Causes and impact of work-related accidents for SMEs in the manufacturing

and services sector in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone in

Zimbabwe

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background to the study

Every year around the globe, millions of human capital is injured, thousands of lives are lost and
the impact of workplace safety is felt by businesses, workers, government, society and families.
Recent studies by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimate that work-related injuries
cost as much as 4 % of the world’s gross domestic product (GDP) (Towers Perrin, 2009).

Tadesse and Kumie (2007) concur with the above when they note that the estimated economic
loss caused by work-related injuries and diseases was equivalent to 4% of the world’s gross
national product (GNP). They add that the impact of work-related injuries is 10 to 20 times
higher in the developing countries as a result of the concentration of the world’s workforce in the
developing world. This surely amounts to the fact that work-related accidents or occupational
accidents are a serious cause for concern to governments, businesses, workers and society at
large in the whole world. Alli (2001) concurs with the above noting that the related economic
costs of workplace accidents place a huge burden on the competitiveness of enterprises. He
further adds that the estimated annual losses resulting from work-related diseases and injuries in
terms of lost work days, interruptions of production, training and retraining, medical expenses
and many other costs amount to over 4% of the total gross national product (GNP) of all
countries in the world.

According to Tadesse and Kumie (2007) 271 million people are estimated to suffer from work-
related injuries and 2 million die as a result of these injuries annually in the whole world. Towers
Perrin (2009) concurs with the above noting that there are nearly 2.2 million work-related deaths
globally per year, 160 million new cases of work-related illness develop annually, an average of

1
5 % of the global workforce is absent from work every day as a result of work-related injuries
and over 268 million nonfatal work-related accidents which require three or more days off work.

European Union (EU) member states like Great Britain had a fatal injury rate of 0.99, France
1.68, Germany 1.87, Ireland 2.67 and Italy 2.39 as rate of fatal injuries per 100 000 workers
(Eurostat, 2008). It is reported that 2% of workers in the United Kingdom (UK) in 2007 reported
accidents resulting in sick leave, the EU rate was 2.3%, France 3.6%, Spain 3.2%. It is also
indicated that 3.2% of UK workers in 2007 reported a work-related illness resulting in sick leave;
the EU rate was 5.3%, Italy 3.3%, Poland 12% and Germany 4.6% (Labour Force Survey (LFS)
(2007) cited in Health and Safety Executive, 2011).

In U.S. workplace injuries cost businesses $170 billion in annual losses, translating into one-
quarter of each dollar of pre-tax corporate profits (Towers Perrin, 2009). Further, 4.2 million
non-fatal injuries and illnesses were reported in U.S. private industry workplaces in 2005 with
more than half of the incidents requiring reduced work activity or days away from work for
recovery (Towers Perrin, 2009).

According to Hamalainen et al (2006) in Sub-Saharan Africa there were 54 000 fatal

occupational accidents that took place per year during the period ending 1994. They further add
that approximately 42 million work-related accidents took place and caused at least 3 days’
absence from work. Hamalainen et al (2006) contends that the fatality rate of Sub-Saharan Africa
was 21 per 100 000 workers and the accident rate per 100 000 workers was 16 000 during the
period ending 1994.

Statistics of the prevalence of work-related injuries for the SADC region were 0.35 to 49.42
injuries per 1000 workers with a median of 6.26 injuries per 1000 workers. The reported
occupational fatality rate in the SADC region ranged from 0.85 to 21.6 fatalities per 100 000
workers with a median fatality rate of 14.02 fatalities per 100 000 workers (Loewenson, 1999).
The figures above show a higher regional status of occupational accidents in sub-Saharan Africa
as compared to the rest of the world.

According to the National Social Security Authority (NSSA) (2011) 3122 work-related injuries
and 64 fatalities were recorded in Zimbabwe in 2009. It adds that 4410 work-related injuries
were recorded in 2010 and 1159 serious accidents and 17 deaths had been recorded 2011.

2
Tadesse and Kumie (2007) concur with the above noting that the injury rate among small-scale
industrial workers in Zimbabwe was 131 per 1000 exposed workers annually.

Manicaland Province recorded 509 work-related accidents in 2011, and 22 were fatalities or
deaths. Mutare City Council as an employer recorded 77 work-related accidents in 2011 which
constituted 15.13% of the provincial occurrences. By 27 February 2012 Manicaland Province
had 38 work-related accidents and Mutare City Council had 6 accidents, which is 15.79% of the
region’s figure (NSSA 2011, 2012). However there are no statistics for the Green Market SME
cluster zone on its own. Figures for work-related accidents were not categorised in terms of
business sizes. However casual observations, experiences and testimonies given by workers,
clients, the public, council officials and NSSA point to the potential of a high rate of work-
related accidents occurrences in the Green Market SME cluster zone.

Table 1 below shows randomly selected examples of some of the major work-related accidents in
the world and in Zimbabwe from various industrial sectors in a bid to illustrate the costs and
otherwise of work-related accidents.

Table 1: Selected examples from different workplace environments of work-related

accidents/ occupational accidents in the developed and developing world.

Name of Country of Year Nature of Causes Effects

Accident Occurrence Accident

Little Rock Arkansas 1965 Defence Industry- Fire caused 53 workers killed
AFB Titan missile silo by a welding and damaged
fire rod hydraulic hose.

Chernobyl Ukraine 1986 Energy Industry- Testing on 56 direct deaths and

Disaster Nuclear Power reactor over 4000 extra
Plant meltdown number 4 deaths from cancer.
went out of The creation of the
control, then Chernobyl
an explosion Exclusion Zone
leading to a ghost

3
 town of Prypiat.

Connecticut United 2010 Energy Industry- Explosion of 27 people injured

Power Plant States Kleen Energy power plant and five killed.
Explosion Systems 620- due to testing
megawatt, of the energy
Siemens systems under
combined cycle construction
gas and oil fired
power plant
explosion

Fukushima 1 Japan 2011 Energy Industry- Earthquake- Workers severely

Nuclear Earthquake trauma injured. Evacuation
Accidents trauma resulting causing of residents from the
in nuclear reactors explosions of neighbourhood.
explosion, nuclear
reactors

Enschede Netherlands 2000 Manufacturing Fire and 22 deaths, 947

Fireworks Industry- explosion at a injured, 1500 homes
Disaster Explosion at a fireworks damaged and over
fireworks depot depot US$300 million
insured losses.

Benxihu China 1942 Mining Industry- Coal- dust 1549 workers died
Colliery Coal-dust explosion
Disaster explosion resulting in a
fire

Toulouse France 2001 Manufacturing AZF Factory 29 killed 2500

AZF Industry- explosion injured and
Fertiliser explosion extensive structural
Factory damage to
Explosion neighbourhoods.

4
Dompoase Ghana 2009 Mining Industry- Collapse of 18 workers killed,
Gold Mine Gold mine gold mine due 14 women and mine
Collapse collapse to a landslide owner also killed

Coalbrook South 1960 Mining Industry- Rock fall 437 miners killed
Rock Fall Africa Rock fall in a trapping the mining authority
mine miners and in South Africa
methane purchased suitable
poisoning rescue drilling
equipment after this
disaster.

Harmony South 2009 Mining Industry- Fire in a 82 miners killed

Gold Mine Africa Inhalation of mineshaft
Deaths poisonous gasses resulting in
from a fire. miners
inhaling
poisonous
gasses

Kamandama, Zimbabwe 1972 Mining Industry- Methane gas 427 mine workers
Hwange Explosion in explosion in died
Colliery No.1 mine shaft mine shaft
Explosion

CABS Zimbabwe 2001 Construction Goods hoist 15 construction

Millennium Industry- Goods failed and workers killed.
Towers Crash hoist failure and crashed
crash

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia.

According to NSSA (2012) there are laws that aim to prevent the occurrence and management of
work-related accidents in Zimbabwe. The NSSA Act (Chapter 17:04), Labour Act (Chapter
28:01), Factories and Works Act (Chapter 14:08) and Pneumonoconiosis Act (Chapter 15:08).
NSSA is also guided by the Statutory Instrument 68 of 1990 in managing workplace accidents.

5
NSSA adds that there are statutes like the Mines and Minerals Act (Chapter 21:05) and others
which specifically regulate health and safety in mining operations, Road Traffic Act for road
traffic accidents, Environment Management Act for the hazardous substances in workplaces and
the pollution of the environment in general and also the Public Health Act among many other
such laws.

Small and medium sized enterprises contribute enormously to the economies of their respective
countries. According to Tadesse and Kumie (2007), small and medium industries employed
about 80% of the workforce in developing countries and contribute above 90% of all industries
in developing nations. Tadesse and Kumie (2007) assert that workers in SMEs are at greater risk
of work-related injuries, chronic illness, stress and disability or death due to low educational and
literacy rates, unfamiliarity with work process and exposures, and inadequate training.

Schneider (2002) came up with a methodology of estimating the size of the informal sector
economy. The World Bank as part of its work in benchmarking business regulation developed a
measure of the size of the informal economy using Schneider’s (2002) indicator. The findings
were that the informal economy as a percentage of gross national income GNI was 30% for
South Africa, 60% Nigeria, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. The average for Sub-Saharan Africa was
42.3% according to Verick (n.d.). The above information showed the various levels of SMEs’
contributions to their nations in Africa, against a Sub-Saharan average.

The Zimbabwe Independent Newspaper 20 April (2011) reports that in Africa, economic
powerhouses like South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria and Kenya and lately Zimbabwe the SME sector
is estimated to contribute above 70% in employment and 30-40% contribution to gross domestic
product GDP but contribute less than 4% to export earnings. SMEs in Zimbabwe are mainly
involved in retailing, wholesaling, catering services and manufacturing of domestic and
agricultural products, transport provision and business consultancy. In Mutare the provincial
capital of Manicaland Province, SMEs are mostly involved in retailing, manufacturing and
servicing of agricultural and domestic products.

According to Kheni et al (2005) research on health and safety has been mainly concentrated on
large firms. Small and medium-sized businesses (SMEs) have distinct characteristics from large
firms and it is therefore arguable whether any knowledge on work-related accidents, health and

6
safety practices of large businesses can be related to small and medium sized enterprises. There
is an inverse relationship between business size focusing on number of employees and work-
related accidents (Kheni, et al 2005). It can then be argued that small workplaces are more likely
to have accidents than larger workplaces. Champoux and Brun, (2002) cited in Kheni et al
(2005) assert that health and safety management problems in small businesses are related to lack
of adequate resources to address health and safety issues, and lack of knowledge of the firm’s
health and safety risks.

Murahwa Green Market is a small and medium sized enterprises cluster zone in Mutare urban
area that is administered by Mutare City Council. It is located at about one and half kilometres
from Mutare city centre along the Chimanimani road in Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe.
According to Mutare City Council the name Murahwa Green Market dates back to the 1960s
when green fresh farm produce was sold at the market until 1982/83. Around 1982/83 Murahwa
Green Market was converted into an SME cluster zone or location specifically for emerging
small and medium-sized entrepreneurs. It was designated for work covering such activities as
metal work, welding, carpentry, tailoring, metal fabrication, spray painting, panel beating and
retailing.

Mutare City Council built forty-eight (48) workshops which SMEs entrepreneurs applied for use
and for which they pay monthly rentals to the municipality. The workshops were supposed to be
used by each respective occupant for up to five years after which they were expected to vacate
and apply for bigger industrial sites elsewhere in more spacious industrial sites in the Mutare
urban area.

According to Mutare City Council records all the forty-eight (48) workshops are occupied
therefore there are forty-eight (48) SMEs registered with the city council involved in a variety of
activities in Murahwa Green Market. Each registered occupant is allowed to work with a
maximum of five people. Mutare City Council records showed that there are nineteen (19)
registered welding shops, eleven (11) metal workshops, ten (10) carpentry workshops, five (5)
tailoring workshops and three (3) metal fabrication workshops in Murahwa Green Market.

When one walks through the Murahwa Green Market in Mutare urban, it is very evident that
there are far many more SMEs than what council records show. The city council indicated that it

7
is aware that there are more SMEs than those registered. The activities being carried out have
also widened to include motor vehicle mechanics and panel beating and spray painting which
according to the council were not originally catered for.

According to Mutare City Council operations of SMEs in Murahwa Green Market are not
checked by NSSA, Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ), Zimbabwe Revenue Authority
(ZIMRA), and government safety and health inspectors regularly. The city health department
does some checks here and there but not much focus is put on occupational health and safety.

1.1 Statement of the problem

The workplace environment in a majority of SME industrial sector appears to be unsafe and
unhealthy in terms of both ILO labour standards and the provisions of relevant legislation such
as the Factories and Works Act (Chapter 14: 08),the Labour Act ( Chapter 28:01) and others.
The environment comprises of poorly designed workstations, unsuitable machinery, poor
ventilation, inappropriate lighting, excessive noise, inappropriate electricity wiring, insufficient
safety measures and lack of protective equipment. Human resources working in such
environments are prone to work-related accidents and diseases. Zimbabwean SMEs continue to
be prejudiced by their poor corporate and sector specific image, their affairs are informally
managed using inappropriate safety measures such that they contribute a large proportion of
work-related accidents in Zimbabwe.

Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) contribute a substantial proportion of work-related
accidents in Mutare urban area. Manicaland Province recorded 509 work-related accidents in
2011, and of these 22 were fatalities or deaths. Mutare City Council as an employer recorded 77
work-related accidents in 2011 which constituted 15.13% of the provincial occurrences. By 27
February 2012 Manicaland region had 38 work-related accidents and Mutare City Council had 6
accidents, which is 15.79% of the region’s figure (NSSA records 2011 and 2012). However there
are no statistics for Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone on its own. Figures for work-
related accidents are currently not categorised in terms of business size in Mutare urban area.
However casual observations, experiences and testimonies given by workers, clients, the public,
council officials and NSSA point to the potential of a high rate of work-related accidents

8
occurrences in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone due to very poor workplace safety and
health management systems.

1.2 Research objectives

The objectives set for this research study were as follows:

i. Determine the nature and scope of work-related accidents in Murahwa Green Market SME
cluster zone for those in the manufacturing and services sectors during the period February
to June 2012;
ii. Identify the causes of work-related accidents for SMEs in the manufacturing and services
sectors in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone;
iii. Examine the impact of work-related accidents on productivity of human resources for
SMEs in the manufacturing and services sectors in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster
zone and
iv. Make recommendations for reducing the impact of work-related accidents on human
resources productivity for SMEs in the manufacturing and services sectors.

