Chapter 11

THERMAL ENVIRONMENT

Problems of heat stress are more common throughout industry than those presented by
a very cold environment. In addition, Singapore is a tropical country where heat stress is
often resulted as our daily temperature is relatively high and characterized by high
humidity.

Health and Safety professional must understand thoroughly all aspects of heat stress
and become familiar with control methods and programmes for workers exposed to
extremes of heat. Be it in construction, shipyard or manufacturing or any other industry,
our workforce deserve proper thermal environment as this nation propels into next
century, for economic pursuit.

Common terms
 Heat Stress
Heat Stress is the amount of environmental and physical work factors that make up the
total heat load imposed on the body. The environmental factors are air temperature,
radiant heat exchange, air movement are air vapour pressure. The physical work
contributes to the total heat stress of the job by production of Metabolic heat in the body
proportional to the intensity of the work. The amount and type of clothing also affect heat
stress.
 Heat Strain
Heat Strain is the series of physiological responses to heat stress. These responses
reflect the degree of heat stress.

 Heat Disorder
A variety of heat disorders can be distinguished clinically when individuals are exposed
to excessive heat. These disorders range from simple postural Heat Syncope(fainting)
to the complexities of Heat Stroke. Other Heat Disorders include Heat Cramps and Heat
Exhaustion.

 Acclimatization
A process of physiological adaptation that occurs on continuous exposure to heat. It is
characterized by increase in sweat rate, reduce in heart rate, reduce in body
temperature. The process may complete within two weeks and it is maximum in the first
week. The process usually is lost within 3 weeks.

 Metabolic heat
Metabolic process cause the body to produce heat when resting as well as when
working.
Metabolic heat generated by the average person sitting quietly is about 130 Watts.
In order to remain at a constant temperature, this metabolic heat must be got rid off by
transfer of heat to the surrounding environment. The value M, to be seen later, is always
a positive value.

 Evaporative heat
When a body feels hot or warm, it perspires so as to cool down. This is done via
evaporation process. The Evaporative heat loss from the body is signified by E.

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Vapourisation of perspiration reduces body heat and, therefore its value is always
negative.

BASICS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Whenever temperature differences exist between two or more bodies, heat can be
transferred. Net heat transfer is always from the body(or object) of higher temperature to
the body of lower temperature and occurs by one or more of the following mechanisms.

1)Convection.
The transfer of heat from one place to another by moving gas or liquid. Natural
convection results from differences in density caused by temperature differences. Thus
warm air is less dense than cool air. Warm air rises relative to the cool air, and vice
versa.

2)Radiation.
The process by which energy(heat), electromagnetic(visible and infrared), is transmitted
through space without the presence or movement of matter in or through this space.

3)Conduction
(Note: this mechanism is not applicable or ignored in this session of lesson)
The transfer of heat from one point to another within a body, or from one body to
another when both bodies are in physical contact. While conduction can be a localized
source of discomfort from direct physical contact with a hot or cold surface, it normally is
not a significant factor to total heat stress.

SOURCES OF HEAT

Heat may come from many sources. The travel mode can be either conduction,
convection or radiation.

Typical sources of heat are:

1. Sunlight
2. Hot furnace
3. Household Heaters
4. Lightings
5. Burning materials etc
6. Engines

In addition, our body generates heat via metabolism. Man needs metabolism process in
order to live on. The metabolic heat generated is for man to sustain life. However, it is
worthwhile to note that different activities in man result in varying values of metabolic
heat. A man who is actively engaging himself is having a more generation of metabolic
heat as compared to a man who is idling or sleeping.

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EFFECTS OF HEAT

Excessive heat may cause:

 Discomfort
 Loss of productivity
 Heat disorders such as heat stroke, heat exhaustion, heat cramps, heat syncope or
even rashes.

It is important to know that when body fails to cope or dissipate heat stress, heat strain
may set in and this would lead to heat disorders subsequently.

