EET431 ELECTRICAL ENERGY

SYSTEM
RE SYSTEM - SMALL HYDROPOWER

1
 COURSE OUTLINE

Week 1 • Chapter 1:
• Global energy system

Week 2 & 3 • Chapter 2:

• Conventional energy resources

Week 4 - • Chapter 3:
• RE resources (small hydro, solar energy, biomass energy, wind
11 energy, ocean energy, geothermal, hydrogen and fuel cell)

Week 12- • Chapter 4:

14 • Transmission and distribution

CHAPTER 3 RE RESOURCES - SMALL
HYDRO
Power from a small hydro plant: potential energy, pressure energy and kinetic
energy.

Determination of the available water flow.

Three different approaches to transform the water power into the mechanical
energy needed to rotate the shaft of an electrical generator: Impulse turbines,
reaction turbines, water wheel.

Electrical aspects of small hydro: generator, charge controller, batteries and grid
interface.

3
 on the dam open and gravity conducts the rotate inside the fixed-coil generator to
water through the penstock (a cavity or produce alternating current (AC).

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN HYDROPOWER

Electrical
Energy
Reservoir
Potential
Energy Long Distance
Powerhouse Power Lines
Intake

Generator

Kinetic
Energy Penstock
Turbine
River

Mechanical
Energy

FIGURE 2.1: TYPICAL “LOW HEAD” HYDROPOWER PLANT WITH STORAGE

(PICTURE ADAPTED FROM HYDROPOWER NEWS AND INFORMATION (HTTP://WWW.ALTERNATIVE-ENERGY-NEWS.INFO/TECHNOLOGY/HYDRO/)
 • Potential energy, Ep is the stored energy of position possessed by an
object. The water has the potential to do work because of the position it
is in (above the turbines, in this case.)
Potential • The water is in the dam has water mass, m and at the height, H, hence the
energy potential energy is given by Ep = m x g x H

• Kinetic Energy, Ek is the energy had by the water due to it flows with
velocity, v in the penstock.
Kinetic • Ek = ½ x m x v2
energy

• Pressure energy, Eps is the energy had by the water due to it spread out
of the nozzle with pressure difference, dp and water density, ρ in the
nozzle.
Pressure • Eps r
= dp/ρ
energy

5
COUNTRY RANKINGS (HYDRO)
ADVANTAGES OF SMALL HYDROPOWER

Renewable and sustainable source of electricity

• Hydro energy is a “free” and a continuously renewable electrical energy source.
• Hydropower is a completely national resources, without importing any other fuel.
Little or no environmental impact
• No water pollution or greenhouse gas emissions

Technology is proven and reliable

• 60~80(%) efficiency for conversion to electricity.
• Low operating and maintenance costs
• Full time staff are not required for serving .
• The system can be integrated with water supply for irrigation and potable systems.
• The working life of the machine is much longer than for diesel generator

7
ADVANTAGES OF SMALL HYDROPOWER

Long life equipment

• Existing plants have been in operation for more than half a century and are
still providing continuous power as long as water resources are sufficient.
Create job opportunities locally
• In remote areas, small hydro may have a positive impact on the development
of local communities where young people may leave the farms because of low
income from farming. The possibility of supplementary income from local
electricity production with possibility to start small industry could be the goal
for small hydro development in remote areas of developed countries as well as
for developing countries. Hence, reduce population migration from remote
rural area to urban.

8
 DISADVANTAGES OF SMALL
HYDROPOWER

Seasonal Water Flow Fluctuation

• Flows often vary throughout the year, affecting the availability of
water in a certain seasons.
Location is everything
• Locations where power can be economically exploited are limited.
• The best sites have a reliable water supply year-round and a large
vertical drop in a short distance.
Long construction period and higher initial investment
9
 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROPOWER
PLANT
Capacity Head Purpose Facilities Hydrological Transmission
types relation system

Large High Single purpose Run-of-river Single Isolated

Medium Medium Multi purpose Reservoirs Cascade Connected to

grid

Small Low In stream

Mini Pumped
storage

Micro

Pico
10
hapter 8 Hydropower 15
HYDROPOWER PLANT CATEGORIES

TABLE 8.3 Hydropower Plant Categories

Micro 1–100 kW
Mini 100 kW–1 MW
Small 1 MW to 10–30 MW

Large Above 10–30 MW

Source: Private mini-hydropower development study:

The Case of Ecuador, UNDP/World Bank, 1992.

11

0 MW (or up to 30 MW depending on jurisdiction) are classed as large hydro-

ower plants.
RUN-OF-RIVER TYPE

12
 RUN-OF-RIVER TYPE

A facility that channels flowing water from a river through a canal or

penstock to drive a turbine.