1.3 Research questions

In order to investigate the causes and impact of work-related accidents on human resources
productivity, the research attempted to answer the following questions:

i. What is the nature and scope of work-related accidents in Murahwa Green Market SME
cluster zone for those enterprises engaged in the manufacturing and services sectors?
ii. What are the causes of work-related accidents involving SMEs engaged in the
manufacturing and services sectors?
iii. What is the impact of work-related accidents on SMEs’ human resources engaged in the
manufacturing and services sectors?
iv. What recommendations resulting from this study can be made to reduce the impact of
work-related accidents on human resources productivity for SMEs engaged in the
manufacturing and services sectors?

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1.4 Statement of proposition

The cost effective and sustainable management of work-related accidents positively contributes
to enhanced corporate effectiveness in achieving set goals and objectives. This is primarily
because the proper and sound management of work-related accidents certainly affects employee
productivity, morale, customer loyalty and corporate profitability.

1.5 Significance of the research

The research is the first of its kind on Mutare Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone as most
researches elsewhere have focused on the larger industrial sectors for example mining, forestry
construction, transportation, health, agriculture and public services. The research will benefit a
variety of stakeholders among them, SMEs, labour, the government, Mutare municipality and the
public at large.

The study recommendations are very useful to SMEs in developing work-related accidents
prevention and management strategies. Research recommendations will also help SMEs to
improve health and safety practices in their operations. The promotion of a safe working
environment by SMEs as a result of the study recommendations will also help in marketing the
SMEs to clients and other stakeholders especially SME production sites since they serve as retail
points.

The government of Zimbabwe will benefit from the research by drawing up work environment
safety policies that cover SMEs to protect its citizens in general. Statutes in regard to workplace
safety may be reviewed and updated to also cover informal business practices. Compensation for
victims of work-related accidents can be reviewed in light of SMEs participation in the economy.
Compensation schemes that suit the SMEs can then be instituted by government. The Ministry of
Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises is also expected to benefit greatly from the research
recommendations when deciding on funding SMEs.

National Social Security Authority (NSSA) is expected to benefit from the research
recommendations in drawing up inspection schedules for workplaces. Some of the study’s
recommendations can be used by NNSA in planning awareness campaigns on occupational
health and safety in small business cluster zones.

10
 Mutare Municipality may, if it so chooses, uses the study recommendations to improve health
and safety in areas it administers. Inspection schedules can be planned and drawn on the basis of
the research findings. The research recommendations help the municipality in planning other
small business cluster zones taking into consideration occupational health and safety.

Customers or clients for the SMEs will also benefit from the research recommendations. Safety
in the working environment is promoted through the study recommendations therefore clients
will transact in a safe business environment. Customers benefit as they get better quality and
more quantities of goods when work-related accidents are reduced or prevented through using
the research findings.

1.6 Scope of research

The research was focused on Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone in Mutare urban area in
Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe. The study involved forty-eight (48) SMEs registered with
Mutare City Council. It excluded those being sublet working space by registered SMEs because
of the temporary nature of their business and that the majority of them are not recognised by law
that is the Companies Act (Chapter 24:03) and council by-laws. The study focused on the causes
and impact of work-related accidents on human resources productivity for SMEs engaged in the
manufacturing and services sectors. The study was done from January 2012 to June 2012 as a
multiple case study.

1.7 Limitations

The following limitations were experienced by the researcher:

i. Time constraints: It is the requirement of Chinhoyi University of Technology’s Master of

Science Degree program that the research study be carried out within six months period.
Therefore the researcher had to carry out the field work of the study during working hours at
the expense of the employer whose consent was sought and granted and
ii. Financial constraints: The research was conducted using the researcher’s limited financial
resources which were very taxing. Assistance was obtained from the employer in the form
of access to stationery and communication facilities.

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1.8 Definition of terms

Occupational accident: Is an unplanned and uncontrolled event caused by an unsafe act or

unsafe condition, which may or may not result in injury or damage to property or human
resources.

Unsafe act: Action by human resources, which is contrary to rules and regulations that result in
an accident for example not wearing welding glasses.

Unsafe condition: A situation whereby the working environment is not good for example
improper electricity wiring and no machine guards.

Human resources: People working in SMEs.

Safe working environment: A working environment where unsafe conditions are reduced or
completely removed.

Productivity: Output per each human resource or worker involved in the manufacturing and
servicing of agricultural, domestic and manufacturing equipment per given time period.

Work-related accidents: Unexpected or unplanned occurrences which may result in injury or

even death to human resources involved in the manufacturing and servicing of agricultural,
domestic and manufacturing equipment.

Injury: This is physical damage to body tissues and parts

Small and Medium Sized Enterprises: These are business ventures largely in the informal
sector which are mainly funded by personal savings and are run by the owners, relatives and a
few other people (human resources) and also operate in small and medium sized enterprises
cluster zones.

1.9 Dissertation structure

The dissertation is structured as follows;

Chapter 1: Introduction;

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Presents the background to the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research
questions, statement of proposition, significance of the research, the scope of the research,
definition of terms and the chapter summary;

Chapter 2: Literature Review;

This chapter includes information on definition of key concepts, the theoretical literature review
which presents theories underlying work-related accidents and human resources productivity,
and empirical literature review which consists of case studies of work-related accidents;

Chapter 3: Research Methodology;

The chapter starts with defining research methodology and then presented the research
philosophy, research design, population, sample, sampling procedure, research instruments, data
collection procedure, reliability and validity, ethical considerations and data analysis procedure;

Chapter 4: Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation;

Presents the data collected for the study in tables, figures and graphs. Data analysis is done and
interpretations are made. Research questions were answered and findings were arrived at and

Chapter 5: Research Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations;

The chapter discusses the summary of research findings, conclusions made from the research and
recommendations drawn from the study.

1.10 Chapter summary

The chapter represented the background to the study. It also spelled out critical issues which
include the statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions, statement of
proposition, and significance of the study and the delimitation of the study made by the
researcher. The next chapter focuses on literature review.

13
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

According to Ferfolja and Burnett (2002) literature review is an examination of the research that
has been done in a particular field of study. University of Wisconsin Writing Centre (2009)
concurs with the above by defining literature review as the critical analysis of a segment of a
published knowledge body through the summarisation, classification and comparison of prior
research studies, reviews of literature and theoretical articles. Literature review is the selection of
documents available both published and unpublished on the topic which carry information, ideas,
and data and evidence (Hart, 1998).

Conducting a literature review is a means of demonstrating an author’s knowledge about a

certain field of study, including vocabulary, theories, key variables and phenomena and its
methods and history (Randolph, 2009). According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) literature
review plays the following roles: delimiting the research problem, seeking new lines of inquiry,
avoiding fruitless approaches, gaining methodological insights, identifying recommendations for
further research and seeking support for grounded theory. It informs the researcher of the
existence of influential researchers and research groups in the field.

Hart (1998) concurs with the above when he notes the reasons for reviewing literature as,
distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done, discovering important variables
relevant to the topic, synthesizing and gaining new perspective, identifying relationships between
ideas and practices, establishing the context of the topic or problem, enhancing and acquiring
subject vocabulary, understanding the structure of the subject and relating ideas and theory to
applications.

2.1 Definition of key concepts

Key concepts are the main issues that are attached to the research topic and defining them helps
the research study to be defined and understandable to the reader. This also gives authoritative

14
definitions of concepts by other authors. Key concepts such as work-related accidents, human
resources productivity, small and medium sized enterprises and workplace environment are
hereby defined.

2.1.1. Work-related accidents or occupational accidents

According to the Mosby’s Medical Dictionary (2008) an occupational accident is an injury to an

employee that occurs in the workplace. It further adds that occupational accidents account for
over 95% of occupational disabilities and that in the majority of instances the worker is eligible
for compensation. Workplace accidents are unplanned and unexpected events which are
invariably preceded by an unsafe act or unsafe condition or a combination or both (DiBerardinis,
1999:1077). Hamalianen et al (2005) assert that occupational injury means death and personnel
injury or disease resulting from an occupational accident and that occupational accident is
understood to mean a sudden, external and involuntary event.

Allen and Clarke (2009) concurs with the above when they note that work-related harm as all
work-related health effects including occupational fatalities, occupational disease and
occupational injury, as well as fatalities, diseases or injuries that are caused by work but may not
be regarded as occupational like bystander injury. They further add that it may be both mental
and physical harm that encompasses acute injury, chronic injury, acute disease or illness and
chronic disease or illness.

According to Marshall (2007:2) apart from the actual pain and restriction of the disability, many
injured workers go through an emotional roller coaster during the initial onset of medical
treatment. He further adds that many injured workers have a tendency to fear the unknown as a
result of being removed from their familiar day-to-day interaction with management and co-
workers. With a work-related injury, costs go beyond hospital and medical bills; costs cascade
throughout the company from the location and extend into the area of support functions
(Marshall, 2007:3). Magazine of the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work 4 (2001)
concurs with the above when it notes that the personal costs of an accident, emotional and
financial, can be high. It further adds that the pain and mental distress can cause a major life
change. It further adds that accidents disrupt production, thus increasing costs and sometimes

15
undermining the organisation’s reputation. The net effect of occupational accidents is a
significant national economic loss.

According to the International Organisation on Safety and Health (2010) work-related accidents
have devastating and hidden impact. It presented that Jason Anker a former construction worker
got paralysed from the waist down after falling from a ladder in 1993. Jason says, “But the
accident changed everything. My wife left with kids, I lost my home and many friendships as I
tried to come to terms with what had happened to me.”

The consequences of occupational injuries and illnesses are significant. In addition to causing
pain, suffering, and loss of productivity for affected employees and their families, occupational
injuries and illnesses exact a heft too on U.S industry (National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, 1999:6).Workplace injuries and work-related illnesses have a major financial impact
on both large and small employers. In 2006, the cost to employers for workers compensation
totalled 487.6 billion (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2008).

Wood (2005) asserts that along with their employers' costs, affected workers also pay a price for
ergonomic injuries. The costs range from losing a few days of normal activity to the loss of
livelihood in the most severe injuries. Katsuro et al (2010) found out that bad occupational health
safety (OHS) practices in factories decrease the workers’ performance, resulting in the decline in
productivity. They further add that once a worker is suffering from an occupational illness he or
she becomes slower and weaker therefore would miss set targets.

Indecon (2006:4) concurs with the above when it notes that there are different work-related
accidents costs for individuals, businesses and society. For individuals the costs include: lost
earnings, extra expenditure when absent such as medical bills and transport costs, costs of
changing jobs, and human costs. For employers costs include cost of absences and sick pay,
compensation and insurance costs, company administration costs, recruitment costs and damage
from injuries to equipment, goods and materials. Finally costs to society include: lost output,
insurance, administration costs, human costs and medical treatment costs. These findings were
made in Ireland and were general and not specific to SMEs.

16
According to the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (2009:8) the Irish economy
had costs of occupational injury and illness estimated at Euro 3.6 billion or about 2.5% of the
Gross National Product per year. In the European Union (EU) in 2000, the cost of workplace
accidents amounted to Euro 55 billion, or the equivalent of 0.64% of the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) for the EU-15 while an average of 1250 million working days were lost each year due to
health problems (EC, 2004). In Britain in 2001/02 the cost of workplace accidents and work
related ill health was substantial costing employers between Euro 5.1-10.2 billion, individuals
between 10.1-14.7 billion pounds. The cost to the economy of Britain estimated between 13.1-
22.2 billion pounds and for society as a whole between 20-31.8 billion pounds (HSE, 2004).

According to Indecon (2006) the estimated costs of occupational injuries and non-injury
accidents and work-related ill health in European countries were as shown in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Estimates of costs of occupational injuries and non-injury accidents and work-
related ill health in European countries

Country Base Cost as a percentage Coverage

Year of GNP/I

Austria 1995 1.4 Accidents

Belgium 1995 2.3 Accidents and ill health

Denmark 1992 2.7 Accidents and ill health

Finland 1994 3.8 Injury and ill health

France 1995 0.6 Insurance costs of accidents and ill-health

Germany 1995 2.4 Insufficient information

Ireland 1996 0.4 Costs of claims for accidents and ill health

Italy 1996 3.2 Costs to public purse of accidents and ill

health

Luxembourg 1995 1.3-2.5 Accidents and ill health

Netherlands 1995 2.6 Costs of health risks

Portugal 1995 0.4 Costs of accidents and costs of social

17
 security compensation for ill health

Spain 1995 3.0 Accidents and ill health

Sweden 1995 4.0 Costs of reported injuries and of allergic

diseases of the upper respiratory passages

Great 1995/96 0.6-1.2 Ill health, injury and non injury accidents
Britain

Source: The costs to Britain of workplace accidents and work-related ill health in 1995/96
HSE

Table 2 above illustrates that Sweden had the highest costs of occupational injuries and non-
injury accidents and work-related ill health in Europe in 1995/19996 of 4% of gross national
income. Portugal and Ireland had the least costs of 0.4% of gross national income. The costs
covered claims for accidents and ill health and allergic diseases of the upper respiratory
passages.

Dorman (2000) similarly noted the following indirect costs of occupational accidents:

i. Interruption of production immediately after the accident;

ii. Lowering morale of co-workers;
iii. Staff time taken up with investigating and preparing reports on the accident;
iv. Recruitment and training costs for replacement workers;
v. Damage to equipment and materials;
vi. Reduction in product quality following the accident;
vii. Reduced productivity of injured workers on light duty; and
viii. Overhead costs of spare capacity maintained to lessen the potential effects of an accident

There are a number of occupational infections and injuries affecting staff in the production
departments at food factories in Zimbabwe that result in decreased employee productivity
(Katsuro, Gadzirayi, Taruwona, and Mupararano, 2010). They further add that production time is
lost during clinic attendance thereby slowing production and reducing productivity. Oxenburgh
et al (2004) concurs with the above when he notes that the health and safety of all employees is
closely linked to the company’s productivity in all workplaces.

18
The importance of management of occupational stress is recognised, besides all by occupational
health and safety since it has been found to be related not only with loss of productivity and loss
of working hours but with the arousal of diseases and occupational accidents (Moustaka, and
Constantinidis, 2010). They further argue that occupational stress poses a risk to most businesses
and its results are financial ones either through compensation payments for stress-related
injuries, or through the low productivity of workers.

