Hydrological Sciences Journal

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CURRENT METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF

EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES AND
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

A. V. SHNITNIKOV

To cite this article: A. V. SHNITNIKOV (1974) CURRENT METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF
EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION, Hydrological
Sciences Journal, 19:1, 85-97, DOI: 10.1080/02626667409493873

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667409493873

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 Hydrological Sciences-Bulletin-des Sciences Hydrologiques, XIX, 1 3/1974

CURRENT METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF EVAPORATION

FROM WATER SURFACES AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

A.V. SHNITNIKOV
Institute 0/ Limnology, Leningrad 197046, USSR

Evaporation from water surfaces as an essential component of the water balance has long been
of interest to hydrologists and water economists.
Although evaporation conditions have been studied for one and a half centuries there are
still no sufficiently reliable methods for the measurement of evaporation in any geographical
environment. This is obviously due, on the one hand, to high variability of the surface evaporation
process resulting from multiple effects of the external medium, on the other, to the fact that eva-
poration includes at least two separate processes, i.e. evaporation of water and its transpiration
by aquatic vegetation.
Originally, evaporation from water surfaces was studied as one process. No separate evalua-
tion of transpiration was made. In the course of time, however, emphasis was placed on transpi-
ration as playing an essential role in the total process, especially in heavily overgrown water
bodies with a high seasonal variability in the aquatic vegetation cover and, consequently, with
a varying intensity of water losses for transpiration by aquatic plants.
There exist three main methods for the study of evaporation from water surfaces:
(1) direct experimental observation of evaporation using special experimental installations,
namely, pans or basins, with a subsequent calculation of reduction coefficients for determining
evaporation from a free water surface or empirical formulae for measuring evapotranspiration
and, following it, evaporation;
(2) experimental computation methods in terms of evaporation calculated as a residual
member of the water or heat balance, part of the essential data being obtained experimentally
(water heat input);
(3) calculation methods based on theoretical assumptions, primarily, on the Dalton formula,
in terms of physical regularities of evaporation using meteorological and geophysical data as
ancillary values. The methods are commonly referred to as turbulent diffusion or mass transfer
methods.
A great number of evaporation devices of various types were used in experimental studies
of evaporation or evapotranspiration. There is hardly any need to review them, since most of the
devices are no longer in use at present since they fail to provide accurate results.
Three commonly known types of experimental evaporative installations are widely in use
nowadays:
(1) class-A pan, 1·14 m 2 surface and 25 em depth;
(2) GGI-3000 pan, 3000 cm 2 surface and 60 em depth;
(3) standard concrete basin, 20 m 2 surface, 200 em depth.
The pans of both types are installed either on the shore of the water body or on a special
raft. The class-A pan is mounted on a wooden frame on the shore, a little above ground, whereas
the GGI-3000 pan is lowered into the water or into the soil in such;. a manner that the water