Typically, a run-of-river project will have short term water storage and
result in little or no land inundation relative to its natural state.

Run-of-river hydro plants provide a continuous supply of electricity and

are generally installed to provide base load power to the electrical grid.

These facilities include some flexibility of operation for daily/weekly

fluctuations in demand through water flow that is regulated by the facility.

13
RESERVOIR TYPE

14
 RESERVOIR TYPE

A facility that uses a dam to impound river water, which is then stored for release when
needed.

Electricity is produced by releasing water from the reservoir through operable gates into a
turbine, which in turn activates a generator.

It can be operated to provide base-load power, as well as peak- load through its ability to
be shut down and started up at short notice according to the demands of the system.

It can offer enough storage capacity to operate independently of the hydrological inflow for
many weeks, or even up to months or years.

Given their ability to control water flows, storage reservoirs are often built as multi-purpose
systems, providing additional benefits.

The primary advantage of hydro facilities with storage capability is their ability to respond to
peak load requirements. 15
PUMPED STORAGE TYPE

16
 PUMPED STORAGE TYPE
It provides peak-load supply, harnessing water which is cycled between a lower and upper reservoir by pumps,
which use surplus energy from the system at times of low demand.

When electricity demand is high, water is released back to the lower reservoir through turbines to produce
electricity.

Some pumped-storage projects will also have natural inflow to the upper reservoir which will augment the
generation available.

Pumped-storage hydropower is practically speaking a zero sum electricity producer. Its value is in the provision of
energy storage, enabling peak demand to be met, assuring a guaranteed supply when in combination with other
renewables, and other ancillary services to electrical grids.

One major advantage of pumped-storage facilities is their synergy with variable renewable energy supply
options such as wind and solar power (non-flexible power supply options). This is because pump-storage
17
installations can provide back-up reserve which is immediately dispatchable during periods when the other
variable power sources are unavailable.
CASCADE HYDROPOWER

18
 SMALL HYDROPOWER

Small hydro is in most cases ‘run-of-river’; in other words any dam or

barrage is quite small, usually just a weir, and generally little or no
water is stored.

The civil works purely serve the function of regulating the level of the
water at the intake to the hydro-plant.

Therefore run-of-river installations do not have the same kinds of

adverse effect on the local environment as large hydro.

19
CHAPTER 3 RE RESOURCES - SMALL
HYDRO
Power from a small hydro plant: potential energy, pressure energy and kinetic
energy.

Determination of the available water flow.

Three different approaches to transform the water power into the mechanical
energy needed to rotate the shaft of an electrical generator: Impulse turbines,
reaction turbines, water wheel.

Electrical aspects of small hydro: generator, charge controller, batteries and grid
interface.

20
SMALL HYDROPOWER
Micro DEVELOPMENT
-Hydro Development
1-Nov-05 (13:40)
Flow

Potential
PotentialSite
SiteIdentification
Identification

Preliminary
PreliminarySite
SiteSurvey
Survey

Planning
Planning
e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

Designing
Designing

Implementation
Implementation

Operation
Operationand
andMaintenance
Maintenance

21
2
 SITE SURVEY
Potential capacity of the project site
• Measurement of river flow
• Measurement of head

Topographical and geological condition of the sites for the

structure layout

Objective
To roughly evaluate
Accessibility to the site
the feasibility of the
project To get
necessary
information for
Power demand in the load center planning
distance from the load center to the power house

Ability of the local people to pay for electricity

Willingness of the local people for electrification 22

 SITE SURVEY INVESTIGATION

Investigation of potential capacity

• River flow measurement
• Head measurement
Investigation for layout and design of facilities
• Intake site
• Waterway route
• Powerhouse site
• Transmission/distribution line route
Investigation of demand forecast
23
 RIVER FLOW MEASUREMENT

Reason for direct Purpose: Method:

measurements: • To get enough data to • Current meter method
• Since the catchment area of accurately predict river • Float method
micro-hydro power is flow at the project site
relatively small, the river flow • Bucket method
at micro-hydro sites is site- • Weir measuring
specific. • To check the minimum
• Flow prediction using the river flow in the dry method
area-proportion and area- season
rainfall methods is not exactly
accurate.
• Some rivers dry up in the dry
season
• Without checking the actual
flow, we cannot be confident
of the potential capacity of
the projects.
 CURRENT
River METER METHOD
Flow Measurement
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

Electromagnetic Current Meter Propeller Current Meter

e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

Actual Measurement
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 CURRENT
River Flow METER METHOD
Measurement
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