2.1.2. Human resources productivity

According to Shead (2010) productivity is simply the amount of output you get per unit of input.
He adds that it is a way of comparing the cost of something to its benefits. Shead (2010) notes
that productivity in mathematical terms is output divided by effort. Labour productivity is the
real output per hour of work or per worker-hour (Steindel and Stiroh, 2001). They further add
that labour productivity is output per hour worked or per employee. Steindel and Stiroh (2001)
further note that labour productivity and total factor productivity are numbers of interest and
importance to economists and policy makers as they point to economic growth, growth in real
per capita incomes and inflation.

Enshassi et al (2007) argue that there are five important factors that negatively affect labour
productivity in the construction sector which are materials shortages, lack of labour experience,
lack of labour surveillance, misunderstanding between labour and superintendents and drawing
and specifications alteration during execution.

The factors were ranked in their order of importance as shown in Table 3 below using the
importance index values for each factor. The factors were focused on the construction industry
but can be applied to other industries even SMEs.

Table 3: Overall ranking of factors negatively affecting labour productivity

Factors Importance index Rank

value

Materials shortages 89.47 1

Lack of labour experience 84.21 2

Lack of labour surveillance 83.42 3

19
Misunderstanding between labour and superintendents 80.26 4

Drawings and specifications alteration during execution 80.00 5

Payment delay 78.68 6

Labour disloyalty 78.55 7

Inspection delay 77.63 8

Working 7 days per week without taking a holiday 76.58 9

Tool and equipment shortages 75.26 10

Rework 75.00 11

Misuse of time schedule 74.74 12

Accidents 72.37 13

Labour dissatisfaction 72.11 14

Supervisors’ absenteeism 71.84 15

Inefficiency of equipment 71.585 16

Misunderstanding among labour 71.58 17

Low quality of raw materials 71.32 18

Working within a confined space 70.26 19

Unsuitability of materials storage location 69.21 20

Lack of financial motivation system 68.95 21

High quality of required work 67.89 22

Violation of safety precautions 67.63 23

Interference 67.11 24

Lack of competition 66.84 25

Method of employment( using direct work system) 65.79 26

Insufficient lighting 64.74 27

Increasing number of labours 64.47 28

Weather changes 63.95 29

20
Increase of labourer age 62.63 30

Working overtime 62.37 31

Construction method 62.11 32

Lack of labour recognition programs 61.84 33

Type of activities in the project 61.58 34

Bad ventilation 61.32 35

Augmentation of government regulations 60.79 36

Working at high places 58.68 37

Lack of periodic meeting with labour 56.84 38

Non-provision of transport means 56.05 39

Lack of place for eating and relaxation 55.53 40

Labour absenteeism 55.00 41

Labour personal problems 54.74 42

Unemployment of safety officer on the construction site 53.16 43

Lack of training sessions 50.26 44

Noise 48.42 45

Source: Journal of Civil Engineering and Management-2007, Vol XIII, No. 4, 245-254

Table 3 above illustrates that working seven days per week without taking a holiday which was
ranked ninth (9th), accidents ranked thirteenth (13th), working in a confined space ranked
nineteenth (19th) among reduce human resources productivity. According to Enshassi et al (2007)
the forty-five (45) factors in Table 3 above fall into ten groups which were also ranked according
to their importance index:

i. Materials/ tools factors group;

ii. Supervision factors;
iii. Leadership factors;
iv. Quality factors;

21
 v. Time factors;
vi. Manpower factors;
vii. Project factors;
viii. External factors;
ix. Motivation factors and
x. Safety factors group.

2.1.3. Small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs)

There is no universally accepted definition of an SME, even within the U.S. government (U.S.
International Trade Commission, Publication 4125, 2010). It adds that the situation shows the
relative nature of small and medium size classifications which can apply differently in different
sectors of the economy and in different countries. Many of the definitions use size indicators like
profit, fixed assets, balance sheet totals, and the number of employees or annual turnover as
defining criteria (Heselhaus, 2010:17).

The SME and micro- enterprise (ME) sector encompasses a very wide range of firms, from
established traditional family businesses employing over 100 workers to survivalist self-
employed people working in informal micro-enterprises (International Institute for Sustainable
Development, International, 2004).

In Malaysia, SMEs are categorised basing on either their annual sales turnover or the number of
full time employees (Surienty et al, 2011) as shown in Table 4 below.

Table 4: Definition of SMEs by SME Corp Malaysia

Micro-Enterprise Small Enterprise Medium Enterprise

Manufacturing, Sales turnover of less Sales turnover Sales turnover

than RM250 000 or between RM250 000 between RM10
Manufacturing-related
full time employees or less than RM10 million and RM250
Services and Agro-
less than 5 million or full time 000 or full time
based Industries
employees between 5 employees between
and 50 51 and 150

22
Services, Primary Sales turnover of less Sales turnover Sales turnover
Agriculture and than RM200 000 or between RM200 000 between RM1 million
Information full time employees and less than RM1 and RM5 million or
Communication less than 5 million or full time full time employees
Technology (ICT) employees between 5 between 20 and 50
and 19

Source: SMIDEC, 2009

According to Newberry (2006) SMEs have the following benefits:

i. SMEs are labour intensive therefore provide more opportunities for low-skilled workers;
ii. SMEs are correlated with low income distribution inequality;
iii. SMEs are an important part of the supply chain for large multinational companies;
iv. SMEs are necessary for agriculture dependent nations transitioning to an industrial and
service oriented economy; and
v. SMEs are excellent sites for innovation and sustainable initiatives due to their inherent
flexibility and risk taking ability.

Newberry (2006) argues that SMEs also face the following challenges:

i. Lack data and definitional understanding;

ii. High levels of informality and bureaucracy hinder presence in emerging economies;
iii. Environmental regulations designed for large businesses make compliance difficult; and
iv. Lack of available finance stifles growth and entrepreneurship.

Gono (2009:4) concurs with the above when he notes that the SME sector, while playing a
critical role in economic growth and development, is confronted with a number of challenges
which include the following:

i. Access to finance remains the critical challenge facing SMEs worldwide. Accessibility
and availability of finance is very limited, as the majority of SMEs are owner capitalised;

23
 ii. Limited access to finance is a major obstacle to development of SMEs in Africa. Their
inherent higher perceived risk and lack of collateral make financial institutions reluctant
to lend them;
iii. SMEs lack the capacity to conduct research and development needed to commercialise
ideas and grow businesses;
iv. Weak business structures;
v. Poorly defined legal and regulatory frameworks;
vi. Poor marketing channels;
vii. Difficulties in adapting to environmental challenges;
viii. Insufficient management resources; finance, human resources and technology; and
ix. Absence of supportive institutional structures.

According to UNCTAD (2005:9) SMEs have been criticised for a number of reasons, including
the following:

i. SMEs are considered by creditors and investors as high risk borrowers because of
insufficient assets and low capitalisation, vulnerability to market fluctuations and high
mortality rates;
ii. Information asymmetry resulting from SMEs’ lack of accounting records, inadequate
financial statements or business plans making it very difficult for creditors and investors
to assess the creditworthiness of potential SME business proposals;
iii. High administrative or transaction costs of lending or investing small amounts do not
make SME financing a profitable business; and
iv. SME products have little or no track record, are largely untested in markets and usually
have high obsolescence rates

2.1.4 Workplace environment

According to Al-Anzi (2009) workplace environment is the circumstance, influence, stresses and
competitive, cultural, demographic, economic, natural, political, regulatory and technological
factors which are the environmental factors that affect the survival, operations and growth of an
organisation. According to Chandrasekar (2011) the workplace environment impacts on
employee morale, productivity and engagement both positively and negatively. He further adds

24
that the workplace environment in most industry is unsafe and unhealthy, including poorly
designed workstations, unsuitable furniture, and lack of ventilation, inappropriate lighting, and
excessive noise, insufficient safety measures in fire emergencies and lack of personal protective
clothing. Therefore workers in such work environments are prone to occupational diseases and
this impact on worker performance therefore decreasing productivity.

The environment is the surroundings and conditions in which a company or individual operates
or which it may affect, including living systems that is human and otherwise in it (OGP
Publications, 2000). Kristof (1996) concurs with the above when he notes that workplace
environments can include the organisation as a whole, the employee’s department or work group
or the job itself. Authors are in agreement in defining the workplace environment which is
merely the sum total of workplace situation, be it physical, social, economic, political,
technological and legal that influences or is influenced by the worker.

The levels of work-related injuries, fatalities and illness in small enterprises are unacceptably
high and at the same time it is recognised that health and safety management in small enterprises
faces considerable challenges resulting from organisation and culture of work (European Agency
for Safety and Health at Work, 2003; Hasle et al, 2004a, b; and Walters, 2004).

According to Hasle et al (2004 a, b) small enterprises seldom witness serious injuries and that
their ability to recognise risks and exposure to potential injury is limited. They further add that
small enterprises’ understanding and appreciation of the relevance of safety and health is also
limited.

European Agency for Safety and Health at Work Magazine 4 (2001:15) concurs with the above
when it notes that the implementation of a health and safety prevention system in SMEs is still
an unfinished process in most European countries. It adds that there are formidable obstacles to
the improvement of health and safety conditions in SMEs.

Health and Safety Policy-Revised Version 3 of South Africa (2003:6) similarly notes that the
expected growth of Small, Medium and Micro-Enterprises (SMME) section will also exacerbate
occupational health and safety problems as smaller firms have shown to have higher rates than
larger firms in the same sector. It adds that the widespread use of non-standard employment and

25
subcontracting arrangements and the growth of the informal sector have been linked to increased
occupational health and safety problems.

2.2 Theoretical literature review

Clarke (2005) defines a theory as a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and
propositions (statements) that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations
among variables, arranged with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena. According
to Connaway and Powell (2010) a theory is a systematic explanation for the observations that
relate to a particular aspect of life. Hofstee (2006) concurs with the above by defining a theory as
a logical explanation for why something is as it is or does as it does.

According to Hofstee (2006) theoretical literature review is important for the readers to take the
research work seriously. Randolph (2009:3) concurs with the above when she notes that
theoretical literature review can help establish a lack of theories or reveal that current theories
are insufficient, helping to justify that a new theory should be put forth.

Clarke (2005) similarly notes that a theory is a convenience meaning a necessity for organising
facts and constructs into a meaningful and manageable form. Therefore theoretical literature
review sets the foundation for a better understanding of the issues being studied or investigated
by the researcher revealing gaps in knowledge that require further research.

2.2.1 Theories or models underlying work-related accidents and human resources

productivity

2.2.2 Accident causation models

Many scholars have come up with accident causation models. The primary objective of the
models is to provide tools for better industrial accident prevention programs and intervention
strategies. Heinrich et al. (1980) cited in Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) defined accident
prevention as an integrated program, a series of coordinated activities, directed towards
controlling unsafe mechanical conditions and based on certain knowledge, attitudes and abilities.
Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) add that synonymous terms to accident prevention are loss
prevention, loss control, total loss control, safety management, and incidence loss control among
many others.

26
2.2.3 Domino theory

This model was pioneered by Heinrich in 1930. In 1959 Heinrich discussed the accident
causation theory bringing out the interaction between man and machine, the relationship between
severity and frequency, the reasons for unsafe acts, the management role in accident prevention,
the effect of accidents and lastly the effect of safety on efficiency. From the five factors Heinrich
propounded the domino model of causation saying an accident is presented as one of the five
factors presented in sequence above results in an injury. Heinrich believed that the name domino
illustrated the sequentiality of events before and after the occurrence of accidents. The name was
quite appealing because it reflected on the behaviour of factors involved being similar to the
toppling of dominoes when disrupted; if one falls, others will too (Petersen, 1982) cited in
Abdelhamid and Everett (2000).

Petersen added that Heinrich had five dominoes in the domino model namely ancestry and social
environment, fault of person, unsafe act and or mechanical or physical hazard, accidents and
injury. The model postulated that through inherited or acquired undesirable traits, people are
prone to commit unsafe acts or cause mechanical or physical hazards, which trigger injurious
accidents. The domino theory is illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Domino model of accident causation

Injury

Source: Qureshi (2007)

According to Petersen (1982) Heinrich defined an accident as an unplanned and uncontrolled

event in which the action or reaction of an object, substance, person or radiation results in
personal injury or the chances thereof. Petersen provided that Heinrich’s work can be summed
up in two points: people are the fundamental reason behind accidents and management is
responsible for the prevention of accidents.

Zeller (1986) criticised Heinrich’s domino theory saying it oversimplified the control of human
behaviour in causing accidents and for some statistics given on the contribution of unsafe acts

27
 versus unsafe conditions. However Heinrich’s work was found to be the foundation for many
other scholars on accident causation.

Updates have been made to the domino theory but with an emphasis on mismanagement as the
primary cause in accidents. The updates were labelled management models like the updated
domino sequence model by Bird 1974 and the Adams updated sequence model of 1976 by
Adam.

Harvey (1985) similarly criticised the domino theory arguing that it introduces bias into the
investigation procedure since the investigator’s attention is focused not upon the facts per se but
upon the unsafe aspects of the accident only.

The identification of unsafe aspects after the accident has occurred is deceptively easy leading to
conclusions that are unfair, incomplete and/ or false.

2.2.4 Multiple causation theory

According to Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) the multiple causation theory was propounded by
Petersen in 1971. Petersen believed in many factors as causes and sub-causes of an accident

Causescenario.
a According to Petersen, many factors combine together randomly leading to accidents
and therefore these factors need to be targeted in accident investigation. He claimed that multiple

Causecausation
b questions onUnsafe Act factors to the accident would be revealed and that
the surrounding
answers to these many factors would lead to improved inspection procedures, improved training,

Causebetter
c definition of responsibilities and pre-job planning by supervisors.

Injury
Petersen asserted that by focusing on an unsafe act or condition is dealing only at symptomatic or
Accident
Damage
level because the act or condition may be the proximate cause but not the root cause. He claimed
that root causes mostly reflect management system and may be due to management policies,
Causeprocedures,
d supervision, effectiveness, training only to mention these (Abdelhamid and Everett,
2000).
Unsafe
Cause e
Harvey (1985) called theCondition
multiple causation models the fault tree models. Harvey presented that
these models are attractive because they advocate for a description of all the necessary sufficient
Cause f
conditions for an accident to occur within the work system in question.

