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To cite this Article Morrison, David and Gilbert, Paul(2001) 'Social rank, shame and anger in primary and secondary
psychopaths', Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 12: 2, 330 — 356
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/09585180110056867
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585180110056867
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The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry Vol 12 No 2 September 2001 330–356
D AV I D M O R R I S O N and PAU L G I L B E RT
1987). To date, however, there is less research on the role of shame in psycho-
pathic disorders. To advance our understanding of the role of self-conscious
emotions in psychopathic and antisocial disorders a distinction between
shame and humiliation is useful (Gilbert, 1997).1 While both shame and humil-
iation are focused on self-presentational concerns, and a sensitivity to criti-
cism and social put-down, humiliation alone is accompanied by cognitions of
the ‘other’ as being at fault or unjust and by a strong desire to retaliate (Gilbert,
1997, 1998a, 1998b; Miller, 1988). As Klein (1991) notes, people often feel
responsible for and deserving of their shame whereas they do not feel their
humiliations are justi ed. Although some researchers believe that shame and
humiliation are similar it is important to note that major differences in their
affects and cognitions have been suggested (Gilbert, 1997, 1998b; Klein, 1991).
It is the sense of injustice, unfairness and desire to retaliate against the humil-
iator that can fuel aggression. Moreover, the way aggression is used and justi-
ed to defend against an insult or personal attack varies cross-culturally
(Cohen and Nisbett, 1994; Cohen, Nisbett, Bowdle and Schwartz, 1996).
dominate the other and avoid being in a subordinate position. Shame and
humiliation have similar triggers; for example, attacks on self-presentations
(attractiveness, prestige). Indeed, some suggest that attacks on rank, status
and self-presentations are crucial for aggression (Baumeister, Smart and
Boden, 1996; Berkowitz, 1993; Tedeschi and Felson, 1994; Tedeschi and
Quigley, 1996). Recent social interactionist perspectives (e.g. Tedeschi and
Felson, 1994) emphasize the role of impression management or ‘saving face’
in aggression. They identify two motives for aggression: to assert a desired
social identity (a desired level of social standing) and to protect a desired social
identity (see Gilbert, 1994; Goffman, 1968; Schlenker, 1980). Humiliated
aggression suggests that the individual has experienced an attack on his or her
ability to create a desired identity in the eyes of the other (self seen as unat-
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tractive, weak, or pathetic). Under such attack, the individual blames the
other and seeks to protect and reassert his or her identity by a display of
aggression and intimidation. Indeed, the speed and vigour of retaliation may
form part of the valued identity (e.g. ‘Nobody messes with me and gets away
with it’) whereas to hide and submit (show shame) would indicate subordi-
nate status (Keltner and Harker, 1998).
1996, 1998), the two types are both signi ed by under-controlled, hostile,
impulsive and aggressive tendencies. Both types have weak inhibitions
against aggression compared with ‘non-psychopath’ mentally disordered
offenders. However, they can be distinguished from one another principally
by their social competence and sociability (Blackburn, 1998). Primary psy-
chopaths are described as extroverted and self-con dent with low to average
anxiety. Secondary psychopaths are characterized by social anxiety, moodi-
ness, low self-esteem and social withdrawal (e.g. Blackburn, 1993a, 1998). In
one study (Blackburn and Renwick, 1996) which investigated the two groups
of psychopaths in terms of expectations of and responses to various attack
and frustration scenarios, both types were found to describe themselves as
dominant in both threatening and af liative settings and each expected others
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AIMS
This study sought to extend previous research on personality and social cog-
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METHOD
MEASURES
items: ‘Because you can’t nd the right words to say what you think, someone
calls you in front of others “a stupid bastard” ’ and ‘Someone tells a joke which
the others get apart from you and so the others tease you’ (humiliating put-
down); ‘The person you usually sit with at dinner asks you to go sit some place
else’ and ‘Getting ignored by someone after asking him for a hand’ (rejec-
tion/withdrawal of investments). No claims are made about the psychomet-
ric properties of these two constructs, which are as yet untested.
PROCEDURE
view to all patients who consented to participate in the study. The order of
presentation of the four self-report scales was counterbalanced to control for
response bias. Formal instructions for each scale were adhered to. Partici-
pants were given a copy of all scales to refer to, except for the APQ scale,
while the trained assessor simultaneously read aloud and scored each
response. Some participants preferred to record their responses themselves.
With respect to the APQ, all 125 items were read aloud to participants who
then lled in their respective responses on the form provided. All participants
were accompanied at all times during the interview to ensure more reliable
and valid data collection. Interviews lasted on average 90 minutes.