85
surface in the pan is level with the soil surface, the upper part of the pan, 5 em depth remaining
above water or ground. The standard concrete basin, 20 m 2 surface, is sunk into the soil.
I need not concentrate here on the review of techniques for observations of evaporation from
the above installations and the accompanying meteorological, geophysical and actinometric
observations for these are commonly known and more or less standard. The results of the obser-
vations thus made are then reviewed for comparison of the installations. Determination ofreduc-
tion coefficients of the three installations does not appear to be as essential as knowledge of those
coefficients for each installation for obtaining values of true evaporation from water surfaces of
the water bodies under investigation in each particular case.
Needless to say that as a result of the use of experimental pans and basins we obtain net eva-
poration without a transpiration component.
Most common among the current methods used in studies of evaporation is the water and
heat balance method which makes it possible to estimate evaporation in principle alongside trans-
piration. Net evaporation can only be estimated for water bodies' with free water surfaces (e.g. for
highly-mineralized lakes).
On the other hand, evaporation can be determined by using the water and heat balance equa-
tions and solving for evaporation as the unknown.
There is at least one fundamental difference between the methods of experimental installations
(pans or basins) and those of water and heat balance. With the former the accuracy of the evapo-
ration evaluation depends on the regional and the local geographical features while the measuring
devices may remain uniform everywhere.
Estimation of evaporation by the water and the heat balance method is, however, totally
different and advantageous not only because the method allows for the estimation of both evapo-
ration and transpiration of water by aquatic plants, i.e, evapotranspiration as a whole, but also
because the observations are made on water bodies of fundamentally different types, which in
itself is a very important advantage in view of the complete difference of each component of the
water and heat balance. (The situation is so obvious that there is not any need to concentrate on
the differentiation of geographical, hydrophysical, morphometric, hydrographic and other fea-
tures of one or other of the water bodies under investigation.)
It is this differentiation that is the chief difficulty in the evaporation studies by the water
and heat balance methods with a view to creating concepts of evaporation and evapotranspiration
applicable to different terrains. However, the above methods are broadly used at present owing
to scientific and practical needs, particularly. Simultaneously, a search is being made for possibi-
lities to compare the values thus obtained for evaporation and evapotranspiration using empirical
formulae.
Above all, during the last decades the turbulent diffusion method has come into wider use.
A number of theoretical formulae have been developed whose numerical coefficients have been
obtained empirically. Some of these formulae are becoming more reliable and widely used in
practice.
The present-day status of studies of evaporation by observation are largely based on concrete
basins of 20 m 2 surface and GGI-3000 pans and those of class-A with a surface of 114 m 2 .
A class-A pan is commonly used in a number of countries. Unfortunately, the design has one
disadvantage; it is mounted on a wooden grating, a little above the ground and the pan creates
an unstable air flow regime underneath which leads to considerable changes in the water regime
in the evaporator and thereby to instability of the reduction coefficient of the latter.
Concrete basins and GGI-3000 pans are widely used in the USSR and in some countries of
Eastern Europe. In the USSR both installations are standard installations, various types of
empirical formulae have been developed for them for purposes of estimating evaporation from
numerical coefficients for different physico-geographical conditions. As can be seen from studies
by Kuznetzov, performed at the Valdai Hydrological Laboratory (1970) the mean error in the
computation of evaporation values from the concrete basins using results obtained from obser-
vations in GGI-3000 pans in relation to monthly values is as little as 8 per cent, and 6 per
cent for seasonal values.

86
 However the main achievement of evaporation studies performed in the USSR for many
years has been the development of the empirical formula now accepted as basic in different kinds
of computations of evaporation from the surfaces of lakes and reservoirs. The formula is also used
for the estimation of evaporation losses for future reservoirs.
The formula is as follows:

(1)
where
E = evaporation (rum/day);
eo = maximal vapour pressure, calculated from water surface temperature (mb);
e200 = vapour pressure in the atmosphere at an altitude 200 em (mb);
U = wind velocity at an altitude 200 em (m/s).
It can be stated safely that the empirical formulae for calculation of evaporation from water
surfaces obtained from observations of evaporators of various types look very much alike now
in almost all the countries, the chief differences being in the diversity of numerical coefficients
and in certain features and details in installing evaporators as well as in the techniques of obser-
vation.
For example, floating evaporation pans are used in evaporation studies at Lake Neusiedl
and the adjacent reservoirs. This was reported earlier by Richter (1966), who has presented a paper
at this Symposium. In previous years pans of 2000, 3000 and 4000 crrr' surface area made from
different materials were used in studies of the above lake and the nearby reservoirs. Today, as
can be seen from the paper by Dr. Richter pans of 3000 cm 2 surface area and 60 em depth, i.e.
pans of GGI-3000 type, are used.
As Dr. Richter reports, the best results are provided by the formula:

(2)

where a and b are numerical coefficients, and V 2 is the wind velocity at an altitude of 2 m (which
stands for the same as U 200 in formula (1).
The author is of the opinion that the above formula can be applied in calculations of net
evaporation on the basis of observations of various evaporators.
Important and interesting results received by Dr. Neuvirth are also put forward at the present
Symposium.
The evaporation studies were carried out at the small steppe Lake Neusiedl with the surface
area of 320 km". The GGI-3000 and class-A evaporation pans were used for the observations.
The GGI-3000 evaporation pans were installed by two ways: first as a floating pan in the middle
of the lake, second on the shore but within another pan of a somewhat larger diameter, so that
it was surrounded by a water rim during the observations. The GGI-3000 floating evaporation
pan gave an excellent result during the fine weather but the pan did not work in a strong wind.
The streamlined pan always worked well.
The actual lake surface evaporation as well as reduction coefficients of evaporation pans
were determined by means of a formula of the same type as mentioned in Richter's report:

(3)

where c ~ 1 is the exponent of wind velocity v versus altitude while eo and e2 are the same
symbols as mentioned before.
Thus the reduction coefficients of a class-A pan were calculated over the season May to
October during a three-year period as: 1967 - 0'71; 1968 - 0·78; 1969 - 0·67, on the average
r = 0·72. The variations throughout the separate years were quite conJiderable.

87
 Independently the author has evaluated the correlation between evaporation values in the
class-A pan and the floating as well as the littoral GGI-3000 pans. The average reduction coeffi-
cient for the floating GGI-3000 (class-A for the season May-October) was 0·64 with variation
of 0·53 to 0·75 while littoral GGI-3000 class-A 0·78 with variation of 0·71 to 0'86). It is unneces-
sary to mention the other important conclusions here because they will be demonstrated in the
author's special report considering his investigations. It should be noted that the use of a class-A
pan has certain difficulties. By suggesting a correction factor Dr. Webb made it possible to obtain
the stable results in class-A pan evaporation studies. The problem is discussed by Dr. Neuwirth
in the special section.
There is often rather considerable unstability of results obtained in class-A pan evaporation
studies. This may be seen from Dr. Rodhe's (1973, p. 243) research materials on evaporation of
Lake Velen in south Sweden. In his case the variation of reduction coefficients of evaporation (97)
calculated by the energy balance method and by means of a pan ranged between 1·02 and l: 54,
i.e. was 50 per cent.
On the other hand the average reduction coefficient for the dry season obtained by means of
a floating class-A pan from nine reservoirs in Brasilia (Girard, 1966) during the period of 1934 to
1964 was 0'64 and ranged between 0·62 and 0'68, i.e. it is quite insignificant.
In another example of evaporation studies for the period from 1944 to 1964 a reservoir with
a surface area of 6'48 ha in McCredie, Missouri, (Minshall and Whitaker, 1966), the average
seasonal reduction coefficient for the same type of pan was shown to be 0·73 [0'65 (May) to 0'77
(September)]. In this case the variation may be due to the season.
The investigations at Lake Hefner, USA, offered Kohler (1959) an opportunity to suggest
the following empirical formula for calculating evaporation by means of a class-A pan from ob-
servational data:
(4)
where eo and ea have been defined previously and Up is the wind velocity at a height of 15 em (= p).
In fact this empirical formula has been mentioned more than once. The difference is in the
values of the coefficient a and b and the numerical exponent n.
Later the formula was modified and improved by Kohler et al. (1959) now using Penman's
formula. Thus a sufficiently reliable method of using class-A pan observation data for evapora-
tion calculation was established. One of the important results of Kohler's studies was his
compilation of evaporation maps for the USA (Kohler et al., 1959).
Certainly Kohler's studies were of great importance in the practical utilization of class-A
pans for evaporation calculations. However, even by including the correction system and by using
Penman's formula it was impossible to eliminate totally the defects of instrument construction
and mounting.
In view of the importance of evaporation investigations by means of pans, particularly the
GGI-3000 pan and empirical formulae, the investigation of the water balance of Lakes Pyhajarvi
and Paajarvi should be discussed (Hyvarinen et al., 1973).
While treating the observational results for the floating type ofGGI-3000 evaporator Kuznet-
zov's formula was used (1970b):

E = 0.88E o eO-e2 (5)

eb-e 2

where
E = lake evaporation (mm per day);
Eo = pan evaporation (mm per day);
ep = water vapour pressure from the lake water temperature (mb);
eo = the same for the pan temperature (mb);
e 2 = the same at a height of 2 m.