28
Harvey however criticised the multiple causation model arguing that it has failed to attend
closely to the accident event itself. Instead it focuses the investigation largely towards
management oversights. It facilitates bias because it could lead to broad recommendations for
prevention like more training, and more supervision.

2.2.5 The energy transfer theory

According to Jovanovic et al (2004:330) those who accept the energy transfer theory put forward
the claim that a worker gets injury or equipment get damaged through a change of energy. For
every change of energy there is a source, a path and a receiver. They further add that the theory
is very useful for determining injury causation and evaluating energy hazards and control
methodology. Strategies can be developed which are preventive, limiting or ameliorating with
respect to the energy transfer. The theory goes further to point out that the control of energy
transfer at the source can be attained by eliminating the source, changing the design or
specification of elements of the work station and preventive maintenance. The path of energy
transfer can be modified by enclosure of the path, installation of barriers, installation of
absorbers and positioning isolators. The receiver of energy transfer can be assisted by limitation
of exposure and use of personal protective equipment.

2.2.6 Accident root cause tracing theory/ model (ARCTM)

The last but not least theory on causes of work-related accidents at workplace environments for
this research is the Accident Root Cause Tracing Model (ARCTM). According to Abdelhamid
and Everett (2000) ARCTM theory proposes that occupational accidents occur as a result of one
or more of the three root causes below:

i. Failing to identify an unsafe condition that existed before an activity was commenced or
that developed after the activity was started;
ii. Deciding to continue with a work activity after the worker identifies unsafe condition
and
iii. Deciding to act unsafe regardless of initial conditions of work related environment.

Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) add that these root causes according to ARCTM develop due to
different reasons and also they point to different issues that should be considered for corrective

29
action. The model is said to have been developed to guide the investigator through a series of
questions and possible answers to identify a root cause for why the accident took place and to
investigate how the root cause developed and how it could be eliminated.

The ARCTM theory is summarised into three main points namely, workers who do not have
adequate training or knowledge about their jobs should not be expected to identify all unsafe
conditions surrounding their work and avoid the possible accident situation, secondly, workers
who do have the training or knowledge about their jobs but still decide to work unsafely will
never be accident-free unless their attitudes towards safety change. Thirdly, management
procedures should be designed to identify and remove unsafe conditions in a proactive way and
management should always reinforce the value and importance of safety among workers
(Abdelhamid and Everett, 2000).

2.2.7 Contributors to individual productivity and organisational effectiveness model

Human Resources Management (HRM) practices can play a critical role in improving individual
productivity and subsequent organisational effectiveness (Brown, et al (2009). On the other hand
there appears to be some difficulty in defining productivity in the circles of human resources
management. Cascio, (1992) assert that the concept of productivity within HRM has been
difficult to define and measure, especially in highly diversified firms. The model is wholly based
on previous studies and proposes that Strategic HRM practices result in positive employee
attitudes like satisfaction, commitment and engagement. The attitudes have been shown to lead
to higher levels of individual productivity, measured by multiple dimensions of job performance
such as task and organisational citizenship behaviour. Improvements in organisational
effectiveness would result from increases in individual productivity.

Evans, Schneider and Barer (2010) assert that improvements in productivity are the important
source of the most increase in the material well-being of human populations. Barge and Carlson
(1993) assert that safety pays off through preventing workplace accidents and creating a general
awareness among employees. Employers and management should lead in alerting workers on the
need to prevent workplace accidents and injuries. Kamuzora (2006) argues that information
communication technologies have the potential of increasing human resources productivity.
Kamuzora further adds that in order to gain enhanced productivity from ICTs businesses and

30
societies need to put in place the sufficient enablers. The model is presented graphically in
Figure 2.

Strategic Individual
HRM Productivity
Practices task
.training and performance
development .citizenship
.contingent pay performance
and reward (OCB)
schemes Employee
Attitudes
.performance Organisational
management .satisfaction
Effectiviness
(including .commitment
appraisal) .engagement
.recruitment
and selection
.emphasise
empowerment,
team-work and
learning

Source
: Brown et al (2009:3)

Figure 2: Contributors to individual productivity and organisational effectiveness.

2.3. Empirical literature review

Hart (1998) defines an empirical literature review as an account of what has been published on a
topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It conveys to the researcher what knowledge and
ideas have been established on a topic including their strengths and weaknesses.

The empirical literature review is based on the conceptual framework of issues. The researcher
reviewed four case studies on causes and impact of work-related accidents on workers,
governments, businesses, society, families, and the physical environment. The case studies show
evidence of the causes and impact of work-related accidents.

2.3.1 The Chernobyl accident

31
According to The Chernobyl Forum (2003-2005) on 26 April 1986, the most serious accident in
the history of nuclear industry occurred at Unit 4 of the Chernobyl nuclear plant in the former
Ukrainian Republic of the Soviet Union.

The accident was caused by the explosions that ruptured the Chernobyl reactor vessel and the
consequent fire that continued for ten days or so resulting in large quantities of radioactive
materials being released into the environment. The cloud from the burning reactor spread
numerous types of radioactive materials mostly iodine and caesium radio-nuclides over much of
Europe.

The Chernobyl Forum (2003-2005) grouped the impact of the Chernobyl accident as follows:
environmental consequences; health consequences and the socio-economic impact. The health
consequences covered Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. Three population categories
were identified as having been exposed from the accident:

i. Emergency and recovery operation workers who worked at the Chernobyl power plant
and in the exclusion zone after the accident;
ii. Inhabitants evacuated from contaminated areas and
iii. Inhabitants of contaminated areas who were not evacuated.

The number of deaths as a result of the accident were categorised as well in the following
manner:

i. Acute Radiation Syndrome Mortality-134 emergency workers, 2 persons died from

injuries unrelated to radiation and one died from coronary thrombosis, 19 more deaths in
1987-2004 of various causes; and
ii. Cancer Mortality- the number of deaths could not be precisely established.

According to the Chernobyl Forum Expert Group Report (2003-2005), the environmental
consequences covered issues of radioactive release and deposition, radionuclide transfers and
bioaccumulation, application of countermeasures, radiation-induced effects on plants and
animals as well as dismantlement of the shelter and radioactive waste management in the
Chernobyl Exclusion Zone.

32
The socio-economic impacts of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident were huge on the Soviet Union,
Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. The economic costs were summarised as:

i. Costs related to actions to seal off the reactor and mitigate the effects in the exclusion
zone;
ii. Expenditures of resettling people and construction of new housing and infrastructure to
accommodate them;
iii. Social protection and health care expenditure provided to the affected population;
iv. Research costs on the environment, health and production of clean food;
v. Expenditure on radiation monitoring of the environment; and
vi. Expenditure on radio-ecological improvement of settlements and disposal of radioactive
waste.

Some indirect losses were also incurred relating to the opportunity cost of removing agricultural
land and forests from the use and the closure of agricultural and industrial facilities; and the
opportunity costs, including the additional costs of energy resulting from the loss of power from
the Chernobyl nuclear plant and the cancellation of Belarus’s nuclear power programme.

The Chernobyl Forum reported that the most affected territories were mostly rural. The main
source of income before the accident was agriculture which provided wages and many social
benefits for households. A total of 784 320 hectares of agricultural land was removed from
services in the three countries, and timber production was halted for a total of 694 200 hectares
of forest.

More than 330 000 people were relocated away from the affected areas. The number that was
evacuated soon after the accident were 116 000 people and many more were resettled several
years later. Communities in the affected areas suffered from a high distorted demographic
structure. The report presented that the percentage of the elderly in the affected areas is
abnormally high. Psychological distress resulting from the accident and its aftermath has had a
profound impact on individuals and the community behaviour.

The Chernobyl Forum meeting in April 2005 came up with recommendations for the
governments of the three countries on special health care programmes and environmental
remediation, further research and economic and social policies.

33
According to the Forum the following specific health related recommendations were crafted:

i. Screening of subgroups of populations known to be particularly sensitive to huge

amounts of radioiodine;
ii. Screening for thyroid cancer of those who were children and adolescents and resided in
1986 in areas with radioactive fallout, should continue, however thyroid screening was to
be evaluated periodically for cost/ benefit;
iii. For health planning purposes, continuous estimation of the predicted number of cases of
thyroid cancer expected to occur in exposed populations, should be based on updated
estimates of risk in those populations;
iv. High quality cancer registries to be supported continuously;
v. Continued eye follow-up studies of the Chernobyl populations; and
vi. Programs targeted at minimizing the psychological impact on children and those who
were children at the time of the accident should be encouraged and supported.

2.3.2 The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath

Introduction

According to Broughton (2005) the Bhopal disaster was a gas incident in India, which is
considered to be one of the world's worst industrial disasters. It took place on the night of
December 2–3, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal
Madhya Pradesh India. A leak of methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals from the plant
resulted in the exposure of hundreds of thousands of people. The toxic substance made its way in
and around the shantytowns located near the plant. The official immediate death toll was 2259
and the government of Madhya Pradesh had confirmed a total of 3787 deaths related to the gas
release. Others estimated that 3 000 died within weeks and another 8 000 had since died from
gas-related diseases. A government affidavit in 2006 stated that the leak caused 558 125 injuries
including 38 478 temporary partial and approximately 3 900 severely and permanently disabling
injuries.

Summary of background or History

34
 The factory was built in 1969 to produce the pesticide Sevin using methyl isocyanate (MIC). An
MIC production plant was added in 1979. On the night of December 2–3 1984 water entered
Tank 610 containing 42 tonnes of MIC. The resulting exothermic reaction increased the
temperature inside the tank to over 200 °C (392 °F) and raised the pressure. About 30 metric
tonnes of methyl isocyanate (MIC) escaped from the tank into the atmosphere in 45 to 60
minutes. The gases were blown by north-westerly winds over Bhopal.

Different theories as to how the water entered the tank have been put forward. It is reported that
workers were cleaning out a clogged pipe with water about 400 feet from the tank. The operators
assumed that owing to bad maintenance and leaking valves it was possible for the water to leak
into the tank. UCC also maintained that this route was not possible but instead alleged that water
was introduced directly into the tank as an act of sabotage by a disgruntled worker via a
connection to a missing pressure gauge on the top of the tank. Early the next morning a UCIL
manager asked the instrument engineer to replace the gauge. UCIL's investigation team found no
evidence of the necessary connection however the investigation was totally controlled by the
government denying UCC investigators access to the tank or interviews with the operators. The
1985 reports give a picture of what led to the disaster and how it developed although they differ
in details.

According to Broughton (2005) factors leading to the magnitude of the gas leak include:

i. Storing MIC in large tanks and filling beyond recommended levels;

ii. Poor maintenance after the plant ceased MIC production at the end of 1984;
iii. Failure of several safety systems (due to poor maintenance); and
iv. Safety systems being switched off to save money including the MIC tank refrigeration
system which could have mitigated the disaster severity.

Other factors identified by the inquiry included: the use of a more dangerous pesticide
manufacturing method; large-scale MIC storage facility; plant location close to a densely
populated area; undersized safety devices; and the dependence on manual operations. Plant
management deficiencies were also identified, lack of skilled operators, reduction of safety
management, insufficient maintenance, and inadequate emergency action plans.

35
Work conditions

Broughton (2005) further adds that attempts to reduce expenses affected the factory's employees
and their work conditions. Kurzman (1987) argued that the cuts meant less stringent quality
control and therefore looser safety rules. When pipes leaked workers were told not to replace
them in order to cut costs. MIC workers needed more training but they worked with less training
to cut costs. Promotions were halted seriously affecting employee morale and driving some of
the most skilled elsewhere. Workers were forced to use English manuals even though only a few
had a grasp of the language.

By 1984 only six of the original twelve operators were still working with MIC and the number
of supervisory personnel was also cut in half. No maintenance supervisor was placed on the night
shift and instrument readings were taken every two hours rather than the previous and required
one-hour readings. Workers made complaints about the cuts through their union but were
ignored. One employee was fired after going on a 15-day hunger strike. Seventy percent (70%)
of the plant's employees were fined before the disaster for refusing to deviate from the proper
safety regulations under pressure from management.

In 1998 during civil action suits in India it emerged that the plant was not prepared for
problems. No action plans had been established to cope with incidents of this magnitude. This
included not informing local authorities of the quantities or dangers of chemicals used and
manufactured at Bhopal. The following work conditions were established:

i. The MIC tank alarms had not worked for the past four years;
ii. There was only one manual back-up system compared to a four-stage system used in the
United States in a similar plant;
iii. The flare tower and several vent gas scrubbers had been out of service for five months
before the disaster. Only one gas scrubber was operating and it could not treat such a
large amount of MIC with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) which would have brought
the concentration down to a safe level;
iv. The flare tower could only handle a quarter of the gas that leaked in 1984 and moreover
it was out of order at the time of the incident;

36
 v. To reduce energy costs the refrigeration system was idle. The MIC was kept at 20
degrees Celsius not the 4.5 degrees advised by the manual;
vi. The steam boiler intended to clean the pipes was out of action for unknown reasons;
vii. Slip-blind plates that would have prevented water from the pipes being cleaned from
leaking into the MIC tanks through faulty valves were not installed. Their installation
had been omitted from the cleaning checklist;
viii. The water pressure was too weak to spray the escaping gases from the stack. They could
not spray high enough to reduce the concentration of escaping gas;
ix. According to the operators the MIC tank pressure gauge had not been working properly
for almost a week. Other tanks were used rather than repairing the pressure gauge. The
build-up in temperature and pressure is believed to have affected the magnitude of the
gas release;
x. Carbon steel valves were used at the factory even though they corrode when exposed to
acid; and
xi. UCC admitted in their own investigation report that most of the safety systems were not
functioning on the night of December 2- 3 1984.