THERMAL COMFORT

A comfortable environment is a result of simultaneous control of temperature, humidity

and air distribution within a person’s vicinity.
The factors influencing are mean radiant temperature, air temperature etc.
For C.E.T, the comfort range is 22.6 – 26.7 C.

THERMAL ENVIRONMENT MEASUREMENT

The common measurements in this session are:

1) Dry-bulb temperature
This is the temperature of air as registered by a thermal sensor such as an ordinary
mercury-in-glass thermometer shielded from direct radiant energy sources. The
psychrometer provides a convenient means of measuring air-temperature.

2) Wet-bulb temperature
The psychrometric wet bulb temperature is registered by using psychrometer.

3) Relative humidity
This value(humidity) can be obtained from temperatures of wet bulb and dry bulb upon
incorporation in the psychrometric chart.

4) Globe temperature
Radiant heat from sources such as hot metal, open flames, and the sun has little heating
effect on the air it passes through. Its energy is absorbed by any object it strikes, thus
heating the person, wall or whatever solid object it falls upon. Radiation can contribute
substantially to heat stress imposed on the worker. Globe thermometers are used to
evaluate this factor.

5) Air velocity
The speed of air movement at the workplace makes a major contribution to evaporative
and convective heat exchange by man and can be measured by various type of
anemometers. This measurement is usually expressed in meters/sec.

6) Kata Thermometer
This is an alcohol-in-glass thermometer having a large silvered bulb at its base and a
small bulb at the top of the stem, which is inscribed a mark top and bottom
corresponding to a temperature different of 3 C.

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7) Radiant Heat
Via Globe Thermometer

8) Air speed
Via Kata Thermometer

HEAT EXCHANGE AND HEAT BALANCE

Heat Exchange

The net heat exchange between a person and the ambient environment can be
expressed by:

H = M + C + R - Ereq

Where:
H= body heat storage load
M: Metabolic heat, always positive
R: Radiant heat, can be positive or negative
C: Convective heat, can be positive or negative
E : Evaporative heat, always negative

Note that H is a measure of thermal load. When H = 0 , the body is in thermal equilibrium

Heat Balance

If H=0, for the same equation above, this shall lead to:

Ereq = M + C + R

Man requires to maintain the temperature of his body within certain limits. Normal
temperature of body is approximated to be 37C with a plus/minus of 0.5C. To keep the
deep body temperature in equilibrium, the amount of Heat Gain by the body must be
equal to Heat Loss from it.

Heat Gain = Heat Loss

Note: For “heat balance” or thermal equilibrium, Heat gained(production) = Heat Loss.

The four parameters involved in the equation are convection(C), radiation(R),

evaporation(E) and metabolism(M).

The heat load(if any) imposed or generated must be dissipated if the body is to remain in
thermal equilibrium.

TYPES OF HEAT INDEX

There exist many forms of thermal indices and these come mainly from two groups.
Namely(a) Heat Stress indices and (b) Thermal Environmental Indices.

(a) Heat Stress Indices

1) Heat Stress Index: HSI
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2) Predicted 4-hour sweat rate: P4SR

(b) Thermal Environmental Indices

1) Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index: WBGT
2) Corrective Effective Temperature: CET

HEAT STRESS INDEX(H.S.I.)

H.S.I. = (Ereq / Emax) x 100 %

Scenario Interpretation

H.S.I. < 100 % Cold

H.S.I. = 100 % Just nice

H.S.I. > 100 % Hot

Workers experience heat strain

Heat required to be removed;

Ereq = M + C + R

Where
M: Metabolic heat
R: Radiative heat
C: Convective heat

For computation of H.S.I, there are situations where clothing condition may vary.
Clothing condition influence heat gain or dissipation, thus it has to be accounted for.
Clothing conditions are generally broken down into two situations, namely; “Fully
clothed” and “Stripped to waist”.

