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Introductory Nuclear Physics, K. Krane: 1 General Notes
Introductory Nuclear Physics, K. Krane: 1 General Notes
Krane
Conceptual Notes by Mordechai Rorvig
2009
1 General notes
Conservation of nucleons for A
Z
X
The “Q-value” for a nuclear reaction is the change in rest mass energy, by convention,
Q = (minitial − mf inal )c2 .
Also, Q gives the new energy of the fission products (including energy of particle emissions)?
(See homework 2, problem 5).
Q must be positive for any decay process. Best way to think about this is Q positive
corresponds to descending downwards a rung on one of the nuclear energy line diagrams.
Radiation can be alpha particles (helium nuclei, 2 neutrons and protons), beta particles
(electrons or positrons), gamma particles (high energy (frequency) photons) and neutrons, as
well as lots of different other kinds of particles with smaller probabilities.
Minimum Z expression for decaying nuclides based on liquid drop model.
In nuclear decay, the total number of nucleons stays the same, but the number of protons
change as they are converted to neutrons or vice versa. There is also orbital electron capture.
Unlikely that electrons are in nucleus, becuase they would need to be bound to protons by
a stronger force than the strong force. Uncertainty would require them to have extremely high
energies, but these are not observed. Total intrinsic angular momentum implies no electrons.
Magnetic moment of nucleus is observed to be much smaller than electron magnetic moment,
implying no electrons.
Isotopes are nuclides with same proton number, but different neutron number. Isotones are
the converse, nuclides with the same neutron number but different proton number. Isobars are
nuclides with the same mass number.
The syntax (A,B) denotes a reaction where a particle A enters a nucleus and a particle B
leaves the nucleus.
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2 Chapter 2: Elements of quantum mechanics
2.1 Quantum theory of angular momentum
The angular momentum is a constant of motion given by L2 = hl2 i = l(l + 1)~2 , for a wave
function given by R(r)Ylml (θ, φ). The atomic substates with a given l are labelled s, p, d, f, g, h, i
for l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. By convention we usually choose the z component as determined, and
compute lz = ~ml . Note that ml = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , ±l. Note that lz < l strictly (uncertainty
principle).
We also have the fundamental intrinsic angular momentum, or spin. We have S 2 = s(s+1)~2
and sz = ~ms , where ms = ±1/2.
The total angular momentum is given by J = L+S. We have J 2 = j(j +1)~2 and jz = ~mj ,
where mj = −j, −j + 1, . . . , j − 1, j. Also, mj = ml + ms . The J value is usually indicated with
subscript in spectroscopic notation. The quantum number n is indicated as a coefficient, such
as 3p3/2 .
The number of protons/neutrons that can go in each level is 2(2l + 1). The second term
from the ml degeneracy, the first term from the ms degeneracy.
Odd parity if L is odd, even if L is even.
The magic numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, 184.
The angular momentum l has values l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
A nucleus with odd A will have its ground state spin and parity detemined by the single
unpaired proton or neutron. A nucleus with even A with an unpaired neutron and proton will
have the angular momentum given by their absolute value of their difference (the minimum
branch) and the spin given by the the multiplication of their parities (-+ odd, – even, ++
even).
Since B is generally positive, this is like saying the energy of the component parts is greater
than the energy of the combined nucleus. In other words, the “combined” nucleus is more stable
than the sum of the individual parts, so it has a lower energy.
The neutron separation enery is the amount of energy needed to remove a neutron from a
nucleus A
Z
X. Hence
Sn = B(A
Z
X) − B(A−1
Z
X) = [m(A−1
Z
X) − m(A
Z
X) + mn ]c2 .
Semi-empirical mass formula – volume energy, surface energy, coulomb energy, and as-
symetry energy.
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4 Chapter 4: Basic nuclear structure
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6 Chapter 6: Radioactive decay
Radioactivity motivated the birth of nuclear physics. Long nuclear decay times are responsible
for the presence of most radioactive elements in nature, such as uranium.
Radioactive isotopes can also be created by bombarding stable atoms with nuclear particles.
A(t) = λN (t).
R = N0 σI
, depending on the original number of atoms, the current or flux of incident particles, and the
reactor cross section σ, which represents the probability of an incident particle to react with a
target nucleus. A typical flux might be 1014 /scm2 and a typical cross section might be a few
barns (10−24 cm2 ). Hence the probability to convert a particle is very small (10−10 ) on typical
time scales, and we can consider N0 constant.
Thus, for the new radioactive nuclei, the decay equation includes a formation term due to
R, and a new decay term corresponding to the decay constant. We have
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R
N1 (t) = (1 − e−λ1 t ).
λ1
For small times, one can show the activity increases at a linear rate (expanding the ex-
ponential term.) For longer times, the activity approaches a constant, an example of secular
equilibrium.
Further irradiation thus provides diminishing returns as we reach the equilibrium value –
where the rate of decay equals the rate of radioactive formation. After 3 halflives we have 87.5%
irradiation.
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6.5 Natural radioactivity
Due to radioactive decay, we only observe naturally occuring radioactive elements on earth
which have half-lives that are long compared to the lifetime of the earth.
Since an α emission involves a change in A by 4, we can classify radioactive decay chains in
terms of 4n,4n + 1,4n + 2,and 4n + 3 numbers.
Other sources of natural radioactivity include the atmospheric elements formed by collision
with cosmic rays (high energy protons).