Previous warnings and incidents

According to Broughton (2005) the following series of prior warnings and MIC-related incidents
had occurred:

i. In 1976 the two trade unions had reacted because of pollution within the plant;
ii. In 1981 a worker was splashed with phosgene. In panic he ripped off his mask therefore
inhaling a large amount of phosgene gas and he died 72 hours later;
iii. In January 1982 there was a phosgene leak when 24 workers were exposed and had to be
admitted to hospital. None of the workers had been ordered to wear protective masks;
iv. In February 1982 an MIC leak affected 18 workers;
v. In August 1982 a chemical engineer came into contact with liquid MIC resulting in
burns over 30 percent of his body;

37
 vi. In October 1982 there was a leak of MIC methylcarbaryl chloride chloroform and
hydrochloric acid. In an attempt to stop the leak the MIC supervisor suffered intensive
chemical burns and two other workers were severely exposed to the gases;
vii. During 1983 and 1984 leaks of the following substances regularly took place in the MIC
plant: MIC; chlorine; monomethylamine; phosgene; and carbon tetrachloride sometimes
in combination; and
viii. Reports that were issued some months before the incident by UCC engineers warned of
the possibility of an incident almost identical to that which occurred in Bhopal. The
reports never reached UCC's senior management.

The health impact of the gas leakage

The initial effects of exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation and a feeling of
suffocation. People awakened by these symptoms fled away from the plant. Children and other
people of shorter stature inhaled higher concentrations. There were mass funerals and mass
cremations as well as disposal of bodies in the Narmada River. There were 170 000 people who
were treated at hospitals and temporary dispensaries. Two thousand buffaloes, goats, and other
animals were collected and buried. Within a few days leaves on trees yellowed and fell off.
Supplies of food became scarce owing to suppliers' safety fears.

A total of 36 wards were marked by the authorities as being "gas affected" affecting a population
of 520 000. Of these 200 000 were below 15 years of age and 3 000 were pregnant women. In
1991 3 928 deaths had been certified. It is estimated that 100 000 to 200 000 people had
permanent injuries.

The acute symptoms were burning in the respiratory tract and eyes, blepharospasm,
breathlessness, stomach pains and vomiting. The causes of deaths were choking reflexogenic
circulatory collapse and pulmonary oedema. Other reported symptoms were eye problems,
respiratory difficulties, immune and neurological disorders, cardiac failure secondary to lung
injury, female reproductive difficulties and birth defects among children born to affected women.

Findings during autopsies revealed that changes not only in the lungs but also cerebral oedema,
tubular necrosis of the kidneys, fatty degeneration of the liver and necrotising enteritis took place

38
in victims. It was also reported that the stillbirth rate increased by up to 300% and neonatal
mortality rate by 200%.

Compensation from Union Carbide

(a) The government of India passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster Act that gave the
government rights to represent all victims in or outside India.
(b) UCC offered US $350 million as the insurance sum for victims of the Bhopal disaster.
(c) The government of India claimed US$ 3.3 billion from UCC. In 1989 a settlement was
reached under which UCC agreed to pay US$470 million (the insurance sum plus interest)
in a full and final settlement of its civil and criminal liability.
(d) When UCC sold its shares in UCIL it was directed by the Supreme Court to finance a 500-
bed hospital for the medical care of the survivors. Bhopal Memorial Hospital and Research
Centre (BMHRC) was inaugurated in 1998. It was obliged to give free care for survivors
for eight years.

Ongoing contamination

Chemicals left at the plant continued to leak and pollute the groundwater. Whether the chemicals
posed a health hazard is disputed. By 1982 water wells in the vicinity of the UCC factory had to
be abandoned. In 1991 the municipal authorities declared water from over 100 wells unfit for
drinking

UCC's laboratory tests in 1989 revealed that soil and water samples collected from near the
factory were toxic to fish. Twenty one (21) areas inside the plant were reported to be highly
polluted. In 1994 it was reported that 21% of the factory premises were seriously contaminated
with chemicals.

Studies made by Greenpeace (2003) and others from soil, groundwater, well water and
vegetables from the residential areas around UCIL and from the UCIL factory area showed
contamination with a range of toxic heavy metals and chemical compounds. Substances found
according to the reports were naphtholnaphthalene, Sevin, tarry residues, alpha naphthol,
mercury, organochlorines, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, hexachlorethane,

39
hexachlorobutadiene, pesticide HCH, volatile organic compounds and halo-organics. Many of
these contaminants were also found in breast milk.

In 2002 an inquiry found a number of toxins including mercury, lead, 1,3,5 trichlorobenzene,
dichloromethane and chloroform in nursing women's breast milk. Well water and groundwater
tests conducted in the surrounding areas in 1999 showed mercury levels to be at about 20 000
and 6 million times higher than expected levels heavy metals and organochlorines were present
in the soil.

Chemicals that had been linked to various forms of cancer were also discovered as well as
trichloroethylene known to impair feta development at 50 times above safety limits specified by
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Broughton, 2005).

Lessons learned

According to Broughton (2005) the following lessons were learned from the Bhopal disaster:

i. Expanding industrialisation in developing countries without concurrent evolution in

safety regulations could result in dangerous consequences;
ii. The manner in which the UCC project was executed in India at Bhopal suggested the
existence of double standards for multinational corporations in developing countries;
iii. Enforceable uniform international operating regulations for hazardous industries could
have provided a mechanism for significantly improved safety in Bhopal;
iv. National governments and international agencies should focus on widely applicable
techniques for corporate social responsibility and accident prevention with some special
focus on risk reduction in plant location, design and safety legislation;
v. Industry and government need to bring proper financial support to local communities so
that they can provide medical and other necessary services to reduce morbidity, mortality
and material loss in case of industrial accidents;
vi. Existing public health infrastructure needs to be taken into account when hazardous
industries choose sites for manufacturing plants; and
vii. Future management of industrial development needs that suitable resources be devoted to
advance planning before any disaster occurs and that communities that do not have the

40
 infrastructure and technical expertise to respond adequately to industrial accidents should
not be chosen as sites for hazardous industry.

2.3.3 XX Cardboard Company accident

According to Korea Occupational Safety and Health Agency (2010) a grave accident case in the
manufacturing sector took place on July 31 2008 at XX Cardboard Company located in Seo-gu,
Incheon City. A worker was crushed to death between a hydraulic pusher and compressor when
he was cleaning up the scrap paper compressor. The victim was crushed to death on site and his
right arm, left wrist and neck were nearly severed. The details of the workplace environment
where the accident took place are shown in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3: Details of the accident where a worker was crushed to death by a scrap paper
compressor.

Accident

Source: Korea Occupational Safety and Health Agency, (2010)

The causes of the accident are reported to be that the victim cleaned the inside of the hydraulic
pusher while the compressor was still working.

The worker is said to have had his head and hand inside the pusher which began to operate such
that there was no time to escape. The hydraulic pusher’s cycle lasts 3-10 minutes so the victim
presumed that he had enough time to clean it before it would start. In short the accident was

41
caused by failure to stop the machine before the clean-up and failure to install a cover and
interlocker at risk areas.

Lessons learned

i. If maintenance, cleaning, oil supply, inspection, repair or other similar work is done on a
machine such a machine should be stopped while performing suck work;
ii. When the machine is stopped it should be locked and the keys secured or on a signboard
attached to prevent any other work on the machine; and
iii. Install a protective cover over the risk area where workers can be injured and an
interlocker that automatically blocks the power supply when the cover is removed.

2.3.4 The Chemical disaster in an SME meat-cutting factory

According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (n.d.) in
March 1997 an accident took place in an SME meat-cutting factory in Montreal, Canada. It is
reported that a box in the storage area fell onto and broke an insulated refrigeration pipe.
Ammonia from the refrigeration system poured out of the broken pipe into the factory basement.

The consequences

(a) A worker who was unable to escape through the barred windows was gassed and burned
to death.
(b) The emergency services arrived at the scene of the accident unaware of the presence of
ammonia therefore had inadequate equipment.
(c) The rescue process lasted for an hour and a half resulting in 19 workers and 5 firemen
hospitalised with severe burns and ammonia poisoning.

Lessons learned

i. Pipe work should have been installed out of harm’s way or well protected and should be
regularly inspected.

42
 ii. An emergency escape plan should have been prepared and implemented.
iii. The local emergency services should have been aware of the type of danger that may be
encountered in their place.

2.3.5 Wankie Colliery disaster and the aftermath

The history of coal mining

According to Livingstone-Blevins (n.d.) coal mining began in Wankie in 1893 when a German
prospector named Albert Giese was told of “black stones” that burn from Africans. Giese made
follow ups to the tales up until he reached the dry bed of the Kamandama River where he
obtained samples of coal which proved to be of good quality.

The British South African Company owned the mineral rights and it gave concession rights over
a very large area in the Wankie District to Mashonaland Agency Limited. In 1897 Mashonaland
Agency engaged Giese to peg the concession covering 400 square miles. Exploratory work was
started in 1900. In 1901 the Wankie (Rhodesia) Coal Railway and Exploration Company bought
the rights from the Mashonaland Agency Limited.

Shaft sinking began in August 1901 and in January 1902 the main shaft was named No.1
Colliery and had reached the coal. In 1909 coal demand was limited which forced the Wankie
(Rhodesia) Railway and Exploration Company into liquidation. Soon after the liquidation it was
reconstructed as the Wankie Colliery Company Limited. In 1927 No. 2 Colliery was brought into
production and output amounted to 1 004 349 tonnes. In 1950 Powell Duffryn Limited took
control of the company. Towards the end of 1953 Anglo American Corporation of South Africa
Limited acquired the Wankie Colliery Company from Powell Duffryn. By 1972 when the
explosion took place Wankie Colliery Company had become a giant mining and commercial
entity employing four hundred whites and four thousand blacks.

The explosion

43
On June 6 1972 at approximately 10 hours 27 minutes a violent explosion ripped through the
whole extent of the underground workings of No. 2 Colliery. Smoke and gases poured out of all
the shafts. The Kamandama shaft was completely blocked by falls of roof and twisted steel
girders. Rescue teams made efforts for nearly four days to reach possible trapped survivors.
Penetrations of up to 2000 metres were made but no survivors were reached resulting in the
abandonment of the rescue process. Four hundred and twenty-seven (427) miners had died.

Previous incidents

The first recorded ignition occurred at 09h30 on the 29 th December 1960. An ignition of methane
in No. 4 Section of the Kamandama area of No. 2 Colliery resulted in three persons being
severely burnt. The ignition was caused by a match struck to light fuse igniter.

On the 21st of October 1970 a second ignition of methane took place in HE 3 panel of No. 2
Colliery. It was established that methane was ignited by a blown out shot.

Possible causes of the explosions

1. Blown out shot in the Matura main. On the day of the disaster the miner-in-charge of the
section was a man with little coal mining experience at Wankie.

2. Welding was being carried out at the time of the disaster at the intersection of G. East where a
new conveyor structure was being installed. Coal dust was ignited by a welding torch.

3. Collapse of the panels

4. Explosion in the HE panels

5. Diesel fuel fires from an accident involving fuel pumps or vehicles

6. Electrical accidents like an explosion in a transformer or in switchgear

7. A fire in accumulated coal dust at the tail end or beneath the return idlers of a conveyor.

Recommendations

44
The commission of inquiry came up with the following recommendations:

i. The regulations relating to coal mines form a separate and distinct part of the mining
regulations;
ii. All underground coal mines should be controlled by the same regulations
iii. The Codes of Practice which deal with safety techniques and are so framed as to serve as
a practical guide are of real benefit to the mining industry;
iv. The adoption of the definition “ manager “ in the South African Mining Regulations,
Chapter 1;
v. More attention be given to the appointment by the mine of competent ventilation officers
whose duties should be limited to problems relating to ventilation, underground
environment and explosion hazards;
vi. Congratulated the mine on the formation of an Accident Prevention Committee;
vii. The Ministry of Mines and the Chamber of Mine should be on the lookout for
educational and instructive literature including films. When such literature is identified
they notify the mine manager and the department of mining engineering so that current
mining techniques and safety procedures are mastered; and
viii. Certain qualifications in the case of:
a) Mine manager;
b) Officials subordinate to the mine manager;
c) Miners or persons in charge of coal producing sections;
d) Applicants for full blasting licences; and
e) Electricians and artisans employed underground.

2.4 Chapter summary

Theoretical literature focused on theories of work-related accident causation and those on human
resources productivity. The empirical literature focused specifically on case studies of work-
related accidents in different workplace environments. The case studies focused on the history of
the cases, what took place in the cases, the causes of the accidents, the impact of the accidents
and the recommendations drawn from each case. Research on causes and impact of work-related
accidents in SMEs in specific cluster zones is therefore required given the ever increasing role of

45
SMEs in the developing countries like Zimbabwe. Research has shown that once SMEs have
understood the link between occupational safety and health (OSH) and their productivity they
will now be willing to link OSH with their economic operations. The next chapter is on research
methodology.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

Clarke (2005:34) defines research methodology as what constitutes a research activity, utilises or
is applicable to a model, and therefore specifies concepts and related statements. It also defines
what methods to apply, how to measure progress, and what constitutes success and finally
specifies how to communicate about an area of research activity in terms of structure and
deliverables. Muhammad (2007) similarly defines research methodology as a way of
systematically solving the research problem. It is the study of the various steps that are generally
adopted by the researcher in studying the research problem along with the logic behind them.

This research study was descriptive. According to Clarke (2005) there are ten research
methodologies which are historical, comparative, descriptive, correlation, experimental,
evaluation, action, ethnogeny, feminist and cultural. The descriptive methodology was used
because data was collected using questionnaires, interviews and observations. Observations were
written down or recorded in some way in order to be subsequently analysed. However a multi-
method approach was employed in order to seek convergence of results through triangulation
and for complementary purposes on overlapping facets of the research phenomena.

3.1 Research philosophy

According to Muhammad (2007) research philosophy is the belief about the way in which data
about a phenomenon should be gathered, analysed and used. He adds that it is the way we think
about the progress of knowledge. He further adds that it is the first layer of the research process
“onion” which is divided into two different categories that is positivism and phenomenology.

46
This research is phenomenological in nature. The problem investigated required some deep
understanding of causes and impact of work-related accidents which suit the phenomenological
philosophy. According to Hussey and Hussey (1997:54) the phenomenological philosophy has
the following attributes:

i. It tends to produce qualitative data which fitted well with the case study approach;
ii. Data is rich and subjective thus qualitative data which is rich in nature, and the gathering
process was subjective given the level of involvement of the researcher;
iii. The location is natural that is the research setting was a commercial SME cluster zone
and not a laboratory setting;
iv. Reliability is low thus the possibility of lower reliability was countered by the use of
triangulation; and
v. Validity is high as evidenced by the empirical gathering of data.