88
 Besides these methods the evaporation was also calculated from the water balance. The results
compare favourably with water balance calculations and with calculations by formula (5) during
1972 and are satisfactory during 1971.
There are a considerable amount of other data on evaporation studies using different pans
and basins, so the following conclusions may be drawn:
(1) The evaporation from basins with a surface area of 20 m 2 is similar to the evaporation
from small shallow lakes. The results, where they exist, may be used for evaporation calculation
from these lakes and reservoirs.
(2) Evaporation from small shallow lakes may be calculated on the basis of class-A and GGI-
3000 pan observations.
To estimate mean annual and long-term evaporation values from lakes and reservoirs the
data obtained from a GGI-3000 type evaporator may be used, if the reduction coefficients of
0·77-0·80 (on the average 0·82) are employed.
However, in order to obtain seasonal monthly and 10-day evaporation values, the GGI-3000
readings should be corrected by the method explained in Kuznetzov's paper (1970a).
(3) Evaporation from class-A pans has a less stable character as compared with GGI-3000
pan evaporation because its constructional peculiarities and method of installation results
in an unstable water temperature regime. The reduction coefficients of these pans usually vary
considerably. Besides mean reduction coefficients depending on the geographical zone, additional
coefficients should be introduced to obtain reliable evaporation values. As a result of Kohler's
studies, empirical formulae with correction factors were worked out which now provide a possi-
bility of obtaining satisfactory evaporation calculations.
(4) Estimation of evaporation from large deep lakes can be made from equation (1) with the
correction factors (Vikulina, 1973):
(6)
where k o is a factor depending on the difference between water surface temperature (t B ) and air
temperature (t 1). The basis of these amendments to formula (1) is given in Vikulina's report.
The above-mentioned views concerning the existing methods for evaporation studies and
their further development fully reflect the conclusions and recommendations of the Working
Group on Evaporation and Soil Moisture Studies of the Commission of the World Meteorological
Organization.
This Working Group at its meeting in Geneva (20-24 November, 1972) came to a number
of conclusions and decisions. It was recognized that the evaporation basin with an area of 20 m 2
givesthe best results for evaporation studies from shallow lakes. The difficultyin its use results from
its considerable size and cost. Moreover the Group recommends it as an international instrument
for evaporation studies from shallow lakes. It considers useful the establishment of such a kind
of a basin in national studies in every climatic region and in every large reservoir zone. Noting
that the GGI-3000 and class-A evaporation pans have been commonly used during the last two
decades the Working Group recommends them as standard instruments in evaporation studies
from shallow lakes.

EVAPORATION STUDY BY THE METHOD OF TURBULENT DIFFUSION OR MASS TRANSFER METHOD

The method of turbulent diffusion which is often complicated by the heat balance method
is widely used in studies of evaporation from land surfaces.
It is well known that in pure form this method demands the definition of meteorological
gradients over the water surface in question and data on water surface temperature. However
the formulae used in this method should contain information on water surface roughness para-

