PER UNIT AND PERCENT VALUES

Ratings:
- Power Apparatus example generators, transmission lines have
voltage ratings – Vrating. Nominal voltage for that equipment
- Have current current rating - Irating. Also nominal current for
Equipment,

Advantages:
1. Allow for meaningful comparison of similar circuit quantities.
2. Per unit equivalent impedance of transformer is the same when
referred to either the primary or secondary side.
3. Per unit impedance of transformer in three-phase system is the
the same, regardless of the type of winding connections
(wye-wye, wye-delta, or delta-wye).
4. Independent of voltage changes and phase shifts through
transformers; and the base voltages are proportional to the
number of turns in the windings.
5. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance in per unit or
percent on the base of its nameplate rating of power (kVA or
MVA) and voltage (V or kV). Thus, the rated impedance can be
used directly if the bases chosen are the same as the nameplate
rating.
6. Per unit impedance values of various ratings of equipment lie in
a narrow range, whereas the actual impedance values may vary
widely. Therefore, when actual values are unknown, a good
approximate value can be used. Typical values for various types
equipment are available from many sources and reference
books.
7. Less chance of confusion between single-phase and three-phase
values, or between line-to-line and line-to neutral values.
8. Per unit method is useful for simulating steady-state and
transient behavior of power systems on computers.
9. Voltage sources usually can be assumed to be 1.0 pu for fault or
 voltage calculations.
10. Product of two per unit values is express in per unit itself. It is
desirable to use per unit rather than in percent

Per Unit Definition:

Quantity in per unit = actual value/(base value of quantity)

Base Quantities:

For base power: kVAB  3VB I B (kVA)

kVAB
For Base current: IB  (A)
3VB
kVB2 x1000
For base impedance: ZB  ()
3VB
Also: 1000 x the value of MVA = kVA
kVB2
Base impedance can also be expressed as: Z B  ()
MVAB

Per Unit and Percent Impedance Relations:

Z  MVAB Z  kVAB Z 
Z pu   or pu
ZB kVB2 1000kVB2
Or in percent
100MVAB Z  kVAB Z 
Z pu  or %
kVB2 10kVB2
Actual values:
kVB2 Z pu 1000kVB2 Z pu
Z  or pu
MVAB kVAB
Or in percent
kVB2 (% Z ) pu 10kVB2 (% Z ) pu
Z  or %
100MVAB kVAB
Per Unit and Percent Impedances of Transformer Units:

Let number of turns on primary side be Nx

Let number of turns on secondary side be Ny
Let the impedance as appeared on the Nx side by Zx
Let the impedance as appeared on the Ny side by Zy

2 2
N  V 
Z x   x  Z y   x  Z y ()
 Ny   Vy 

The impedance base on the two sides of the transformer are

kVx2
Z xB  () (1)
MVAB
kV y2
Z yB  () (2)
MVAB

Divide (1) by (2)

 2
Z xB kVx2  N x 
  (3)
Z yB kV y2  N y 

from the definition of per unit impedance on the primary side and (3)

Z    N x   N y  Z y  
2 2

Z xpu  x   

Z xB  Ny   x  Z yB
N
Therefore,
Z y  
Z xpu   Z ypu
Z yB

Per Unit and Percent Impedance of Generators:

The impedances are provided by the manufacturer in “per unit”

based on MVA base equal to the nominal MVA base of the generator.
- Highly inductive
- Direct-axis reactance values are used in fault studies
- Three Distinct values: vary over time subsequently to when fault
occurs
(i) At time of fault (for first 6 cycles):
Subtransient reactance X d" - lowest value
(ii) Until winding flux diminishes (30- 60 cycles):
Transient reactance X d' - lower value
(iii) Steady-state:
Synchronous reactance Xd - generally greater
than one

Per Unit and Percent Impedance of Overhead Lines:

- Impedance of over lines: resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL),

and capacitive reactance (XC).
- R is a function of conductor material and cross-sectional area. The
 skin effect is taken into consideration to get the effective resistance.

- XC is neglected in fault studies because it has minor effect on fault

currents
- XL depends on characteristics of conductor and the physical
spacing between the conductors. XL increases with distance
between the conductors; higher voltage lines have greater spacing
than lower voltage lines.
Example

A 3-phase circuit has VLL = 208 V, |ZL| = 10 , and per-phase power

factor 0.8 (lagging). The base value of the three-phase power is 5.4
kW.

Calculate the per-unit values of

(a) the load impedance,
(b) the load current, and
(c) the load real and reactive powers.
Changing Per Unit (Percent) Quantities to Different Bases:

Let the impedance be Z 

Let Z1pu be the pu impedance on MVA1 and KV1 bases
Let Z2pu be the pu impedance on MVA2 and KV2 bases

MVA1 Z ( )
Z 1 pu  (1)
KV12
Also

MVA2 Z ( )
Z 2 pu  (2)
KV22

Divide (2) by (1)

Z 2 pu MVA2 Z ( ) KV12 MVA2 KV12

 
Z 1 pu KV22 MVA1 Z ( ) KV22 MVA1

2
MVA2  KV1 
Z 2 pu  Z1 pu  
MVA1  KV2 

If the system base voltages are the same (KV1 = KV2)

MVA2
Z 2 pu  Z1 pu
MVA1

If the system base voltages are the same (MVA1 = MVA2)

2
 KV1 
Z 2 pu  Z1 pu  
 KV2 
EXAMPLE:

Figure 1