Bryman (2001) concurs with the above when he notes that phenomenology is a philosophy that
is concerned with the question of how individuals make sense of the world around them and how
in particular the philosopher should bracket out preconceptions concerning his or her grasp of the
world. Bryman further add that positivism is an epistemological position that advocates for the
application of the methods of natural sciences to the study of social reality and beyond.

3.2 Research design

According to Muhammad (2007) research design is the general plan in which the researcher tries
to get answers to the developed research question, explaining the source of data and possible
constraints. Carriger, (2000:1) concurs with the above by defining research design as the
strategy, the plan, and the structure of conducting a research project.

Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993) similarly define research design as the strategy for answering
the questions or testing the hypotheses that stimulated the research in the first place. Research
designs include experiment, case study, observation, longitudinal design and cross-sectional
design. Muhammed (2007) similarly notes that research designs include survey, experiments,
case study, grounded theory, and ethnography and action research.

47
This research study used a case study design of causes and impact of work-related accidents on
human resources productivity for SMEs engaged in the manufacturing and services sectors in
Murahwa Green Market SMEs cluster zone in Mutare urban area. The case study approach is
believed to be useful for allowing a particular issue to be studied in depth and in the context of
its relationship with real world (Feagin et al, 1991). Case studies involve an attempt to describe
relationships that exist in reality, quite often in a single organisation. Case studies can be
positivist or interpretivist in nature, depending on the researcher’s approach, the data collected
and the analytical techniques employed.

According to Robson (1993) a case study is concerned with the development of detailed,
intensive knowledge about a single case or a small number of related cases. He further adds that
the case study approach has the ability to generate answers to the question “why” as well as
“what” and “how”. The data collection methods may include questionnaires, interviews,
observations and documentary analysis.

3.3 Population

Population is the universe or collection of all elements (persons, businesses, et cetera) being
described or measured by a sample (Fairfax County Department of Systems Management for
Human Services, 2003:8). Michael (n.d.:1) concurs with the above by defining population or
universe as the group to which inferences are made based on a sample drawn from the
population.

According to (Castillo, 2009) there are two types of population in research which are target
population and accessible population. Target population is the entire group of individuals or
objects to which researchers are interested in generalising the conclusions from the research
study. The study population mostly has varying characteristics and is also called the theoretical
population. The accessible population is the population in research which the researchers can
apply their conclusions. This population is a subset of the target population and is also called the
study population. It is the one from which researchers draw samples. The study population in the
Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone relates quite well with the wider population of SMEs
in the same category in Mutare urban area and in Zimbabwe.

48
The population for this research study was made up of small and medium sized enterprises which
were in the manufacturing and services sectors. According to Mutare City Council the study
population is quite representative of the entire population of SME cluster zones in Mutare urban
area, Manicaland and the whole of Zimbabwe. Examples of similar SME cluster zones outside
Mutare urban area which were cited include Mbare Magaba SME cluster zone and Glenview
SME cluster zone both of which are in Harare. The classification of the population of this
research study in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone is shown in the Table 5 below.

Table 5: Population of the study in the Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone.

Population Description Frequency Percentage of the population (%)

Metal fabrication 25 52

Repairs and services 6 13

Production of equipment 5 10

Retailing of timber 7 15

Retailing of motor spares 5 10

Total 48 100

3.4 Sample

According to Michael (n.d.:1) a sample is a representative subset of the population from which
generalisations are made about the population. Lunsford and Lunsford (1995) similarly define a
sample as a small subset of the population that has been chosen to be studied. Michael further
adds that samples are used in research studies because all members of a population may not be
available, it is cheaper to study a sample and less time is consumed in studying a sample.

This research study used convenience or grab sample which is non-probability. Convenience
samples consist of research subjects who are readily available for the study and are willing to
participate. The researcher used a convenience sample because the time and cost of collecting

49
information were so limited. However care was taken to ensure that the use of non-probability
sampling methods did not give rise to introducing bias into the research study.

According to Lunsford and Lunsford (1995) in the real world of clinical research true random
sampling is very difficult to achieve. They further add that time; cost and ethical considerations
often prohibit researchers from making the necessary arrangements and securing the required
clearances. Therefore non-probability sampling was used.

The sample used in this research study is illustrated in Table 6 below:

Table 6: Sample for the study in the Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone.

Sample Description Frequency Percentage of sample (%)

Metal fabrication
Repairs and services
Production of equipment
Retailing of timber
Retailing of motor spares
Total
15 50
4 13
3 10
4 13
4 14
30 100

The metal fabrication category was mainly composed of individuals or partners involved in the
production of window frames, door frames, and burglar bars, metal dishes, scotch carts, small
vehicle trailers among others. Metal fabrication category produced goods using old technology
and little skills resulting in compromised quality of products.

Repairs and services were done by people working as individuals or in partnership. They were
mostly involved in repairing vehicles, farm implements, and industrial equipment, and domestic
equipment. They used old technology mostly welding machines, some of them made in the
cluster zone.

The production of equipment group comprised of individuals and partners who used old
technology in producing agricultural, domestic and manufacturing equipment like plough parts,
peanut butter making machines, freezits making machines, and various other industrial machines.

SMEs involved in timber retailing were largely one man operations and they sold various timber
products ranging from single pieces of timber to ceiling boards. They also dealt in fencing timber

50
both treated and untreated. Some were selling finished timber products like coffins, kitchen
tables and chairs, base-beds and wardrobes.

Retailing of motor spares was also done by one man operators who sold different types of motor
vehicle spares. They were conveniently located for clients who came in the cluster zone for
motor vehicle repairs and services. Some of them also sold old motor vehicle parts since they
also engaged in car breaking.

3.5 Sampling procedure

According to Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993) sampling procedures involve drawing

individuals or entities in a population in such a way as to permit generalisation about the
phenomena of interest from the sample to the population. Sampling procedures are classified
under two general categories; probability sampling and non-probability sampling (Fairfax
County Department of Systems Management for Human Services, 2003). Non probability
samples include convenience sampling, quota and judgemental sampling. Probability sampling
include simple random, stratified random, systematic and cluster sampling.

The researcher used non-probability sampling procedure which is convenience sampling in

selecting the subjects for the study. According to Castillo (2009) convenience sampling is a non-
probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient
accessibility and proximity to the researcher. Fifteen respondents were selected haphazardly
from the metal fabrication category of respondents; four respondents were selected haphazardly
in the repairs and services category; three in the production of equipment group; four in the
retailing of timber group and four were selected in the retailing of motor spares category. Those
selected were judged by the researcher to be true representatives of the cluster zone on the basis
of their willingness to participate in the research and their level of operations in the cluster zone.
The technique suited the researcher’s small budget and the limited time for the research.

3.6 Research instruments

According to Mosby’s Medical Dictionary, 8th edition (2009) a research instrument is a testing
device for measuring a given phenomenon, like a paper and pencil test, a questionnaire, an
interview, a research tool, or a set of guidelines for observation. Many research instruments are

51
available for researchers to use in data collection like questionnaires, focus group discussions,
experimentation, interviews, and observations.

This research study used the questionnaire, semi-structured interview and observation for data
collection. Observation was used because accurate information about how a sample behaves, or a
programme is actually taking place is gathered. Accurate information on the causes and
occurrence of work-related accidents was gathered through observations. Observation validates
responses from the questionnaires and interviews and gave the researcher room to adapt to what
to observe as events occurred.

3.6.1 Questionnaire

According to Muhammad (2007) a questionnaire is used in survey research and case studies.
Saunders et al (2000) argue that questionnaires collect data by asking people to respond to
exactly the same set of questions. They further add that questionnaires can be self-administered
or interviewer administered. Muhammad (2007) concurs with the above when noting that
interviewer administered questionnaires may be by telephone or structured interview. Self-
administered questionnaires may be online, postal or delivery and collection questionnaires.

For this study the questionnaire was self-administered delivery and collection. In the
questionnaire some questions were of a dichotomous type and some were open-ended.
Respondents were asked to select from given responses and also to give responses without
guidance.

3.6.2 Interviews

According to Muhammad (2007) interviews are commonly used for gathering primary data. He
adds that interviewing can be very flexible. The study conducted face-to-face interviews with
managers, supervisors and proprietors of the SMEs and the researcher had an interview guide.
Semi-structured interviews are non-standardised and are frequently used in qualitative analysis.
The interviewer does not do the research to test a specific hypothesis (David, and Sutton,
2004:87). The researcher explained and rephrased the questions if respondents were unclear
about the questions. Gray (2004:217) concurs with the above when he notes that probing is a
way for the interview to explore new paths which were not initially considered.

52
3.7 Data collection procedure

Three data collection methods were used namely, questionnaire, semi-structured interviews and
observations. Questionnaires were distributed to 30 respondents in person by the researcher.
Respondents were allowed one day to answer the questionnaire. The researcher collected the
questionnaire in person after one day. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were carried out
with SME entrepreneurs involved the manufacturing and services sectors. Semi-structured
interviews were carried out employing structured questions, open-ended questions and probing
questions for in-depth understanding of the causes and impact of work-related accidents on
human resources productivity.

The interviews were held by the researcher with respondents who were willing to participate in
the research study. The researcher used an interview guide and noted responses from the
respondents on pre-determined data collection sheets to record the interviewee responses. Data
collection from the interview was done in person by the researcher. No research assistants were
used. All interviews were held in one day.

The researcher used an observation guide that outlined issues to be observed during the
observations such as potential causes and actual effects of work-related accidents. Observations
were made by the researcher and were recorded on pre-determined data collection sheets for the
observation sessions in the research.

3.8 Reliability

Reliability is the extent to which results are consistent over time and an accurate representation
of the total population under study and if results of a study can be reproduced under a similar
methodology, the instrument is considered to be reliable (Joppe, 2000:1) cited in Bashir, Afzal
and Azeem (2008). Miller (n.d.) defines reliability as the extent to which a questionnaire, test,
observation or any measurement procedure produces the same results on repeated trials. It is
therefore the stability or consistency of scores over time in the same test environment.

In this study instrument reliability was ensured and enhanced through elaborating and ensuring
anonymity of the respondents. The researcher used highly structured questionnaires, interview
guides and observation guides. The researcher used more than one approach to interpret scores or

53
replies or responses for the instruments to ensure reliability. Triangulation of data collection and
data analysis was done to ensure reliability.

Engaging multiple data collection methods like, questionnaire, observation and interviews and
recordings will lead to more valid, reliable and diverse construction of realities (Bashir, Afzal,
and Azeem, 2008). This research used similar strategies for ensuring reliability and validity.

3.9 Validity

Kimberlin and Winterstein (2008) define validity as the extent to which an instrument measures
what it purports to measure. Validity requires that an instrument is reliable but an instrument can
be reliable without being valid. Joppe (2000) similarly explains that validity is the determination
of whether the research truly measures that which it was intended to measure or how truthful the
research results are.

The research study used multi-method strategies in data collection. This allowed triangulation in
data collection and data analysis. In data collection the questionnaire, semi-structured interview
and observation techniques were used thus triangulation in methods to confirm findings that
emerged. For example the researcher read questionnaire responses, heard about causes of work-
related accidents in interviews and saw work-related accidents taking place in observations, and
read from pertinent documents. Low-inference descriptors were used to record precise, almost
literal and detailed descriptions of participants and situations. Member checking was also done
that is checking informally with participants for accuracy during data collection through
observations.

The researcher used the same measurement method throughout the study to ensure validity. As
for the interviews a uniform interview guide was used throughout and it excluded ambiguous,
misleading or double barrelled questions. As for the observations appropriate distance was
maintained to avoid affecting the situation.

3.10 Ethical considerations

Ethical issues in human subjects and even animals have received increasing attention in the
world today. Ethical considerations are important in research studies in that they help to promote

54
respondent and interviewee rights against abuse by unethical researchers. In this research the
following ethical guidelines were considered or adhered to:

a. Obtained the informed consent from each research participant;

b. Enumerated how privacy and confidentiality concerns were to be handled;
c. Respected each participant as a person capable of making an informed decision regarding
involvement in the research study;
d. Avoided plagiarism in use of information when writing the report;
e. Strived for honesty in all research communications; and
f. Kept promises and agreements; acted with sincerity; strived for consistency of thought and
action.

3.11 Data analysis procedure

Data were presented under the cover of key concepts that underlie the research questions. In this
research data were presented in narrative, in diagrams and in figures such as tables, pie charts
and graphically and frequency distribution charts. Data analysis was largely mechanical
qualitative analysis involving descriptions and explanations of relationships. Some quantitative
techniques like statistical analysis of data were also done in the research.

3.12 Chapter summary

The chapter focused on the methodology used in the research study. The research philosophy,
research design, population, sampling procedure research instruments, reliability and validity
issues were uncovered. The next chapter focuses on data presentation, analysis and
interpretation.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis and interpretation of data gathered out of the instruments in the
study which were the questionnaire, interview and observation. Data is presented, analysed and
discussed under the cover of the key concepts that underlie the research questions as outlined in
the questionnaire and interview guide. The results of the study are presented using statistical
tables, graphical presentations and textual presentations.

4.1 The response rate

The rate of response by research respondents was very good for the questionnaire used in the
study being at ninety percent (90%). Only three respondents did not reply the questionnaire. The
researcher made follow ups but to no avail. No substitute respondents were issued with
questionnaires to fill the gap of those who did not respond in the first issue because of time
limitations. Table 7 below shows the response rate for each category of the research sample.

Table 7: Response rate for the questionnaire

Respondent Target Responses Actual Responses Response Rate (%)

Category
Metal fabrication 15 12 80
Repairs and services 4 4 100
Production of 3 3 100
equipment
Retailing of timber 4 4 100
Retailing of motor 4 4 100
spares
Total 30 27 90

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The metal fabrication category was the only one which did not achieve a 100% response rate
however 80% response rate for the category was deemed to be quite good.

The response rate for the interview was 100%. The high response rate was attributed to the
ability of the researcher to make the respondents feel comfortable in taking part in the research.
The researcher also clearly communicated the purpose of the research study to respondents.

4.2 Demographic characteristics of respondents

The characteristics of the respondents in the study were as shown in Table 8(a) to Table 8(d)
below. The demographic information focused on gender, age, work experience and qualifications
held by the respondents. Though not central to the study the demographic data helped in
contextualising the findings and formulation of appropriate recommendations to enable the
prevention of work-related accidents in SMEs.