Current Meter Method

1. Select the measuring point
No irregular waves or whirlpools at the
surface
No backflow or stagnation
No irregular changes in the water level

2. Measure the cross-section area

e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

Width
Depth
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

0.66 0.82
1.15 0.92
1.31 1.41 1.67 1.77 1.80 1.84 1.80 1.57 1.44 1.28 1.18

26

1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31
 River Flow Measurement
CURRENT METER METHOD
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

3. Measure flow velocity by a current meter

– Depth > 0.5 m:
Two-point measuring: Vm= 0.5 × (V0.2 + V0.8)
– Depth < 0.5 m:
One-point measuring: Vm= V0.6

where,
Vm: Average velocity of the section
e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

V0.2: Velocity at 20% depth below the water surface

V0.6: Velocity at 60% depth below the water surface
V0.8: Velocity at 80% depth below the water surface

B
w w
V0.2
d4 d5 d6 27
V0.8
 River Flow Measurement
CURRENT METER METHOD
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

4. Calculation of the river flow

Section area: Aabcde

= Aabcf + Afcde
= 0.5 × w × (d4+d5) + 0.5 × w × (d5+d6)
w f w
= 0.5 × w × (d4 + 2×d5 + d6) a e

V0.2
e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

d4 d5 d6
Average velocity: Vm V0.8

= 0.5 × (V0.2 + V0.8) b d

c

River flow at section: Qabcde = Aabcde × Vm

B
w w
Total river flow = Σ Q
V0.2
d4 d5 d6 28
V0.8

14
 River Flow Measurement
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

FLOAT MEASURING
Float Measuring Method METHOD
e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

Source: Micro-Hydro Design Manual

Direct measurement with a bucket
Small river flow
DIRECT MEASUREMENT WITH A BUCKET
River Flow Measurement
River
Weir Flow Measurement
measuring method
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

WEIR
Weir measuring MEASURING
method METHOD
Q = C ×L ×h1.5
Q = C ×L ×h
1.5
0.0012 (H/L) 1/2
C= C =1.838
1.838 (1+ × (1-
(1+ 0.0012 ) × (1-)(H/L) 1/2
)10 )
H H 10
where,
where,
Q: River flow (m3/s)
Q: River flow (m 3/s)
e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

L: Opening width of weir (m)

L: Opening
h: Overflowwidth of weir (m)
depth (m)
h: Overflow depth (m)

11
31
 17

Head Measurement
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

HEAD MEASUREMENT
Head Measurement
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

Water-filled
Water-filled tube
tubemethod
method
– Useful for low head
• Useful for low head tube method
Water-filled
– Easy
• Easy to–handle
to handle Useful for low head
– No
• No needneed for
for– aEasy atoskilled
skilled engineer
engineer
handle – Relatively accurate
– Relatively – Noaccurate
need for a skilled engineer
– Relatively accurate Head = H1+H2+H3+H4+H5+H6
e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

Head = H1+H2+H3+H4+H5+H6
e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

H1
H2H1
H2
H3
H3 Head
Head
H4 H4

H5 H5
H1 = A2 - B1 H1 = A2 - B1 H6H6
32

18
 HEAD MEASUREMENT
Head Measurement
1-Nov-05 (13:40)

Sighting meter (Clinometer) method

Hn = Ln × sinα
where,
H: Head
L: Length of the hypotenuse
α: Vertical angle
e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies

Head = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4

L1 H1
α1
L3 H2 Head
α2
α L3 H3
α3
L4 H4 33
α4
CHAPTER 3 RE RESOURCES - SMALL
HYDRO
Power from a small hydro plant: potential energy, pressure energy and kinetic
energy.

Determination of the available water flow.

Three different approaches to transform the water power into the

mechanical energy needed to rotate the shaft of an electrical
generator: Impulse turbines, reaction turbines, water wheel.

Electrical aspects of small hydro: generator, charge controller, batteries and grid
interface.

34
HYDROPOWER PLANT CAPACITY
P=gxHxQxη
• P : Plant capacity (kW)
• g : gravity force (9.81 m/s2)
• H : Turbine net head (m)
• Q : Waterflow to turbine (m3/s)
• η : Turbine generator combined efficiency

η = ηt x ηg
• ηt : Turbine efficiency (75~90%)
• ηg : Generator efficiency (85~96%)
35
HYDROPOWER EFFICIENCY

Big power plant : 85-95%

Small hydropower : 70-80%

Water wheel : 35-40%

36
 GROSS POWER CALCULATIONS

Power output is proportional to the combination of head and flow

Power (watts) = Head (H) * Flow (Q) / 10

The equation assumes a turbine efficiency of

53%. Actual efficiency varies with conditions.
 EXAMPLE 1

• STREAM FLOW = 150 M3/S

TOTAL HEAD IS 140 M

GROSS POWER ESTIMATE = (140 M * 150 M3/S)/10

= 2100 W
WHY IS THIS GROSS POWER?
This is not accurate
calculations because it used
the gross or static head
instead of the net or
dynamic head.

