence
the sections are manufactured to an internal BHPSPP Specification, TS100. In most respects,
the properties of the cold-formed open profile sections are the same as those for the cold-
formed hollow sections manufactured to AS 1163.
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2.2.2 Weld Metal Properties

Two types of welding wire were used in the GMAW process. Autocraft LW1 (fyn = 390 MPa,
fun = 500 MPa) and Autocraft Mn-Mo (fyn = 530 MPa, fun = 630 MPa), to AS/NZS 2717.1 were
used. More details on the wire properties can be found in CIGWELD (20).

2.2.3 Typical Welding Parameters

Two methods of GMAW were employed, the “dip-transfer” and “spray-transfer” modes.
Generally, the spray transfer method requires a higher wire speed and higher current, and
consequently a higher heat input. It is not possible to include the full details of all welding
procedures in this paper, due to length requirements, however full details are given in Wilkinson
and Hancock (4).

25
Separate
flatbar
45 sections
12.5
Butt
weld

180 90 65
12.5
12.5

45

Figure 3: Dimensions and Location of Tensile Coupon within Welded Plate (all dimensions in
millimetres)

2.2.4 Test Procedure

Two 150 mm long plates were butt welded together. The sections were either 100 mm wide
(3.8 mm thick specimens) or 150 mm wide (8 mm thick sections). Different tests were
performed in accordance with AS 2205 (21).

A tensile coupon was cut longitudinally from the plate in accordance with AS 2205.2.1 (22) as
shown in Figure 3. The butt weld was located transversely at the middle of the coupon. The
tensile coupons were prepared and tested to AS 1391 (23). An extensometer was used to
measure strain. The coupons were tested in a 300 kN capacity SINTECH Testing Machine with
friction grips to apply the loading. A constant strain rate of approximately 1.0 × 10-3 s-1 was
used. In some cases the weld reinforcement was removed so that a completely flat coupon was
tested. In the remaining cases the weld reinforcement remained.

367
The properties of the weld metal itself were obtained by performing an all-weld-metal tensile test
to AS 2205.2.2 (24). Properties of the unwelded steel were determined to AS 1391.
Macro specimens were also cut from the specimens. However the results of the macro section
examination and Vickers Hardness tests are not presented in this paper

2.2.5 Test Results

The values of yield stress and ultimate stress can also be seen in Figures 4 to 7. Since the
steel is cold-formed there is no well-defined yield stress, and the yield stress quoted is the
dynamic 0.2% proof stress. The term dynamic is used since the stress was determined while
the testing machine was loading at a constant rate of stroke.

700 600
600 500
500 400

Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

400
300
300
200 Ultimate Stress (fu)
200 8 mm DuraGal Flatbar
3.8 mm DuraGal Flatbar Ultimate Stress (fu) Butt Welded LW1
100 Yield Stress (fy)
100 Butt Welded LW1 Yield Stress (fy)
0 0

Nominal

Parent

Weld

reinforced
Spray no

Dip no

Dip gap
Nominal

Parent

Weld

Spray no

Dip no

Dip gap
Spray gap

reinforced

reinforced
Spray gap

Dip gap
gap
Dip gap
gap

gap
gap

Figure 5: Results - 8 mm steel, LW1

Figure 4: Results - 3.8 mm steel, LW1

800 800
700 3.8 mm DuraGal Flatbar 700 8 mm DuraGal Flatbar
Butt Welded MnMo Butt Welded MnMo
600 600
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

500 500
400 400
300
300
200 Ultimate Stress (fu)
200 Ultimate Stress (fu)
Yield Stress (fy) 100 Yield Stress (fy)
100
0
0
Nominal

Parent

Weld

reinforced
Dip gap
Spray no

Spray no

MnMo
gap reo
MnMo

MnMo

Dip gap

MnMo
Nominal

Weld
Parent

Spray no

Spray no

Dip gap

Dip gap
MnMo

MnMo
gap reo

gap
MnMo

MnMo

reo
gap

Figure 6: Results - 3.8 mm steel, Mn-Mo Figure 7: Results - 8 mm steel, Mn-Mo

2.2.6 Discussion

Several observations can be made from the test results.

There is considerably more variation in the results of the 3.8 mm steel compared to the 8.0 mm
steel. There is a statistically significant drop in yield and ultimate stresses in the welded 3.8 mm
steel, compared to the unwelded material. The change in properties for the 8 mm steel is small.