 Fully clothed condition

Parameters Unit

Emax = 12.5 x V0.6 x (56.2 - Ps ) Watts

Convective, C = 8.1 x V0.6 x (Ta - 35 ) Watts

Radiative, R = 7.93 x (Tr - 35 ) Watts

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 Stripped to waist condition
Parameters Unit

Emax = 21.0 x V0.6 x (56.2 - Ps ) Watts

Convective, C = 13.6 x V0.6 x (Ta - 35 ) Watts

Radiative, R = 13.2 x (Tr - 35 ) Watts

 Where(in both cases of “Fully Clothed” and “Stripped to waist”):

Parameters Unit

Temperature of solid surround walls(Tr)

Tr = Tg + 1.8 x V0.8 (Tg - Ta ) C

And:

Ps is expressed in mBars.
Note:
1. 1 atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHG = 1013mBars=101.3 kPa
2. Skin temperature is approximated to be 35 C
3. Vapour pressure of wet skin is approximated to be 56.2 mBars.

V, the air velocity, is expressed in m/s.

Ps , the water vapour pressure in the air, is expressed in mBars.
Ta , the ambient air temperature, is expressed in C
Tg , the globe temperature, is expressed in C

Ps , the water vapour pressure in the air, is expressed in mBars.

It is given as: Ps = Pss – (6.67x 10-4) x Pat x (Ta - Tw)

Where
Pat , the atmospheric pressure, is expressed in mBars.
Pss , the saturated steam pressure(at Tw), is expressed in mBars.

Maximum Exposure(work) Time

This term is also known as Allowed Exposure Time(AET).

Parameters Unit

Maximum Work Time = 4400/( Ereq - Emax) Minutes

Minimum Rest Time

This term is also known as Required Rest Time(RRT).

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Parameters Unit

Minimum Rest Time = 4400/( Emax - Ereq) Minutes

WBGT INDEX

WBGT index represents Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature index. It is the combination of 4

main thermal components affecting heat stress: Namely; 1) Air temperature 2) Humidity
3) Air Velocity 4) Radiation.

 It differs from other Heat indices(such as H.S.I./heat Stress Index) as it is a thermal

environment index(i.e, use the temperature parameters from environment) . It is also
easy to use despite the fact that it does not correlate well with heat strain.

 WBGT index is suitable for Industrial application whereas Corrected Effective

Temperature(CET) is normally meant for Offices’ application. In addition, WBGT
index includes Radiant Heat contribution whereas CET does not.

For Outdoor:

WBGTOutdoor = 0.7 Tn + 0.2Tg + 0.1 Ta

For Indoor:

WBGTIndoor = 0.7 Tn + 0.3Tg

Where :
Tn = Natural wet-bulb temperature, (C), under wet condition. This temperature is
obtained by setting up a wet-contion for thermal measurement

Tg = Globe temperature, (C) , which takes into accounts of radiant heat.

Radiant heat from sources such as hot metals, open flames and the sun has heating
effect. The Radiant heat energy is absorbed by receiving object thus heating up the
object(the object can be person, wall or other solid). It is important to note that radiation
can contribute substantially to heat stress imposed on workers. Globe thermometer is
used to evaluate this factor.

Ta = Air or dry bulb temperature, (C), under dry condition. This is the temperature of
air as registered by a thermal sensor such as mercury-in-glass thermometer shielded
from direct heat radiant energy sources.

 Computation of WBGT index is actually taking weighted averages of T n , Tg and/or

Ta .
 When WBGT is obtained, one can assess the value by referring to ACGIH’s Table on
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE FOR WBGT. Basically, the Table breaks down different
workload, namely ; LIGHT, MEDIUM or HEAVY. Normally, work and rest
environments are assumed the same. However, if they are not, use hourly TWA-
WBGT including work and rest environment.
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Note:
Tn = Natural wet-bulb temperature is always larger than or equal to T W, the
psychrometric wet bulb temperature.

Reading taking:
For accuracy, instrumentation for determination of the WBGT index should be located at
least the mean height of the worker. Consideration should be given to the location of the
radiation sources and the direction of air movement. Sufficient time must be given for
stabilization after seating up the instruments but before obtaining readings.