RESULTS
Self-report measures
Preliminary analyses of normality, kurtosis and skewness were satisfactory
with regard to all measures. Statistical analyses adopted an alpha level of 0.05.
Table 1 displays the means and standard deviations of the self-report
measures for the sample.
APQ selection criteria for group assignment (Blackburn and Fawcett,
1996) were applied to the sample. This produced the following classi cation:
23 participants were classi ed as ‘Primary psychopaths’, 17 as ‘Secondary
psychopaths’, 5 as ‘Controlled’, and 5 as ‘Inhibited’. Controlled and Inhib-
ited groups were combined to form a ‘Non-psychopaths’ group.
338
Scales: M SD M SD M SD M SD
APQ Scale
Impulsivity 21.60 (6.52) 23.70 (4.55) 24.18 (5.10) 12.40 (4.09)
Withdrawal 11.30 (5.19) 7.74 (2.73) 15.76 (2.95) 11.90 (6.51)
Low self-esteem 10.22 (4.14) 9.48 (3.78) 11.82 (3.54) 9.20 (5.35)
Self-control 8.06 (3.90) 7.78 (3.07) 7.00 (4.14) 10.50 (4.53)
Avoidance 8.68 (4.25) 6.17 (3.11) 12.12 (2.00) 8.60 (5.42)
Paranoid 8.34 (4.42) 7.65 (3.07) 10.88 (4.12) 5.60 (5.58)
Resentment 12.72 (4.03) 13.65 (3.04) 14.12 (3.31) 8.20 (4.18)
Aggression 12.94 (3.54) 13.48 (2.91) 14.18 (3.30) 9.60 (3.50)
Deviance 13.36 (3.35) 13.26 (2.58) 14.71 (3.04) 11.30 (4.50)
J O U RN A L O F F O RE N SI C P SY C H IAT RY
ISS Scale
Internalized shame 46.50 (19.76) 44.70 (16.32) 55.82 (20.28) 34.80 (20.45)
NAS Scale
Provoked anger 66.72 (14.40) 67.74 (13.86) 69.41 (13.75) 59.80 (15.94)
Vol. 12 No. 2
S H AM E A N D RA N K IN P SY CH O PAT HY 339
tion predicted.
M M M t, df (38) t, df (48)
Key ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001; all t-tests 1-tailed; standard deviations in brackets.
Note Non-P = non-psychopath; P = Primary psychopath; S = Secondary psychopath; SC =
Social Comparison
340 J O U RN A L O F F O RE N SI C P SY C H IAT RY Vol. 12 No. 2
Secondary analyses
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Allan and Gilbert (1995) found that a semantic differential methodology was
a valid way to measure social comparison estimates. This method was
adopted here where measures of anger (angriness, anger with self, anger with
others), helplessness, put-down, and self-blame were developed. Means and
standard deviations for each are presented in Table 4.
Differences between groups on the social rank relevant variables were
examined. Compared with the secondary group, primary psychopaths were
found to have signi cantly lower ratings of angriness (t (38) = 2.81, p < 0.01;
1-tailed) and lower ratings of anger with others (t (38) = 2.26, p < 0.05;
1-tailed). The secondary psychopath group have signi cantly higher ratings
of feeling put-down (t (38) = 1.85, p < 0.05; 1-tailed) and make signi cantly
higher internal attributions of blame than the primary psychopath group
(t (38) = 1.74, p < 0.05; 1-tailed).
Table 3 Means and standard deviations for shame in ‘legal’, ‘primary’ (P), ‘second-
ary’ (S) and ‘non-’ (Non-P) psychopaths and in normative samples
Groups Norms
M M M M M M M
ISS
Total score: 46.50 44.70 55.82 34.80 30.00 47.00 50.00
SD 20 16 20 20 15 17 21
Note * = Male Non-Clinical sample (n = 382); ** = Male alcoholic sample (n = 142); *** = Affec-
tive disorder sample (n = 180), from Cook (1993); ISS= Internalized Shame Scale
S H AM E A N D RA N K IN P SY CH O PAT HY 341
Table 4 Means and standard deviations for social comparisons of angriness, put-
down, self-blame and helplessness
Groups
Correlational analyses
Table 6 presents the inter-correlation coef cients of the measures of social
rank, shame, anger in response to provocation and angriness for the total
sample. Signi cant inverse correlations were observed between social rank
and, respectively, shame and angriness. Thus, as found previously (Allan,
Gilbert and Goss, 1994), perceptions of high rank status correlate with low
internalized shame.
Interestingly, social rank ratings (as measured by social comparison
342 J O U RN A L O F F O RE N SI C P SY C H IAT RY Vol. 12 No. 2
Primary
P S Non-P vs P and S
(n = 23) (n = 17) (n = 10) Secondary vs Non-P
NAS:
Total 67.74 69.41 59.80 n.s. 1.73*
Disrespect 12.65 13.47 12.20 n.s. n.s.