89
meters and the coefficient of turbulent exchange. It is known that the latter elements are very
unsteady and this complicates the turbulent diffusion method or, as it is called, the mass transfer
or mass exchange method. The widespread form of the formula is as follows:
(7)

where Uz is the wind velocity at a height z above the water surface and the other symbols are as
before. This formula was commonly used in evaporation studies on Lake Hefner and Lake Mead,
(Marciano and Harbeck, 1954; Harbeck, 1966). There it appears as follows:
(8)

where N is the constant for the lakes and reservoirs in question, and U2 is the wind velocity at a
height of 2 m above the water surface; the other symbols are as used before. The calculated data
were corrected by means of solar radiation information and compared with class-A pan long-term
observations. Mean annual evaporation from Lake Mead amounts to 2162 mm with a deviation
of 2011 mm (1962) to 2260 mm (1956) over the period of 1953 to 1964.
A formula of the same type was used while investigating evaporation from Lake Pretty,
Indiana in 1964 (Ficke, 1966). Here it was corrected and improved on the basis of water balance
data which considered underground flow as well as the surface water balance and data on control
of lake level oscillations. The evaporation calculated by different methods during the period
20 March to 30 November amounts to:
by the turbulent formula or mass exchange method 791 mm
by the water balance method 796 mm
by the heat balance method 772mm
The results obtained are quite satisfactory. The same formula was used for investigating eva-
poration from Lake Flevo (the Netherlands) (Keijmann and Koopmans, 1973)

(9)
where c corresponds to N in formula (8)
Wind velocity was measured at a height of 2 m. The authors emphasize the wide range of
the method due to the relative simplicity of transformation of its components. Several evaporation
studies with satisfactory results obtained by the turbulent diffusion method have been compared
with results obtained from the heat balance and Penman method and with evaporation pan data
in the middle of the lake and also with the results of studies at Lake Mead.
Favourable results were demonstrated by the usage of the same method in evaporation studies
on Lake Pyhajarvi and Paajarvi (Hyvarinen et al., 1973). In that case the evaporation formula
is written as follows:
(10)
where
E = evaporation from the lake (mm per day);
eo = water vapour pressure by lake water temperature (mb);
e2 = water vapour pressure at the altitude 2 m (mb);
U2 = wind velocity at a height of 2 m (m/s),

So this formula differs from the above mentioned by the value attached to U 2 • The calcula-
tions by this formula as it was stated in the preceding section gave satisfactory results compared
with water balance calculations. They are also compared favourably with GGI-3000 pan evapo-
ration results.

90
 Very interesting results were obtained while investigating evaporation from the lakes of nine
provinces of Finland during the period 1951 to 1965 (Solantie, 1973).
In order to calculate evaporation, a formula of Dalton's type was used of the following form:

(11)
where b is the constant and the other symbols are the same as before. From the results a very regular
evaporation map of Finnish lakes was constructed.
While investigating the evaporation from Lake Balaton (Antal et al., 1973) the following
six methods were used:
(1) Heat balance (energy balance)
(2) Penman's
(3) Meyer's
(4) The formula obtained while investigating Lake Ferto
(5) Dalton's formula modified by one of the authors of the report
(6) A new Dalton formula
Long-term annual evaporation from Lake Balaton during the period 1931 to 1960 calcu-
lated as the average of all six methods amounts to a layer of 860 mm of water, the deviations from
this value for the separate methods being only ± 5 per cent. However the usage during the
1970-1971 hydrological year of the following formulae

(12)
where E is the monthly evaporation in millimetres and

(13)
as well as of water balance method, resulted in the evaporation value calculated by formula (13)
of 1000 mm, which is 24 per cent above the value given by formula (12), while the water balance
method gave a value 12 per cent below. So the authors conclude that for the future improvement
should be made in the numerical coefficients in formula (13).
It is of interest to consider the application of the turbulent diffusion method to surface evapo-
ration studies of Lake Ladoga (Isotova, 1962). For this purpose the empirical formula of Bras-
lavsky and Vikulina (1954) was used. It has the same form as formula (1):

(14)
where all symbols are the same as before, but the numerical coefficients are somewhat less (0·13
instead of 0·14) andE is the evaporation in millimetres per day. The calculation by this formula
gave a total evaporation value of 140 mm during the period June-October 1960.
Simultaneously T. A. Ogneva estimated evaporation by means of the diffusion method of
the Main Geophysical Observatory by the formula

(15)

where k is the coefficient of turbulent exchange for equilibrium conditions with a roughness
parameter z(= 5 x 10- 4 m):
k = 0·021 v
where v is the wind velocity at height of 1 m. The results obtained by these two methods compared
quite satisfactorily.
Penman put forward the formula for estimating evaporation in 1948 (Penman, 1948).
Later he modified it and improved its parameters.