C.E.T. INDEX

Effective Temperature(E.T.) is a sensory index of the degree of warmth that a person

would experience upon exposure to different combinations such as air temperature,
humidity, air movement. ET can be obtained graphically when the parameters of dry bulb
temperature, wet bulb temperature and air velocity are available.

A Corrected Effective Temperature(C.E.T.) is available for use where radiant heat is

present and where the person may be fully clad.

The ET or CET does not take metabolic heat production into account. It is based only on
sensations of comfort or discomfort. The ET or CET does not usually give a true
indication of heat stress where moderate work or heavy work is being performed or
where the environment is very hot or humid. The ET or CET is thus used more for
comfort than for heat stress evaluations(i.e. WBGT or H.S.I. is more often performed for
heat stress evaluation).

The comfort range of CET is:

22.6 – 26.7 C.

For temperature below 22.6, it is considered uncomfortable(too cold).

For temperature above 26.7, it is considered uncomfortable(too warm).

Any temperature between 22.6- 26.7 is considered comfortable or just nice.

For CET calculation, there is no radiant heat involved.

It is noted that C.E.T. is not commonly used as it overemphasizes the importance of

humidity in relation to comfort.

CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF HEAT STRESS

The approach to control as well as prevention is three-fold. Namely:

I) Engineering Control
II) Administrative Control
III) PPE

Engineering Control is usually the first choice whereas PPE is usually the last line of
defence.

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I) Engineering Control

Common Engineering Controls are:

Reduce Ta , say provide good ventilation or introduce air-con. Also, can increase the
corresponding airspeed(say by fanning).

Reduce Tg , say provide radiant heat shielding(say by putting up a barrier of brickwall or

other suitable heat insulator)

Use of increased general ventilation or spot cooling to reduce temperature at the

workplace.

Use of LEV at points of high heat produce to remove large quantities of heat from work
area.

Use of evaporative cooling or the chemical refrigeration to reduce the temperature of air
supply and hence worksite temperature.

Use of fans to increase the air velocity over the worker, thereby increasing his
evaporation heat loss. But this may increase heat stress in hot situations. Air streams
should be so directed that they do not interfere with the effectiveness of a contaminant
control system(LEV).

Isolation, relocation, redesign or substitution of equipment/process to reduce the thermal

stress at the work site.

II) Administrative Control

Very often, when Engineering Control has been explored, it is Administrative Control that
shall further improve the working environment.

Common Administrative Controls are:

Acclimatization to heat. For instance, for new workers, it always better to let them be
exposed to heat in such a way that the exposure(time) to heat is gradually increased.
This can be achieved by letting the new workers’s exposure time be increased in
steps(say within 2 weeks) so that the workers could readily “adapt” to the heat
exposures.

Work-rest regimen- to reduce peak of stress. Employees should also be allowed to pace
themselves and take rest breaks.

Distribution of workload or Reduce workload(eg, mechanization; share work with more

workers, etc). Also the very exhausting tasks can be performed with extra workers to
shorten the duration of heavy work for each individual.

Doing hot work over coolest part of the day.

Workers should be taught the basics of preventing heat stress as well as its causes,
symptoms and treatment.

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Adequate fluid supplies must be available. Eg. Water cooler at suitable locations.

Work practice control depends on either

1. limiting the duration of heat stress or
2. providing air-conditioned rest areas for rapid cooling or
3. both

The target of work practice controls is usually to keep the:

1. body temperature from rising above a certain value(say 38-39C)
2. to control the heart rate or
3. recovery heart rate

III) PPE

PPE is used as a last line of defence.

The amount and kind of clothes that employees wear are extremely important in
controlling heat stress.

Loose fitting clothing should be used in very humid areas.

With medium radiant heat loads, the amount of exposed skin must be minimal.

Jobs with high radiant heat loads often demand that reflective garments be worn.

Extreme radiant and convective heat exposure may require special insulation or even
mechanically cooled suits.

