10/8/2020 Mass scaling

Mass scaling
Mass scaling is often used in Abaqus/Explicit for computational efficiency in quasi-static Related Topics
analyses and in some dynamic analyses that contain a few very small elements that Explicit dynamic analysis
control the stable time increment. Mass scaling can be used to:
scale the mass of the entire model or scale the masses of individual elements In Other Guides
and/or element sets;
scale the mass on a per step basis in a multistep analysis; and Mass adjustment
scale the mass at the beginning of the step and/or throughout the step. About Output

Mass scaling can be performed by: *FIXED MASS SCALING

scaling the masses of all specified elements by a user-supplied constant factor; *VARIABLE MASS SCALING
scaling the masses of all specified elements by the same value so that the Configuring a dynamic, explicit
minimum stable time increment for any element in the element set is equal to a procedure
user-supplied time increment;
scaling the masses of only the elements in the element set whose element stable Configuring a dynamic fully
time increments are less than a user-supplied time increment so that the element coupled thermal-stress
stable time increment for these elements becomes equal to the user-supplied time procedure using explicit
increment; integration
scaling the masses of all specified elements so that their element stable time
increments each become equal to the user-supplied time increment; and
scaling automatically based on mesh geometry and initial conditions for bulk
metal rolling analyses.

The following topics are discussed:

Introduction
Introducing mass scaling into a model
Global and local mass scaling
Mass scaling at the beginning of the step
Mass scaling throughout the step
Different mass scaling at the beginning and during the step
Mass scaling in a multiple step analysis
When mass scaling is or is not used
Automatic mass scaling for analysis of bulk metal rolling
Output

Products: Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/CAE

Introduction
The explicit dynamics procedure is typically used to solve two classes of problems: transient dynamic response calculations and
quasi-static simulations involving complex nonlinear effects (most commonly problems involving complex contact conditions).
Because the explicit central difference method is used to integrate the equations in time (see Explicit dynamic analysis), the
discrete mass matrix used in the equilibrium equations plays a crucial role in both computational efficiency and accuracy for
both classes of problems. When used appropriately, mass scaling can often improve the computational efficiency while retaining
the necessary degree of accuracy required for a particular problem class. However, the mass scaling techniques most
appropriate for quasi-static simulations may be very different from those that should be used for dynamic analyses.

Quasi-static analysis
For quasi-static simulations incorporating rate-independent material behavior, the natural time scale is generally not important.
To achieve an economical solution, it is often useful to reduce the time period of the analysis or to increase the mass of the
model artificially (“mass scaling”). Both alternatives yield similar results for rate-independent materials, although mass scaling
is the preferred means of reducing the solution time if rate dependencies are included in the model because the natural time
scale is preserved.
Mass scaling for quasi-static analysis is usually performed on the entire model. However, when different parts of a model have
different stiffness and mass properties, it may be useful to scale only selected parts of the model or to scale each of the parts
independently. In any case, it is never necessary to reduce the mass of the model from its physical value, and it is generally not
possible to increase the mass arbitrarily without degrading accuracy. A limited amount of mass scaling is usually possible for
most quasi-static cases and will result in a corresponding increase in the time increment used by Abaqus/Explicit and a
corresponding reduction in computational time. However, you must ensure that changes in the mass and consequent increases
in the inertial forces do not alter the solution significantly.
Although mass scaling can be achieved by modifying the densities of the materials in the model, the methods described in this
section offer much more flexibility, especially in multistep analyses.
See Rolling of thick plates for a discussion of using mass scaling in a quasi-static analysis.

Dynamic analysis

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The natural time scale is always important in dynamic analysis, and an accurate representation of the physical mass and inertia
in the model is required to capture the transient response. However, many complex dynamic models contain a few very small
elements, which will force Abaqus/Explicit to use a small time increment to integrate the entire model in time. These small
elements are often the result of a difficult mesh generation task. By scaling the masses of these controlling elements at the
beginning of the step, the stable time increment can be increased significantly, yet the effect on the overall dynamic behavior of
the model may be negligible.
During an impact analysis, elements near the impact zone typically experience large amounts of deformation. The reduced
characteristic lengths of these elements result in a smaller global time increment. Scaling the mass of these elements as
required throughout the simulation can significantly decrease the computation time. For cases in which the compressed
elements are impacting a stationary rigid body, increases in mass for these small elements during the simulation will have very
little effect on the overall dynamic response.
Mass scaling for truly dynamic events should almost always occur only for a limited number of elements and should never
significantly increase the overall mass properties of the model, which would degrade the accuracy of the dynamic solution.
See Impact of a copper rod for a discussion of using mass scaling in a dynamic analysis.