Table 8 (a): Distribution of respondents by gender

Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 21 70
Female 9 30
Total 30 100

Table 8(a) above shows that of the thirty (30) respondents in the study 70% were males and 30%
were females. However of the thirty (30) respondents three respondents did not respond to the
questionnaire. This indicated that most of the SME entrepreneurs in Murahwa Green Market
cluster zone were males. The respondents were asked how old they were. Table 8(b) depicts the
respondents’ age groups.

Male domination in SMEs in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone was attributed to the
physical nature of the operations which were being undertaken. Most of the SMEs were one man
operations mostly done by the owner which therefore meant the owner had to be physically
ready for the tasks involved. This meant the owner was at the helm of the physical work involved

57
in the operations and males were more prepared for such jobs. The thirty percent (30%) of
females were mostly in the retailing category which is less physical.

Table 8 (b): Respondents’ age group at the time of completing the questionnaires

Age Group Frequency Percentage (%)

15-25 years 5 19
26-35 years 10 37
36-50 years 12 44
51 and above 0 0
Total 27 100

Table 8 (b) above portrays that the ages of respondents ranged from 15 to 50 years. The majority
of the respondents were from the age group between 36 to 50 years old which constituted 44% of
those who responded to the questionnaire. No respondent was above fifty years of age.
Respondents were also asked to indicate their working experience in the occupation they were
engaged in, in the cluster zone. Table 8(c) below shows the working experience of the twenty-
seven (27) respondents who filled in the questionnaire.

Table 8 (c): Respondents’ work experience

Period of Experience Frequency Percentage (%)

Less than 1 year 2 7
1-3 years 5 19
3-5 years 7 26
5-10 years 8 29
Above 10 years 5 18
Total 27 100

From Table 8(c) above shows that twenty-nine percent (29%) of the twenty-seven (27)
respondents had 5 to10 years of work experience which constituted the majority. Only seven
percent (7%) of the respondents had less than a year of work experience. This depicted that
business people in Murahwa Green Market cluster zone were well experienced in their
occupations. Table 8 (d) shows the qualifications held by the respondents in the study.

Table 8 (d): Respondents’ qualifications

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Qualification Frequency Percentage (%)
None 14 52
Certificate 11 41
Diploma 2 7
Degree 0 0
Others 0 0
Total 27 100

Table 8(d) shows that in the study the majority of respondents 52% had no qualifications for the
work they were involved in. The Table 8 (d) also reveals that 41% of the study respondents held
a certificate in the work they were doing and none indicated that he or she had a degree. This
implied that workplace safety and health skills and information need to be imparted on the
entrepreneurs in the cluster zone since the majority had not been trained in the work they do.

4.3 Conceptual data

The findings and results in this section of the study outline the responses which are related to the
research questions and objectives. The conceptual data is focused on the nature and scope of
work-related accidents, causes of work-related accidents, impact of work-related accidents and
how to reduce the work-related accidents and their impact.

4.3.1 Nature and scope of work-related accidents

Respondents were asked in the questionnaire and in interviews whether they experienced work-
related accidents in their various occupations in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone. Only
three respondents did not reply the entire questionnaire but the other twenty-seven (27) gave
responses in respect of the occurrences of work-related accidents as illustrated in Table 9 below.

Table 9: Occurrence of work-related accidents

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 25 93
No 2 7
Total 27 100

Table 9 shows that ninety-three percent (93%) of the respondents experience work-related
accidents in their occupations. This implied that work-related accidents were a real problem for

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SMEs in the Murahwa Green Market cluster zone. Only seven percent (7%) indicated that they
do not experience work-related accidents in their operations and these were mainly in the
retailing category. From the interviews held 100% of the interviewees indicated that they
experience work-related accidents in their occupations.

Surienty et al (2011) concur with the above when they note that one of the many challenges that
SMEs face is the high workplace accidents rate which may reflect badly to the way safety and
workers’ well-being are handled by Malaysian SMEs. The findings by Surienty et al (2011)
confirm that poor safety and health management systems exist in SMEs therefore SMEs
experience many work-related accidents.

Loewenson (1998) concurs with the respondents when he notes that the injury rate among small-
scale industrial workers in Zimbabwe was 131 per 1000 exposed workers per year. This implied
that SMEs in the cluster zone need to proactively apply preventive strategies for managing the
risks of the work-related accidents they face on weekly basis.

Figure 4 below illustrates the occurrence of work-related accidents per week in the Murahwa
Green Market cluster zone as indicated by the twenty-seven (27) respondents who replied the
questionnaire. This was also confirmed by the responses given by interviewees in the study.

All the interviewees responded that they experienced 1to 5 accidents per week or more. From
Figure 4 below sixty-three percent (63%) of the questionnaire respondents indicated that 1 to 5
accidents were experienced per week in their operations and eighteen percent (18%) indicated
that no accidents were experienced per week.

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 Figure 4: Occurrence of work-related accidents per week

Nil
18%

1 to 5
More than 5 19%
63%

The responses by interviewees in Figure 5 below depict workers who are injured per week in the
SME cluster zone. The responses correlate with those portrayed in Figure 4 which indicates that
when work-related accidents occur workers get injured. When workers are injured at work it
affects their productivity and also the level of production for the entire SME. Depending on the
nature of the injury worker productivity is bound to fall due to the injury. Injured workers may
be absent from work due to the injury, may be hospitalised due to the injury thereby not
producing for the SME and may be at work but not working at full capacity due to the injury.

The implications of injury to the SMEs in terms of financial costs as a result of the injured
workers are quite many. The workers may claim for compensation from the employer, hospital
fees may need to be met by the employer as well and lost profits due to the reduced output and
increased costs.

The families of the injured workers also suffer in caring for the injured and at times may lose
income that the worker was earning from employment. The impact of work-related accidents
depends on the nature of the accident and its magnitude or scope. Figure 5 below illustrates the
percentage of workers who get injured per week in the Murahwa Green Market cluster zone.

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 FigureAbove
5: Workers
5 Nil per week
injured
20% 10%

1 to 5
70%

Figure 5 above depicts that 1 to 5 workers are injured per week in the SME cluster zone which
constitute 70% of the responses and 10% of the respondents indicated that no workers are injured
in their operations. This implied that work-related accidents were befalling many workers in the
Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone. This also means workers were negatively affected by
the work-related accidents in their operations.

The researcher asked respondents on the questionnaire and in the interviews to state the various
kinds of work-related accidents they experienced at their various workplaces in the SME cluster
zone. Table 10 depicts the work-related accidents that befall SMEs in Murahwa Green Market
cluster zone. The researcher ranked the work-related accidents basing on their frequency of being
mentioned by respondents.

Table 10: Work-related accidents experienced in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster
zone

Work-related accident Frequency Percentage (%) Rank

Cuts and lacerations 12 24 1
Burns 10 20 2
Eye injuries 8 16 3
Finger and hand crushing injuries 6 12 4
Electrocution and shocks 5 10 5
Motor vehicle jack failures and crushing 4 8 6
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injuries
Hit by falling objects 3 5 7
Pierced or prickled by sharp tools or materials 2 3 8
Gas leakages and explosions 1 2 9
Total 51 100 9

Cuts to the body were the most common work-related accidents at 24% of those indicated by
respondents followed by burns 20%. Cuts to the body but mosly to the hand were common in
metal fabrication, repairs and services and in the production of equipment sectors. Gas leakages
and explosions were ranked 9th at 2% since they were least to be indicated in the interviews and
in the questionnaires. Table 10 above depicts the nature of work-related accidents in Murahwa
Green Market SME cluster zone and Figures 4 and 5 portray the scope of the accidents
experienced.

Job categories of motor vehicle mechanics and welding experienced more work-related accidents
than others. This could demonstrate that job category proxy factors for work-related hazards.
These job categories were believed to be actively involved in work that required the application
of moving machine parts that predispose to a risk of injury.

4.3.2. Causes of work-related accidents.

Table 11 below portrays the questionnaire and interview responses in respect of the causes of
work-related accidents.

Table 11: Causes of work-related accidents in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone.

Cause Frequency Percentage Rank

(%)
Untrained/ unskilled/ unqualified workers 18 22 1
None use/ improper use of personal protective equipment 15 18 2
No machine safety guards 10 12 3
Faulty/ poor machinery 9 11 4
Negligence/ carelessness/ loss of concentration 8 10 5
Poor electricity cabling 8 10 6
Alcohol use at work 6 7 7
Overcrowding/ limited space 5 6 8
Human error 3 3 9
Leaking gases 1 1 10

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Total 83 100 10

Untrained workers or unskilled workers topped the list at 22% of the responses, followed by
none use or improper use of personal protective equipment at 18% and gas leakages were least at
1%. In follow-up interviews the respondents attributed the causes of work-related accidents to
none use of personal protective equipment, carelessness, human error and untrained staff among
other causes.

Esin (2007:4) cited in Yukcu and Gonen (2009) concurs with the above when he categorised
causes of occupational accidents as losing concentration, unintentional faulty conduct resulting
from lack of necessary training and experience, failing to obey rules and environmental factors
like lack of machinery maintenance and malfunctioning machinery. Tadesse and Kumie
(2007:32) similarly found that the reasons for higher work-related injuries amongst young people
include lack of supervision, lack of experience on the job, lack of information, lack of training
and lack of knowledge and skill. Therefore scholarly are confirming the views of the respondents
on the causes of work-related accidents in Murahwa Green Market cluster zone.

Jovanovic et al (2004) concurs with Table 11 findings when they note that occupational
accidents are caused by multiple causes. They add that according to the domino theory 88% of
all accidents are caused by unsafe acts of people, 10% by unsafe conditions and 2% by “acts of
God”. Jovanovic et al (2004) similarly noted that the multiple causation theory was an outgrowth
of the domino theory. According to the multiple causation theory a single accident may be a
result of many factors, cause and sub-causes. The factors were grouped into behavioural factors
which include improper attitude at work by a worker, lack of knowledge and skills, inadequate
physical and mental conditions. Environmental factors include improper guarding of hazardous
work elements, degraded equipment. These causes were also identified by the study
respondents.

4.3.2.1 Employee training and development

The respondents were asked whether they had professionally and on-the-job trained workers for
their operations. The responses given by the twenty-seven (27) respondents in the questionnaire
are presented in Table 12.

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Table12: The employment of trained workers in SME operations.

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 10 37
No 17 63
Total 27 100

Table 12 shows that 63% of the respondents did not employ trained workers in their operations
among the 27 respondents. This implied that these workers may lack sufficient knowledge on the
safe use of machinery, use of personal protective equipment and issues of safety and health at
workplaces resulting in work-related accidents. Ten respondents which were 37% of the
respondents indicated that they employed trained workers in their operations. It also implied that
people responsible for imparting on the job training were also lacking the adequate pedagogic
and job related skills to impart to the workers. This meant both management and workers require
job relevant skills in order to reduce work-related accidents in the Murahwa Green Market SME
cluster zone.

Tadesse and Kumie (2007:32) concur with the study findings when they note that small-scale
industrial workers are at greater risk of work-related injuries because of low education and
literacy rates, inadequate training, and unfamiliarity with work processes. They further add that
their studies indicated that lack of relevant experience influences the interaction between the
person and other workers, knowledge of machines and tools in use and their defects, and
awareness of surrounding hazards.

Mehta et al (2011) similarly noted that a higher percentage of injury in illiterate and
inexperienced workers indicated that either the workers were unable to understand safety
instruction written on the instruments or due to the lack of acquisition of knowledge of working
with the instruments and learning how to prevent injuries. They further add that untrained and
inexperienced workers portrayed high percentage of injury to upper limb, head and chest.

4.3.2.2 Workplace safety and health training sessions

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The questionnaire and interview responses in respect of workplace safety and health training
sessions in the Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone are illustrated in Table 13 and Figure 6
below.

Table 13: Safety and health training sessions at workplaces

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 3 11
No 17 63
Sometimes 7 26
Total 27 100

From Table 13 above and Figure 6 below portray that 63% of the 27 respondents indicated that
they do not carry out safety and health training sessions at their workplaces and only 11% said
they had safety and health training sessions at their workplaces. The implications from the
responses given were that workers in the majority of the workplaces lacked knowledge on
workplace safety and health. This may result in work-related accidents because workers are
untrained or lack safety and health skills. The respondents who indicated that safety and health
training sessions were carried out at their workplaces pointed out that the employers
administered these sessions informally during working times. No external training was done and
no external people were invited to administer the training sessions on safety and health.

Yukcu and Gonen (2009:936) concur with the above when they note that occupational accidents
occur due to lack of job safety training. They add that either employers do not want to spend
resources in order to prevent occupational accidents or workers might be negligent and have no
sense of awareness.

According to Alli (2001) training is an essential element in maintaining a health and safe
workplace and has to be an integral component of occupational health and safety management
for many years. He further adds that workers and their representatives should be given
appropriate training in occupational health and safety. Training in occupational health and safety
should not be treated in isolation but should be an integral part of job training. The above view
concurs with the views of the respondents presented in Figure 6 below.

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 70

60

50

40
Yes
30 No
Sometimes
20

10

Figure 6 above illustrates that the majority (63%) of the study respondents indicated that no
formal workplace safety and health training sessions were carried out at their work stations. This
implied that workplace accidents were a result of lack of knowledge and skills on safety and
health.

4.3.2.3 Use of machinery safety guards and machinery maintenance

The questionnaire also required respondents to answer whether they use machinery safety guards
and had in place machinery maintenance schedule. The non-availability of machinery safety
guards and maintenance of machinery were identified by respondents in the interview as one of
the major causes of work-related accidents.

Figure 7 below shows the responses by the 27 respondents for the questionnaire in respect of the
use of machinery safety guards at SMEs’ workplaces.

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 Figure 7: The use of machinery safety guards
Sometimes
11% Yes
15%

No
74%

Figure 7 above portrays that 74% of the respondents indicated that they do not use machinery
safety guards and 11% indicated that they sometimes use machinery safety guards. This implied
that the majority of the respondents were at very high risk of work-related accidents. None use of
machinery safety guards was mentioned as one of the causes of work-related accidents in the
cluster zone.

Figure 8 below shows the responses in respect of the maintenance programme for machinery at
workplaces in SMEs.