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7.1.2 Electrons
Electrons have some key differences from heavy charged particles. First of all, since they are
so much lighter, they have large angular deflections, and so they do not follow a well defined
(straight) path in the material, and their range must be empirically determined.
Secondly, their low mass means they are subject to high accelerations, and for high energies
they can undergo substantial radiation damping, besides just coulomb damping (collisional
energy losses). These losses are only significant at high energies and in heavy materials.
Eγ
Eγ 0 = .
1 + (Eγ /mc2 )(1 − cos θ)
dI
= −µdx
I
so that
I = I0 e−µt .
7.1.4 Conclusion
In summary, consider looking at the losses of a monoenergetic 1 MeV beam of alphas, electrons,
and gamma radiations. The alpha intensity drops sharply at the mean range length (.0003 cm);
the electron insensity decreases slowly even for thickness much less than the range ( 0.18 cm
extrapolated total). And the gamma intensity decreases exponentially, but penetrates much
further (4.3 cm).
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8 Chapter 8: Alpha decay
Rutherford discovered α particles and showed that they were actually helium nuclei.
Only extremely rarely are other nucleons besides alpha particles (such as a deuteron nuclei)
emitted from the nucleus. There is a special reason why alphas tend to be emitted (see below.)
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Proton emission is usually prohibited because Q < 0. However, for special cases like Z ≈ A,
proton emission is possible.
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no angular momentum, the emitted l value is zero relative to the nucleus, so the parity (given
by (−1)l must be even (no parity change.)
We therefore have the selection rules for allowed beta decay; ∆I = 0, 1 and ∆π =no.
See examples on pg. 289, where we have some F transitions, some GT transitions, and
some mixed F/GT transitions which satisfy both rules. For example, n → p has ∆I = 0,
(1/2+ → 1/2+).
Forbidden decays. These refer to the less likely (but still possible) cases in which l 6= 0.
The most frequent occurence is when the initial and final states have different parities, so the
conditions for allowed decays are violated. Then, in first forbidden decays, we take that one
unit of angular momentum is carried out. Thus Fermi decay types carry one change in angular
momentum, while GT decay types carry ∆I = 0, 1, 2. And similarily for “second forbidden”
decays and so on.
We therefore have the selection rules for first forbidden beta decay; ∆I = 0, 1, 2 and ∆π =yes.
For the second (and later) forbidden decays, we only consider cases where ∆I = 2, 3, as if it
equaled to 0 or 1, the selection rules are satisfied for the allowed decays, which are much more
probable.
10 Gamma Decay
Most alpha and beta decays and nuclear reactions leave the final nucleus in an excited state,
which then decays by gamma emission. Gamma rays are high-frequency photons (e.g., ∼ 1019 ).
Their wavelengths are very short (e.g., 104 and 100 fm) – much shorter than say, visible light.
They have energies between 0.1 and 10 MeV, corresponding to the differences between nuclear
energy levels.
Since they have negligible absorption and scattering in air, they are relatively easy to ob-
serve, and so they provide one of the most common methods for nuclear spectroscopy.
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10.2 Classical electromagnetic radiation
The nuclear states can be modeled based on their multipole expansions. Each multipole gives
a different radiation distribution in space, so that by measuring the radiation distribution, we
can identify which moments are dominant. By considering the multipole expansions, we find
an average radiated power per unit time for electric and magnetic poles.
We define the index of the radiation by L where 2L is the multipole order (L = 2 gives
quadrupole order, etc.) and we denote the states as M L and EL, e.g., M 1,E3, and so on. The
angular distributions for the L states are given by the legendre polynomial P2L (cos θ). The
parity of the radiation field is given by π(M L) = (−1)L+1 and π(EL) = (−1)L . The radiated
power is given by an expression on page 331.
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11.1.1 Observables
Energy (resolution 10 KeV with magnetic spectrometer), angular distribution, differential cross
section (probability to observe particle b with a certain energy at a certain angle), total cross
section (probability to be emitted at certain energy), absolute total cross section (probability
for Y to be produced).
Polarization experiments to deduce spin, observe gamma radiations or conversion electrons
from Y and also b, can observe angular distribution of these gammas to understand their
spin-parity states.
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Similarly, we can also use photoneutron sources where gamma emitting isotopes are com-
bined with an element like beryllium. Since gamma emissions have discrete energy levels, this
can produce a more monoenergetic neutron flux.
Thirdly, neutrons can be produced from the spontaneous fissioning of isotopes (e.g., 252 Cf.
These neutrons have a continuous energy spectrum characteristic of fission, ranging from 1 to
3 MeV. Fourthly, we can use nuclear reactions, such as by those produced from accelerator
collisions. By selecting the emission angle and the incident energy, we can choose a monoener-
getic beam of almost any energy. Fifthly, we can also use nuclear reactors, which have a large
neutron flux of around 1014 neutrons/cm2 /s. Most of the neutrons have been moderated to
thermal energies inside the reactor, but some fast neutrons are also emitted. These neutrons
have an energy ranging from about 1 to 7 MeV, peaking at 1-2 MeV (characteristic of fission
emission intensities.)
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fission; if the excitation energy of adding a neutron is greater than the activation energy, fission
can occur.
Liquid drop model can be used to show that stretching the nucleus can increase the total
energy for certain combinations of A and Z, and provides a criterion for fissioning.
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