A more accurate power

calculation is made after
calculating pipe friction
losses.
 EXAMPLE 2
CONSIDER A MOUNTAIN STREAM WITH AN EFFECTIVE HEAD OF 25
METERS AND A FLOW RATE OF 600 LITERS PER MINUTE. HOW
MUCH
POWER COULD A HYDRO PLANT GENERATE? ASSUME PLANT
EFFICIENCY, h OF 83%.

• H = 25 M

• Q = 600 ℓ/MIN × 1 M3/1000 ℓ × 1 MIN/60SEC

Q = 0.01 M3/SEC
• h = 0.83

• P = 9.81 h Q H = 9.81(0.83)(0.01)(25) = 2.036 KW 40

P @ 2.1 KW
 EXAMPLE 3
HOW MUCH ENERGY (E) WILL THE HYDRO PLANT GENERATE
EACH YEAR?

• E=P×T
E = 2.1 KW × 24 HOURS/DAY × 365 DAYS/YEAR
E = 18,396 KWH ANNUALLY

ABOUT HOW MANY HOUSES WILL THIS ENERGY SUPPORT

(ASSUME APPROXIMATELY 3,000 KWH / HOUSE)?

• HOUSES = E ÷ 3000 = 18396/3000 = 6.13

41

• ABOUT 6 HOUSES
 EXAMPLE 4
CONSIDER A SECOND SITE WITH AN EFFECTIVE HEAD OF 100 M
AND A FLOW RATE OF 6,000 CUBIC METERS PER SECOND (ABOUT
THAT OF NIAGARA FALLS). ANSWER THE SAME QUESTIONS.

• P = 9.81hQH = 9.81(0.83)(6000)(100)
P @ 4.89 GW (GIGAWATTS)

• E = P×T = 4.89GW × 24 HRS/DAY × 365 DAYS/YR

E = 43,625 GWH = 43.6 TWH (TERRAWATT HOURS)
• HOUSES = E ÷ 3000 = 43.6 TWH / 3,000 KWH
HOUSES = 1.45 MILLION HOUSES
• (THIS ASSUMES MAXIMUM POWER PRODUCTION 24X7) 42
PIPE LOSSES CAN BE A CONSIDERABLE COST
 THE INTAKE
DIVERTING CLEAN WATER INTO THE PENSTOCK

Screen
Stream Flow

The intake’s purpose:

Filter and Settle

Start of Penstock

44
 PENSTOCK

A full pipe - delivering clean water to the turbine

CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINE

Impulse Reaction
Turbine Turbine
Pelton Francis
Turbine Turbine

Cross Flow Turgo

Turbine Impulse
Turbine

Propeller
Turbine
• Kaplan
• Tubular
• Bulb
46
 SPECIFIC SPEED VS APPLICABLE
TURBINE TYPE
Ns = (N x P0.5 ) / H1.25
• N : Turbine Speed (min-1)
Specific Speed vs Applicable Turbine Type
• P : Turbine Output (kW)
• H : Net Head (m)

47

0.5 where, N : Turbine Speed (min-1)

 TURBINE DESIGN RANGES

• KAPLAN
• FRANCIS
• PELTON
• TURGO

48

For low head application (3 - 20 meters) and small discharge (1.5 – 40 m3/s), the
Kaplan Propeller Turbine is most appropriate and has a high turbine efficiency of 91% to
TURBINE APPLICATION RANGES

49
TURBINE EFFICIENCY

50
51
CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINE

Impulse Reaction
Turbine Turbine
Pelton Francis
Turbine Turbine

Cross Flow Turgo

Turbine Impulse
Turbine

Propeller
Turbine
• Kaplan
• Tubular
• Bulb
52
 IMPULSE TURBINES
Uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and discharges to
atmospheric pressure.

The water stream hits each bucket on the runner.

No suction downside, water flows out through turbine housing after

hitting.

High head, low flow applications.

Types : Pelton wheel, Cross Flow

 PELTON WHEELS
A Pelton turbine is based on the same principals as
a classic water wheel.

This type of a turbine is used in applications

where heads exceed 40 m. In some instances, the
turbine is used for heads as high as 2000 m.

In settings where the water head is lower than 250

m, Francis turbines are given preference.