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 80%

70%

60%

50%

40%
Yes
30% No
Sometimes
20%

10%

0%

Figure 8 above shows that 78% of the respondents indicated that they did not have machinery
maintenance schedules at their workplaces and only 4% responded that they had machinery
maintenance schedules.

This implied that the majority of machinery was not maintained regularly which results in the
occurrence of work-related accidents at workplaces. When machinery is not maintained regularly
it malfunctions which is a cause of work-related accidents and is ranked 4th in Table 11

According to Yukcu and Gonen (2009) the causes of occupational accidents include being
affected by environmental factors like lack of machinery maintenance, disorder and system and
machinery malfunction. The study respondents gave similar views as depicted in Figure 8 below.

4.3.2.4 Use of personal protective equipment at workplaces

Respondents were asked to indicate whether they use personal protective equipment at their
various workplaces. The responses from the 27 questionnaire respondents are depicted in Table
14 and Figure 9 below.

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Table 14: The use of personal protective equipment at workplaces in Murahwa Green
Market SME cluster zone.

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 7 26
No 13 48
Sometimes 7 26
Total 27 100

Table 14 portrays that 48% of the respondents indicated that they did not use personal protective
equipment at their workplaces and 26% said they sometimes used personally provided for
protective equipment. Therefore it means the majority of respondents do not use personal
protective equipment at their workplaces in the cluster zone. Figure 9 below shows the responses
in respect of the use of personal protective equipment at workplaces.

Figure 9: The use of personal protective equipment at workplaces

Yes
Sometimes 26%
26%

No
48%

Figure 9 above shows that 26% of the 27 respondents indicated that they used own personal
protective equipment in their operations at work in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone

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and 26% indicated that they sometimes used personal protective equipment. This implies that the
majority 48% did not use protective equipment in their work and therefore were prone to work-
related accidents in the Murahwa Green Market cluster zone.

The observations made by the researcher on the study subjects showed that the majority of
workers 85% were not using personal protective equipment like gloves, safety boots, work suits,
eye glasses, ear plugs and helmets at work. None use of helmets, eye glasses and gloves were
almost 100%.

International Labour Organisation (ILO) (1978) similarly noted that the following protective
equipment should be given to workers and should conform to at least national or international
standards:

(a) Safety helmet;

(b) Hearing protective devices;
(c) Safety footwear;
(d) Protective gloves;
(e) Eye protectors;
(f) Leg protectors;
(g) Helmet neck guard;
(h) Helmet wood and
(i) Adequate working clothes.

4.4 Impact of work-related accidents on human resources

Table 15 below shows the responses in respect of the impact of work-related accidents on human
resources. The impacts were ranked basing on the frequency of being identified by respondents.

Table 15: Impact of work-related accidents on human resources productivity

Impact Frequency Percentage (%) Rank

Reduced productivity 21 21 1
Absenteeism 18 18 2
Hospitalisation 14 14 3
Loss of capability 14 14 3
Loss of confidence and trust 12 12 5
Low morale 10 10 6

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Loss of body parts 8 7 7
Loss of life 5 4 8
Total 102 100 8

Table 15 above portrays that the majority 21% of respondents in the questionnaire and interview
indicated that work-related accidents result in reduced human resources productivity. The
respondents also indicated that work-related accidents result in worker absenteeism which
reduces productivity. Fourteen percent (14%) of the respondents identified loss of worker
capability as one of the effects of work-related accidents and 4% of the respondents indicated
that workers lose life due to work-related accidents. The responses from the study participants
concur with literature presented below.

According to Yukcu and Gonen (2009) the increase in work-related accidents in recent years
together with the decrease in productivity has brought about direct and indirect costs for the
firms. They further add that occupational accidents also cause losses of the labour force and the
product.

Unal et al (2008:430) cited in Yukcu and Gonen (2009) concur with the above when they note
that occupational accident costs are classified in two categories as visible or direct and invisible
or indirect. According to Unal et al (2008) cited in Yukcu and Gonen (2009) direct costs include
medical costs, compensation costs, social insurance contributions, maintenance and repair costs
for damaged machinery, rehabilitation costs, funeral costs and costs of maintaining victim’s
house.

Indirect costs were grouped into loss of labour force resulting from inability to work, first-aid
given to the injured worker, breaks taken by the injured worker’s colleagues, reorganisation and
reallocation of the occupation which the victim was responsible and time spent by managers and
supervisors in inspection of the accident.

According to Unal et al (2008) the second indirect costs category is loss of production due to the
suspension of production because of the accident, breakdown of work schedule and work flow,
breakdown of machinery, decrease in efficiency and damage in materials. The last category was
the losses of being behind on orders resulting from loss of reputation, fine paid for overdue
delivery and loss of premiums for early delivery.

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4.4.1 Socio-economic impact of work-related accidents

Table 16 shows the questionnaire and interview responses in respect of the socio-economic
impact of work-related accidents.

Table 16: The socio-economic impact of work-related accidents

Socio-economic impact of work-related accidents Frequency Percentage (%) Rank

Reduced sales and loss of profits 24 24 1
Damage and loss of machines 18 18 2
Compensation and legal suits costs 15 15 3
Loss of income and poverty to families 12 12 4
Bad image of workplace 10 10 5
Loss of customer loyalty and demand 9 9 6
Costs of repairs to machinery 8 8 7
Emotional tension between the employee and the 5 4 8
employer
Total 101 100 8

From Table 16 above 24% of the respondents identified loss of sales and reduced profits for the
business as an economic impact of work-related accidents. Fifteen percent of the respondents
indicated that work-related accidents result in the business to incur legal suits and compensation
costs and 12% of the respondents indicated that work-related accidents result in loss of income
and poverty to the families of workers.

The impact of work-related accidents noted by respondents in Table 16 concurs with Jovanovic’
et al (2004:326) who assert that each year occupational accidents result in staggering costs in
terms of loss of life, pain and suffering, lost wages for the injured worker, damage to production
facilities and equipment, and lost production opportunity.

Therefore work-related accidents have direct and indirect socio-economic costs to businesses,
workers, government, families and society. Work-related accidents need to be prevented to
reduce the socio-economic costs they exert on workers and other stakeholders.

4.4.2 Strategies for reducing the impact of work-related accidents on human resources

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The responses on the strategies to reduce work-related accidents on human resources are
illustrated in Table 17 below.

Table 17: Strategies for reducing the impact of work-related accidents on human resources

Strategies for reducing the impact of work-related Frequency Percentage Rank

accidents on human resources (%)
Use of personal protective equipment 25 20 1
Use of machinery safety guards 20 16 2
Employing trained or skilled workers 18 14 3
Occupational safety and health training at work 16 13 4
Servicing of machinery regularly 15 12 5
Proper working environment/ more space and 14 11 6
structures
Safety and health awareness campaigns at workplaces 10 7 7
Use of warning signs at workplaces 9 7 7
Total 127 100 8

Twenty percent (20%) of the respondents indicated that the use of personal protective equipment
as a way of reducing the impact of work-related accidents and this was ranked first as shown in
Table 17. Only 7% of respondents indicated that warning signs at workplaces can reduce the
impact of work-related accidents and the strategy was ranked 7th.

It therefore implied that the respondents prioritised personal protective equipment, machinery
safety guards, skilled employees, occupational safety and health training, well serviced
machines, proper working environment, awareness campaigns and warning signs as ways of
reducing the impact of work-related accidents.

4.5 Strategies for preventing the occurrence of work-related accidents at workplaces

The responses in respect of strategies for preventing the occurrence of work-related accidents at
workplaces are presented in Table18 below. The researcher ranked these responses on the basis
of the percentage of the respondents. Use of personal protective equipment was ranked first at
17% of the respondents; use of machinery safety guards was ranked second at 14% of the
respondents and concentrating during work was ranked tenth at 3%.

Table 18: Methods for preventing work-related accidents at workplaces

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Methods for preventing work-related accidents at Frequency Percentage Rank
workplaces (%)
Use of personal protective equipment 25 17 1
Use of machinery safety guards 21 14 2
Adequate working space at workplaces 20 13 3
Safety and health training at workplaces 18 12 4
Employing qualified or trained workers 16 11 5
Good working machinery 15 10 6
Safety and health awareness campaigns at workplaces 14 9 7
No consumption of alcohol at work 9 6 8
Use of warning signs at workplaces 7 5 9
Concentrating during work 5 3 10
Total 150 100 10

Table 18 above illustrates that respondents viewed the use of personal protective equipment, the
use of machinery safety guards, the provision of adequate working space, carrying out safety and
health training sessions at workplaces, employing skilled workers, the use of good working
machines, conducting safety and health awareness campaigns at workplaces, none consumption
of alcohol during working times, the use of warning signs and concentration at work as top
strategies for reducing work-related accidents at workplaces. Mehta et al (2011) concur with the
respondents when they note that after training workers, good housekeeping maintenance,
awareness about hazards and compulsion personal protective devices, the injuries were reduced
in the second phase of their study.

4.6 Chapter summary

The chapter presented the findings of the research study that highlight the need to increase
awareness and prioritisation of health and safety issues at the workplace especially in SMEs
existing or operating in harsh financial and economic environment characterising Zimbabwe
during post 2000 era wherein the mortality rate among SMEs from work-related accidents is
extremely high and cost cutting strategies are employed irrespective of the human,
environmental and other consequences. The next chapter is a summary of the research findings,
conclusions drawn from the case study and also presentation of recommendations.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the summary of findings of the research study, conclusions drawn from the
research study and recommendations to society, organisations and for further studies.

5.1 Summary

The research study sought to investigate the causes and impact of work-related accidents on
human resources productivity in the Murahwa Green Market SME cluster zone of Mutare urban
area of Manicaland Province in Zimbabwe. The major findings from this study are:

i. The majority of SMEs in the cluster zone were experiencing a high of rate work-related
accidents;

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 ii. Many workers in the SMEs were injured on weekly basis in the work-related accidents
experienced by the SMEs;
iii. The majority of work-related accidents in the SME cluster zone involved body cuts,
burns, eye injuries and electrocution and shocks;
iv. The major causes of the work-related accidents in Murahwa Green Market SME cluster
zone included the employment of untrained workers, none use of personal protective
equipment, none use of machinery safety guards and working with poor or faulty
machinery;
v. Work-related accidents experienced in the cluster zone resulted in reduced human
resources productivity, high rates of employee absenteeism, hospitalisation of workers
and loss of worker capability;
vi. SMEs in the cluster zone lost sales and profits, had machines damaged or completely lost,
paid huge compensation costs as a result of workplace accidents; and
vii. Strategies to reduce the impact of work-related accidents emerged as availing and
consistent use of personal protective equipment, employing trained workers, occupational
safety and health training at work and servicing machinery regularly.

5.2 Conclusions

The following are the major conclusions in respect of the research study:

a) Work-related accidents are a serious challenge for SMEs as reflected by the way
workers’ safety and health issues were handled in Murahwa Green Market cluster zone;
b) SMEs face a high rate of work-related accidents ranging from minor body cuts to
fatalities;
c) SMEs engaged in job categories that are actively involved in work that require the
application of moving machine parts experience a high rate of work-related accidents;
d) Employers and workers in the SME informal sector are poorly regulated by labour or
safety and health law;
e) Low levels of capital with primitive tools and techniques and a tendency to innovate or
make shortcuts in production which may be necessary for economic survival have
resulted in work-related accidents in SME cluster zones;

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 f) Poor access to information, lack of knowledge about hazards, their effects and controls
and pressure to generate an income at whatever cost have also resulted in work-related
accidents in SME cluster zones;
g) Poor safety and health management systems faced by SMEs are pinned on lack of formal
and informal job and safety and health training;
h) Work-related accidents in SMEs emerge from multiple causation which include factors
such as lack of knowledge and skills, inadequate physical and mental conditions;
i) Workers in SMEs are at greater risk of work-related accidents because of low education
and literacy rates, inadequate training and unfamiliarity with job processes;
j) The increase in work-related accidents in SMEs has resulted in the decrease in human
resources productivity and has brought direct and indirect costs for the SMEs;
k) Work-related accidents in SMEs have direct and indirect socio-economic costs to
businesses, workers, governments, families and society;
l) The training of workers both formally and informally in job skills and in safety and
health skills reduce work-related accidents and their impact in SME cluster zones;
m) Work-related accidents in SMEs need to be prevented to reduce the socio-economic costs
they exert on workers and other various stakeholders;
n) Providing adequate financial resources for SMEs is central to reducing work-related
accidents and their impact in SMEs; and
o) SMEs are not proactive in applying preventive strategies for the management of the risks
of work-related accidents.

5.3 Recommendations

The following recommendations with respect to the study are briefly outlined below:

i. National Social Security Authority (NSSA) should regularly inspect SME cluster zones
just like it does in large scale businesses to monitor safety and health management
systems in the SME sector so as to reduce work-related accidents;
ii. Municipalities and town councils should provide adequate infrastructure and working
space in SME cluster zones to prevent overcrowding which results in work-related
accidents in the zones;

78
 iii. The Ministry of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises Development should provide
adequate funding to SMEs and should inspect their operations more regularly to note the
safety and health management systems in place in order to reduce work-related accidents;
iv. Central government and local government should deploy safety and health inspectors in
SME cluster zones more regularly followed by proper advice on issues of safety and
health;
v. SMEs should provide personal protective equipment where it is needed to all workers and
should monitor the consistent use of the protective equipment ;
vi. Workers must be informed through informal and formal training on job and safety and
health skills so that work-related accidents and their impact are reduced;
vii. All SME undertakings should be registered with the relevant local and national
authorities and that health and safety legislation should include them;
viii. The type of operations of SMEs should be assessed first then basic minimum safety and
health standards are laid down for both workers and employers;
ix. There should be adequate labelling and safety and health instructions in local languages
in all SMEs; and
x. Training programmes should be developed in the prevention, recognition, diagnosis and
management of work-related accidents in SME cluster zones for both workers and
employers.

5.4 Areas for further studies

It is recommended that further research studies be undertaken regarding strategic human

resources management of workplace safety and health management strategies that are sustainable
for SMEs on a national scale given SMEs’ ever increasing role in most countries. This will go a
long way in addressing the problems of poor safety and health management systems
characterising the SME sector.

There is also a need for a clear analysis of the economic, infrastructural and administrative
constraints that hamper workplace safety and health in the SME sector at present.

79
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