The measured properties of the unwelded 3.8 mm steel are significantly higher than the nominal
properties. This is very common, but as a result, the strength of the 3.8 mm steel is higher than
that of the commonly used welding wire, Autocraft LW1. It is usual practice to match the
strength of the welding consumable to that of the parent metal. In two instances (3.8 mm, dip

368
method, LW1), fracture occurred in the weld rather than in the parent metal. For the
corresponding case using the spray method (higher heat input), failure occurred in the HAZ,
indicating that the higher heat input had reduced the strength of the HAZ by a greater amount
compared to the dip method.

Welding produces a greater percentage reduction in strength for the 3.8 mm steel, compared to
the 8 mm steel. The 3.8 mm steel is more heavily cold-worked to produce its higher nominal
strength compared to the 8 mm steel. Consequently, there is greater scope for strength
reduction in the HAZ. This is similar to the G450 steel described in Section 2.1.

The higher strength electrode (Mn-Mo) produced greater capacity in the 3.8 mm sections
compared to the LW1 electrode despite a similar heat input. The Mn-Mo electrode had an
almost negligible effect on the 8 mm steel, compared to the results of the LW1 electrode.

The higher heat input method of spray transfer compared to dip transfer produces a larger
reduction in yield and ultimate stresses.

There are several instances in which the ultimate strength of the welded 3.8 mm specimens
drops below the yield stress of the parent material. Consequently, a welded connection of this
type would not be able to provide the amount of ductility required for seismic or plastic design
applications. The ultimate strength of the welded 8 mm samples did not fall below the yield
stress of the parent material.

It should be noted that to utilise the available feedstock most efficiently, BHPSPP use virgin strip
with yield stress fyn = 360 MPa for the 3.8 mm flat bar, and a different strip with yield stress fyn =
300 MPa for the 8.0 mm flat bar. This is the most likely cause of the 3.8 mm steel exhibiting
strength considerably higher than the nominal properties. It is possible that BHPSPP may
change the feedstock, so that all DuraGal flatbars are produced from the 300 MPa strip. It is
possible that flat bar made from this material will not experience as significant changes in the
strength of the HAZ, compared to the product tested.

This paper has considered the preliminary results of the initial stage of this project. Future
examinations will consider microhardness determination, macro cross section examination, and
fillet welded specimens.

3. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the following test results of the specimens, the following conclusions can be made.

x For sections of G450 sheet steel which were transverse fillet welded to a Grade 450 plate.

The tensile strength of the HAZ in G450 steel is significantly lower than that of the virgin G450
steel for 1.5 mm and 3.0 mm sheets but is generally higher than the nominal tensile strength of
480 MPa. Hence they may still produce reliable designs as discussed by Teh and Hancock (3).

x For sections of cold-formed flats in C450 steel which were butt-welded together using either
the dip transfer method or the spray transfer method using either LW1 or Mn-Mo electrode.

There was a small reduction in the yield and ultimate stresses in the welded 8.0 mm steel
compared to the unwelded steel. The 3.8 mm samples displayed a more significant drop in
yield and ultimate stresses when welded, and the drop in strength was greater when the higher
369
heat input spray method was used. The 3.8 mm steel had a higher nominal strength than the
8.0 mm steel due to more cold working in the manufacturing process, so it is not unexpected
that this steel experienced a greater drop in strength when welded. Significantly, there were
some occasions in which the ultimate strength of the welded 3.8 mm specimens dropped below
the yield stress of the parent material.

4. REFERENCES

(1) Standards Australia, 1993, Sheet Steel and Strip-Hot-Dipped or Aluminium/Zinc-Coated,

AS 1397-1993, Standards Australia, Sydney, Australia.
(2) Standards Australia, 1991, Structural Steel Hollow Sections, AS 1163-1991, Standards
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Steels," Research Report No R802, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
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(4) Wilkinson T and Hancock GJ, 2000, “Effect of GMAW on the Mechanical Properties of
In-line Galvanised Cold-Formed Steel”, IIW Asia Pacific International Congress,
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(5) Standards Australia/New Zealand Standards, 1996, Cold-Formed Steel Structures,
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(9) Zhao, X-L and Hancock, GJ, 1996, “Welded Connections in Thin Cold-Formed
Rectangular Hollow Sections”, Connections in Steel Structures III, editors R Bjorhovde,
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(11) Wardenier, J and Koning, CHM, 1975b, “Ultimate Static Strength of Welded Lattice
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(12) Chen, YW, Dunne, D, Norrish, J and Szalla, J, 1990, “Effect of GMA Welding on
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(15) Standards Australia, Steel Structures, AS 4100-1998, Standards Australia, Sydney,
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(18) Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, 1995, Structural Steel Welding – Welding
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(19) Welding Technology Institute, 2000, WeldPrint, Build 2.70EN, University of Sydney,
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