91
 Penman's formula in its various forms is widely known and used. Kuznetzov has repeatedly
considered the formula and its application to evaporation calculations in different geographical
conditions (Kuznetzov, 1971). He also noted its drawbacks and advantages. In the presen1
Symposium the problem of applying Penman's method is considered in a paper by Vikulina.
In this paper Penman's formula appears quite satisfactory for seasonal and annual evaporation
computations, though the accuracy of its results for monthly calculations is insufficient. So it is
unnecessary to consider the method in detail for open water evaporation calculation.
First of all it should be emphasized that the Penman method is widely used for basin
evaporation calculation.
In Grindley's (1972) paper Penman's method was shown as being commonly used in
England for calculating and mapping evaporation, first of all using the formula published in
1948 (Penman, 1948).
Now the following formula proposed by that author in 1963 (Penman, 1963) is used:

(16)
where
L1 = the gradient of the saturated vapour pressure curve against air temperature;
a = psychometric constant assumed equal to 0·49

= 0·75 n, (0.15 +0·55 ~) - 4

0·95aTa (0.10+0.90 ~) (0·56-0·92 .Jed) (17)

where
R; = amount of short-wave radiation reaching the earth's atmosphere in millimetres of
water equivalent;
n
= ratio of actually observed value of sunshine hours to the ones possible;
N
aT: = radiation of absolute black body by average air temperature Ta in absolute degrees;
ed = actual water vapour pressure at average air temperature Ta •

E, = 0·35(1 + vj100) (ea - ed) (18)

where
ea = saturated water vapour pressure at average air temperature;
ed = actual water vapour pressure;
v = wind velocity in miles per day.
The same method was used for evaporation calculations for the East African territories of
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Woodhead, 1972) and for its mapping. Woodhead (1972), Blackie
(1965) and Dagg (1965) believe that Penman's formula (1948) is quite acceptable for the definition
of evaporation from open water surfaces while a variant was proposed by McCulloch (McCulloch,
1965) which is not considered here.
Wallen (1966) while studying evaporation conditions compared with solar radiation in
Sweden used the 1948 Penman formula and its subsequent modifications. The form of Penman's
formula Wallen used is as follows:
ETP = LJjy+H+Ea (19)
Ajy+ljSD
where y is the psychometric constant (~0'66 mb), Sand D are coefficients depending on vegetative
cover character and on day duration; the other terms have been defined previously.

92
 The initial formula was designed for evaporation studies from a water surface; for its trans-
formation for evapotranspiration computation ETPw the value of albedo r was taken equal to
0·25. The expression ETPq = 0·7 ETP w is given by Penman for the vegetative cover. The more
precise form was developed by him later but it is unnecessary to mention it here. However, it is
of interest to note that on the basis of an improved Penman formula including the results of the
most recent investigations Wallen has made evapotranspiration estimates for numerous meteoro-
logical stations in the territory in question.
Einarsson (1972) used the same 1956 version of the formula as Wallen for evapotranspiration
calculation but it had a somewhat different form:

E == L1jr+ H+ Ea (20)
p Jjr+ 1

where E p is possible evapotranspiration in millimetres per day.