Nozzles direct forceful streams of water against a

series of spoon-shaped buckets mounted around
the edge of a wheel.

Each bucket reverses the flow of water and this

impulse spins the turbine.
 PELTON WHEELS

Suited for high head, low

flow sites.

The largest units can be up

to 200 MW.

Can operate with heads as

small as 15 meters and as
high as 1,800 meters.
 CROSS FLOW TURBINES
Suitable for Medium Head & Small Flow

Good partial flow efficiency compared with Francis Turbine

CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINE

Impulse Reaction
Turbine Turbine
Pelton Francis
Turbine Turbine

Cross Flow Turgo

Turbine Impulse
Turbine

Propeller
Turbine
• Kaplan
• Tubular
• Bulb

57
REACTION TURBINES
Combined action of pressure and
moving water.

Runner placed directly in the water

stream flowing over the blades rather
than striking each individually.

Lower head and higher flows than

compared with the impulse turbines.
 PROPELLER TURBINE

Runner with three to six blades.

Water contacts all of the blades

constantly.

Through the pipe, the pressure is

constant

Pitch of the blades - fixed or

adjustable

Scroll case, wicket gates, and a draft

tube

Types: Bulb turbine, Straflo, Tube

turbine, Kaplan
 BULB TURBINE

The turbine and generator are a sealed unit placed directly

in the water stream.
OTHERS

Straflo : The generator is

attached directly to the
perimeter of the turbine.

Tube Turbine : The penstock

bends just before or after the
runner, allowing a straight line
connection to the generator

Kaplan : Both the blades and

the wicket gates are
adjustable, allowing for a
wider range of operation
 FRANCIS TURBINES

The inlet is spiral shaped.

Guide vanes direct the water

tangentially to the runner.

This radial flow acts on the runner vanes,

causing the runner to spin.

The guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be

adjustable to allow efficient turbine
operation for a range of water flow
conditions.
FRANCIS TURBINES

Best suited for sites

with high flows and
low to medium head.

Efficiency of 90%.

Expensive to design,
manufacture and
install, but operate for
decades.
CHAPTER 3 RE RESOURCES - SMALL
HYDRO
Power from a small hydro plant: potential energy, pressure energy and kinetic
energy.

Determination of the available water flow.

Three different approaches to transform the water power into the mechanical
energy needed to rotate the shaft of an electrical generator: Impulse turbines,
reaction turbines, water wheel.

Electrical aspects of small hydro: generator, charge controller,

batteries and grid interface.

64
 WHAT IS THE BALANCE OF SYSTEM (BOS)?

DC only system
(small cabin)
• Charge controller
• Batteries

Conventional AC system
(house)
• Charge controller
• Batteries
• Inverter
 TYPICAL CONNECTION OF SMALL
Figure 10.6Diagram. of a downstream micro-hydroelectric turbine
installation. HYDROPOWER TO LOAD
 CHARGE CONTROLLER
The function of a charge controller in a micro-hydroelectric system is to divert
excess dc loads that otherwise could cause damage to the batteries.

Controllers generally divert excess energy to a secondary load, such as an air or

water heater.

Unlike a solar-electric controller, micro-hydroelectric system battery-charge

controllers do not disconnect the turbine from the batteries.

Moreover, if not regulated, the excess power could create voltages that could
cause the turbine to overwork, which could result in dangerous and damaging
overvoltage. 67
 BATTERYLESS GRID-TIE OPTIONS
Systems available for PV and wind but still a special
system for small hydro.
 AC SYSTEMS

Larger systems can be AC, no

battery
• If the continuous output of a system is
high enough to meet your needs for
surging capacity, no battery/inverter
subsystem is required, and AC can be
generated directly.
 BATTERY BANK SIZING

A battery based alternative

energy system will not be
effective if it is not sized
correctly.

A small hydropower system, unlike solar

and wind renewable-energy systems,
imposes the least amount of stress on
batteries because they do not often
remain in a discharged state, and as a
result, battery-bank requirements are
somewhat smaller than those used for a
wind or photovoltaic system.
 BATTERY BANK SIZING

Battery storage for PV and Wind systems typically require 3 or more

days of battery storage.

Hydro systems run all the time.

Batteries in a hydro system typically need to store energy for less than
a day.

Often, the battery is sized to provide sufficient current to the inverter

rather than an amount of storage.
 CONNECTING CELLS
Amperage and voltage in battery can be increased by arranging
the cells in two ways

Series
• One path for electrons to follow
• Connect + to –’
• Increases voltage

Parallel
• Multiple paths for electrons to follow
• Connect (+ to +) and (- to -)
• Increases amperage