Stable time increments

Throughout this section the term “element stable time increment” refers to the stable time increment of a single element. The
term “element-by-element stable time increment” refers to the minimum element stable time increment within a specific
element set. The term “stable time increment” refers to the stable time increment of the entire model, regardless of whether
the global estimator or the element-by-element estimator is used.

Introducing mass scaling into a model

Two types of mass scaling are available in Abaqus/Explicit: fixed mass scaling and variable mass scaling. These two types of
mass scaling can be applied separately, or they can be applied together to define an overall mass scaling strategy. The mass
scaling can also apply globally to the entire model or, alternatively, on an element set by element set basis.

Fixed mass scaling

Fixed mass scaling is performed once at the beginning of the step for which it is specified. Two basic approaches are available
for fixed mass scaling: you can define a mass scaling factor directly, or you can define a desired minimum stable time increment
for which the mass scaling factors are determined by Abaqus/Explicit.
If both variable mass scaling and fixed mass scaling are specified in a step, the element original mass is scaled once at
beginning of that step based on the specified fixed mass scaling. It is then further scaled at the beginning and periodically
during that step based on the specified variable mass scaling.
Fixed mass scaling provides a simple means to modify the mass properties of a quasi-static model at the beginning of an
analysis or to modify the masses of a few small elements in a dynamic model so that they do not control the stable time
increment size. Since the scaling operation is performed only once at the beginning of the step for which the mass scaling is
defined, fixed mass scaling is computationally efficient.
Input File Usage:
*FIXED MASS SCALING
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: At beginning of step

Variable mass scaling

Variable mass scaling is used to scale the mass of elements at the beginning of a step and periodically during that step. When
using this type of mass scaling, you define a desired minimum stable time increment: mass scaling factors will be calculated
automatically and applied, as required, throughout the step.
If both variable mass scaling and fixed mass scaling are specified in a step, the element original mass is scaled once at
beginning of that step based on the specified fixed mass scaling. It is then further scaled at the beginning and periodically
during that step based on the specified variable mass scaling.
Variable mass scaling is most useful when the stiffness properties that control the stable time increment change drastically
during a step. This situation can occur in both quasi-static bulk forming and dynamic simulations in which elements are highly
compressed or crushed.
Input File Usage:
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: Throughout step

Defining a scale factor directly

Defining a scale factor directly is useful for quasi-static analyses in which the kinetic energy in the model should remain small.
You can define a fixed mass scaling factor that is applied to the original mass of all elements in a specified element set. The

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masses of the elements will be scaled at the beginning of the step and held fixed throughout the step unless further modified by
variable mass scaling.
Input File Usage:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=scale_factor
For example, the following option scales the masses of elements contained in element set elset by a factor of 10:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=10., ELSET=elset
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: At beginning of step, Scale by factor: scale_factor