Evaporation from the open water surface, Eo, was calculated by the same formula taking into
account the albedo r = 0·05 and by the data of the same meteorological stations as for the evapo-
transpiration calculations. The ratio Ep / Eo fluctuated from 0·81 to 0·87; but the average annual
value for all stations throughout the period was 0·84. As for annual evapotranspiration values for
the period of 1958 to 1967 they fluctuate between the limits of 353 and 654 mm with an average
long-term value of 462 mm.
Comparison of Einarsson's results with those of Wallen shows that the Penman method was
satisfactory for evaporation calculation from a water surface.
Ognev and Kozlov (1969) conducted an evaporation study from water surfaces in a semiarid
zone of the USSR using evaporation basins with an area of 20 m 2 and a GGI-3000 pan (the
reduction coefficient of the pan was 0·85). The results were compared with estimates obtained by
Penman's formula (both 1948 and 1954 versions). The results compared quite favourably: the
average fluctuation was inside the range of -7·6 to 10·0 per cent, in eight cases only two were
above the observed value.
The authors came to the conclusion that in the semiarid zone the water surface evaporation
calculation by Penman's formula gives quite favourable results and they suggested a simplified
version of the formula making the calculation quicker and easier:

A(R ah 1 -BLh 2)+c(ea - ed)

Eo == - - - - - - - - - - - (21)
A+0·5
where
A = gradient of water vapour pressure curve for an average air temperature Ta ;
R; = theoretical radiation value which may arrive at the earth's surface in the absence of
atmosphere transformed into the evaporation equivalent (taking into account the
latent heat of evaporation);

hi = 0-95 (0.18+0-55 : ) with r=0-05;

B = numerical factor as the function of air temperature (in the special table mentioned
by the authors);
n
h 2 = 0·10+0·90 - ; L=0·56-0·092 J e;
N
c = O·175(1+U2 X3·6 x10- 2 ) ;

r = psychometric constant (= 0·50 mm/grad).

The other terms have been defined previously.

93
EVAPORATION AND AQUATIC VEGETATION

This review of lake and reservoir evaporation studies could not leave out the problem of the
aquatic vegetation's influence on evaporation conditions.
The author of this communication, during autumn of 1940 in Ozerki near Leningrad orga-
nized special observations on evaporation from pans with an area of 3000 cm 2 (GGI-type but
of different heights) with water, Typha latifolia, reed (Phragmites communis) and Gliceria spectab,
The pans were mounted and filled with marsh ground, vegetation and water in the autumn of
1940 so that the vegetation developed more or less normally from the spring of 1941 when ob-
servations began. Because of the war the author passed the investigations to S.1. Rudenko
who continued then until the beginning of October 1941. Studies of the evaporation from a
metal basin with an area of 100 m 2 were conducted simultaneously. The drawback of the obser-
vations was that the pans were mounted on the lake shore and not amidst the aquatic vegetation
of the lake itself.
Some results of the evaporation observations from the pan with water and from the pan
with Gliceria spectab. are shown in Table 1 for the summer of 1941 (in millimetres of water).

TABLE 1

Month Decade Water Gliceria spectab. Ratio of 4 to 3

1 2 3 4 5

July III 28 64 2-28

I 46 52 I- 13
August II 22 47 2-12
III 22 67 3-04
September I 14 46 3-29
II 9 34 3-89
III 7 18 2-58
October 7 22 3-14
Total 155 350 2-26

It may be seen from the table that the evapotranspiration from the pan with Gliceria spec-
lab. throughout the season was more than twice the evaporation from the water surface. The
maximum value this ratio achieves is in the period from the end of August to the middle of
September, when the water temperature begins to decrease while the vegetation is still growing,
V.1. Kuznetzov conducted during 1954 a large and interesting investigation of the influence
of aquatic vegetation on the evaporation from the water surface. He gives the results obtained
at Valdai for evaporation from pans with water, with Typha latifolia, sedge (Carex gooden),
horse-tail (Equisetem pal.) and Gliceria spectab. during the summer season for the period of
1949 to 1953. It turned out that on average for the five years the evaporation from the pans with
half-submerged plants was higher than the evaporation from the pan filled only with the water,
the ratios being:
Carex gooden and horse-tail 1-6
Typha latif. 1-8
Gliceria spectab. (4 seasons) 2-0
At the centre of the European part of the territory of the USSR in the Kursk region the
ratio of evaporation from the pan with Typha latif to the pan with water was:
year 1951 2-2
year 1952 2·1
year 1953 2-9

94
 It is of interest to mention (see Table 2) the observations from evaporation pans with water
and reed (Phragmites commun.), that were obtained during 1959 amidst the reed thicket of
Lake Rybnyi Sakzyl and in the Pricaspian depression.