PPE for heat stress is used only when a person must remain in a very hot environment
long enough to cause unacceptably high heat strain without protection.

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WORKED EXAMPLE

QUESTION
In a glass factory, the thermal environmental conditions where the glass work have been
monitored and the results are given below:

Air temperature(dry bulb), C 31.4

Natural wet bulb temperature, C 29.5
Globe temperature, C 34.3
Psychrometric wet bulb temperature, C 28.1
Air movement speed, m/s 0.8

The workload of the workers are 420 watts. And the rest metabolic heat is 100W.

(a)Calculate the heat components.

(b)Calculate the Heat Stress Index and WBGT Index.
(c)Calculate the maximum work time and the minimum rest time in the workplace
(d) Discuss the thermal conditions in this workplace.

ANSWER

Ta = 31.4 C
Tn = 29.5 C
Tg = 34.3 C
Tw = 28.1 C
V = 0.8 m/s

Mwork = 420 w

Mrest = 100 w

From Tw = 28.1 C, Go to table(Vapor pressure (mmHG) of liquid water)

=>Pss = 28.514 mmHG
= (28.514 x 1013)/760 =38.01 mbars

Ps = Pss – 0.000667 x Pat x (Ta - Tw)

= 38.01 - 0.000667 x 1013 x (31.4 – 28.1) = 35.78 mbars

Tr = Tg + 1.8 x V0.8 (Tg - Ta )

= 34.3 + 1.8 x 0.80.8 (34.3-31.4)
= 38.67 C

Emax = 12.5 x V0.6 x (56.2 - Ps )

= 12.5 x 0.80.6 x (56.2- 35.78)
= 223.26 w

C = 8.1 x V0.6 x (Ta - 35 )

= 8.1 x 0.80.6 x (31.4 - 35 )
= -25.51 w

R = 7.93 x (Tr - 35 )
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 = 7.93 x (38.67 - 35 )
= 29.10 w

(a)
Mwork = 420 w , i.e at work

Mrest = 100 w , i.e at rest

Convective, C = 8.1 x V0.6 x (Ta - 35 )

= 8.1 x 0.80.6 x (31.4 - 35 )
= -25.51 w

Radiative, R = 7.93 x (Tr - 35 )

= 7.93 x (38.67 - 35 ) = 29.10 w

(b)
H.S.I. = (Ereq / Emax) x 100 %

Ereq = M + C + R
= 420 –25.51 + 29.10
= 423.59 w

H.S.I. = (423.59 / 223.26) x 100 % = 190 %

For Indoor(glass factory):

WBGTIndoor = 0.7 Tn + 0.3Tg = 0.7 x 29.5 + 0.3 x 34.3 = 30.94 C

[c]
AT WORK
Ereq = Mwork + C + R
= 420 –25.51 + 29.10
= 423.59 w

Emax = 223.26 w

Maximum Work Time = 4400/( Ereq - Emax) = 4400/(423.59-223.26) = 22 mins

AT REST
E”req = Mrest + C + R
= 100 - 25.51 + 29.10
= 103.59 w

E”max = 223.26 w (Assume no change, i.e Emax = E”max . Same @work and @rest)

Minimum Rest Time = 4400/( E”max - E”req) = 4400/(223.26 – 103.59) = 37 mins

(d)
H.S.I. = 190 % > 100%
Workers experiencing heat strain.

Also:
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Maximum Work Time = 22 mins < Minimum Rest Time = 37 mins
This is not a good practice. Not much productivity also.

Thus need to do something such as :

 Reduce Ta , say provide good ventilation or introduce air-con. Also, can increase
the corresponding airspeed.
 Reduce Tg , say provide radiant heat shielding
 Reduce workload(eg, mechanization; share work with more workers, etc)

Footnote:
(a)The answer above serves as a guide only. Different approaches to question can still
score marks on fair ground. The leverage is the same.
(b)Examples are used for illustration/description only.
(c) This question covers descriptive as well as calculation parts. The emphasis in
application and appreciation are also stressed.

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