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Table 6 Correlations of social rank comparisons and shame with anger in response to
provocation (total and subscales) and with angriness
Rank –0.37** 0.30** –0.54*** 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.35* 0.06 0.35* 0.43*
Shame 0.19 0.41*** 0.16 –0.06 0.17 0.22 0.30* 0.10 0.14
Key * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; all tests 2-tailed
Note Anger to provocation subscales: 1 = disrespect, 2 = fairness, 3 = frustration, 4 = irritation,
5 = annoying traits, 6 = rejection, 7 = humiliation
S H AM E A N D RA N K IN P SY CH O PAT HY 343
ratings were signi cantly highly correlated with the anger provocation sub-
scales of humiliation, rejection and irritation.
DISCUSSION
The present study suggests that primary and secondary psychopaths (Black-
burn, 1975, 1993a, 1998) differ signi cantly in their self- and social evaluative
processes. The key domains of these differences lie in social rank (as measured
by social comparison) and shame. Primary psychopaths were found to rate
themselves as signi cantly higher in social rank compared with secondary
psychopaths, and to have signi cantly lower levels of internalized shame.
Secondary psychopaths see themselves as occupying a generally lower rank
(i.e. have more negative self-evaluation). Interestingly in an earlier study by
Gudjonsson and Roberts (1983), it was found that secondary psychopaths
had higher levels of guilt than normals. However, the Morality-Conscience
sub-scale of the Mosher Guilt Inventory (Mosher, 1966) used in their study
is believed to be heavily biased toward negative self-judgements and self-
punishment (Jones et al., 1995), which is closer to a measure of shame in this
study. The primary psychopath, on the contrary, is more socially adept, more
self-con dent, displays little overt anxiety and perceives himself to be socially
dominant. He may be buoyed by a ‘presumption’ of higher rank and thus
buffered against feelings of self-doubt and uncertainty.
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344
Table 7 Correlations of social rank and shame with antisocial personality scales
social –0.12 –0.39** –0.39** 0.68*** –0.09 –0.01 0.11 –0.26 –0.14 –0.51***
rank
shame 0.31* 0.56*** 0.67*** –0.09 0.55*** 0.45** –0.33* 0.68*** 0.43** 0.48***
J O U RN A L O F F O RE N SI C P SY C H IAT RY
Key * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; all tests 2-tailed
Note AGG = aggression, AV = avoidance, DEV = deviant history, EX = social dominance, PA = paranoid suspicion, RES = resentment/externalizing
blame, SC = self-control, SE = low self-esteem, F1 = impulsivity, F2 = withdrawal
Vol. 12 No. 2
S H AM E A N D RA N K IN P SY CH O PAT HY 345
shame is the ‘Other As Shamer’ Scale (OAS; Goss et al., 1994). Its inclu-
sion might have helped to clarify the meaning of the shame results by pro-
viding a measure of publicly focused or external shame to be contrasted
with internal. Indeed, the measurement of shame is a key issue in research
(Andrews, 1998). Future research could also include measures of guilt and
empathy to correlate against ratings of rank, shame and anger. A key ques-
tion in this area is to what extent, if any, the psychopath has an awareness
of empathic concerns but does not care for the other, or whether he is
simply deficient in such qualities. Exploration of this issue would clarify
the role of shame and social rank in the interpersonal processing of psy-
chopaths. In conclusion, it would appear that conceptualizing psycho-
pathic interpersonal behaviour as (evolved) strategies for rank defence and
maintenance, where it matters if one feels oneself to be low rank and ‘fight-
ing upwards’ or high rank and ‘defending downwards’, could in itself be a
useful paradigm for future research. Preliminary findings in this ex-
ploratory investigation confirm the usefulness and validity of this line of
enquiry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Professor Paul Gilbert, BSc, CPsychol, PhD, FBPsS, consultant clinical psychologist, Mental
Health Research Unit, South Derbyshire Mental Health NHS Trust, Kingsway Hospital, Derby
DE22 3LZ and University of Derby, DE3 5GX, UK
Correspondence to Dr Morrison
NOTES
1 A distinction between shame and guilt is an interesting and useful one to make. Like
shame, the conceptualization and measurement of guilt is a key research issue (e.g.
Gilbert, 1997; Tangney, 1995). Brie y, some theorists (e.g. Baumeister, Stillwell and
Heatherton, 1994; Tangney, 1995) propose that shame focuses on global self-evalu-
ations whereas guilt focuses on specic behaviour-evaluations. Others (e.g. Gilbert,
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