TABLE 2

Position of pans June July Aug. Sept. Oct. June-Oct.

(amounts in millimetres)

1. Open lake 103 281 260 156 66 866

2. Amidst the reeds 40 118 121 78 33 390
3. Reed 194 524 508 324 65 1615
Ratio 3 : 1 1.88 1.86 1.96 2.08 0.98 1.86
Ratio 3 : 2 4.85 4.08 4.20 4.15 2.00 4.15

The seasonal nature of the ratio is only slightly apparent for the months from July to
September. It is more apparent for June and October. The rapid growth of reed thickets occurs
during June while the evaporation rate is low. This is not the case in October: the reeds wither
and consume a very small amount of water. It is of interest to note the considerable difference
between the sums of evaporation for open water and for the reed thicket zone and the changes
in the ratios between them.
It is interesting that farther to the southeast into Priaralye in the oxbow of Uzboy in desert
conditions the ratio between evaporation of reed and evaporation from the water surface is
considerably lower than in the Pricaspian depression. Data collected by Orlovsky (1967) for
the evaporation from Lake Jaskhan, for the period 1952 to 1964 was: from the reed thickets
2751 mm, while from the water surface 1793 mm. The ratio between them is only 1·54 because
of the large evaporation capability of the surface in this torrid and arid zone.
On the other hand the ratio between the evaporation from an open water surface and
from reed thickets in the Amu Darya delta, because of the swampiness of the area and its
proximity to the Aral Sea, has approximately the same character as that in Pricaspian. During
the period 10 June to 10 September 1953 on Lake Kev-Syr in the Amu Darya delta 397 mm
evaporated, while from the reed thickets the figure was only 127 mm (Matreninskaya, 1957),
i.e. here the ratio between evaporation intensity in the first and second case is equal to 3·12. The
results of the same investigations in 1952 and 1953 (Forsh, 1957) showed that on average
evapotranspiration from the lakes of the Amu Darya delta exceeds the evaporation from the
water surface.
The similar results were obtained by Kuznetzov (1954); he demonstrated that for Valdai
conditions this coefficient is equal to 1·6 for the period May to October. The net transpiration
of aquatic plants comprises about 80 per cent of total evaporation.
It is necessary to consider the important investigations related to the problem of aquatic
plant influence on evaporation processes from reservoir surfaces, which were conducted at the
greatly overgrown lake in the Middle States of USA (Eisenlohr, 1966). Accompanied by
carefully developed and organized observations on evaporation in floating pans and on
meteorological conditions these investigations gave interesting results about comparative
evaporation conditions from the water surface and evapotranspiration.
On the basis of numerous and long-term investigations in the various parts of the USSR
from Leningrad to the Black Sea and Middle Asia as well as in the other countries including
USA (Eisenlohr, 1966), partly considered in the present report, the following conclusions may
be drawn.
First of all the results for the different geographical zones demonstrate that the evapotrans-
piration as a general rule exceeds the evaporation from an open water surface by 2·5 to 3. This
ratio is influenced by the seasonal development of aquatic plants as w~ll as by the plant species

95
predominating in the particular reservoir. It is of great importance especially for the reservoirs
which are covered with vegetation. At such reservoirs the evapotranspiration exceeds the evap-
oration from the water surface by four times and more.
The problem considered is of great practical importance and the need to extend this line of
research is obvious.

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