Defining a desired element-by-element stable time increment

You can define a desired element-by-element stable time increment for an element set for fixed or variable mass scaling.
Abaqus/Explicit will then determine the necessary mass scaling factors. There are three mutually exclusive methods available to
scale the mass of the model when a desired element-by-element stable time increment is defined. Each method is described in
detail later in this section.
To determine the stable time increment used during an increment, Abaqus/Explicit first determines the smallest stable time
increment on an element-by-element basis. Then, a global estimation algorithm determines a stable time increment based on
the highest frequency of the model. The larger of the two estimates determines the stable time increment used. In general, the
stable time increment determined by the global estimator will be greater than the stable time increment determined by the
element-by-element estimator. When fixed or variable mass scaling is used with a specified element-by-element stable time
increment to scale the mass of a set of elements, the element-by-element stable time increment estimate is being affected
directly. If all of the elements in the model are being scaled by a single mass scaling definition, the element-by-element
estimate will equal the value assigned to the element-by-element stable time increment unless the penalty method is being
used to enforce contact constraints. Penalty contact can cause the element-by-element estimate to be slightly below the value
assigned to the element-by-element stable time increment (see Contact controls for general contact in Abaqus/Explicit and
Contact constraint enforcement methods in Abaqus/Explicit). The actual stable time increment used may be greater than the
value assigned to the element-by-element stable time increment because of the use of the global estimator. If mass scaling is
performed on only a portion of the model, the elements that are not scaled may have element stable time increments that are
less than the value assigned to the element-by-element stable time increment and in that case will control the element-by-
element stable time increment estimate. As a result, if only portions of the model are being scaled, the time increment used will
generally not equal the value assigned to the element-by-element stable time increment.
If the fixed time increment size for the explicit dynamic step is based on the initial element-by-element stability limit or is
specified directly, the time increment used will be calculated according to the rules described in Explicit dynamic analysis.
Scaling the mass uniformly
Scaling the mass uniformly is useful for quasi-static analyses in which the kinetic energy in the model should remain small. This
approach is similar to defining a scale factor directly. In both cases the masses of all the elements specified are scaled uniformly
by a single factor. However, with this method the mass scaling factor is determined by Abaqus/Explicit instead of being user
specified. A single mass scaling factor is applied uniformly to all the elements so that the minimum stable time increment within
these elements is equal to the value assigned to the element-by-element stable time increment, dt.
Input File Usage:
Use either of the following options:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, TYPE=UNIFORM, DT=dt
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, TYPE=UNIFORM, DT=dt
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: At beginning of step or Throughout step, Scale to
target time increment of: dt, Scale element mass: Uniformly to satisfy target
Scaling only elements with element stable time increments below the specified element-by-element stable time
increment
Scaling elements with element stable time increments below a user-specified value is appropriate for both quasi-static and
dynamic analyses. It is useful for increasing the element stable time increment of the most critical elements.
When the mesh at the beginning of an analysis or a step contains a few very small elements that control the stable time
increment size, use fixed mass scaling to scale the masses of those elements and start the step with a desired time increment
value. Increasing the mass of only these controlling elements means that the stable time increment can be increased
significantly, yet the effect on the overall behavior of the model may be negligible.
For analyses in which evolving deformation creates a limited number of small elements, use variable mass scaling to scale the
masses of those elements, thereby limiting the reduction in the stable time increment.
Input File Usage:
Use either of the following options:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, TYPE=BELOW MIN, DT=dt
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, TYPE=BELOW MIN, DT=dt
Abaqus/CAE Usage:

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Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: At beginning of step or Throughout step, Scale to
target time increment of: dt, Scale element mass: If below minimum target
Scaling all elements to have equal element stable time increments
Scaling all elements such that they have the same stable time increment effectively contracts the eigenspectrum of the model;
that is, it reduces the range between the lowest and highest natural frequency of the model. Because of the drastic change in
mass properties, this approach is appropriate only for quasi-static analyses. It implies that some elements may have mass
scaling factors that are less than one.
Input File Usage:
Use either of the following options:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, TYPE=SET EQUAL DT, DT=dt
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, TYPE=SET EQUAL DT, DT=dt
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: At beginning of step or Throughout step, Scale to
target time increment of: dt, Scale element mass: Nonuniformly to equal target

Global and local mass scaling

Specifying an element set for either fixed or variable mass scaling scales the mass of a localized region of the model. Omitting
an element set implies that mass scaling will be performed for all elements. A global definition can be overwritten by a local
definition for a given element set by repeating the mass scaling definition with an element set specified.
Input File Usage:
Use either of the following options:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, ELSET=elset
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, ELSET=elset
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: At beginning of step or Throughout step, Region: Set:
elset

Example 1
Different mass scaling factors may be useful when materials with vastly different wave speeds or mesh refinements are present
in an analysis. In this example a scale factor of 50 may be desirable for the masses of all elements in a quasi-static analysis,
except for a few elements for which a mass scaling factor of 500 is used.
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=50.0
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=500.0, ELSET=elset1
The first fixed mass scaling definition scales the masses of all elements in the model by a factor of 50. The second fixed mass
scaling definition overrides the first definition for the elements contained in element set elset1 by scaling their masses by a
factor of 500.

Example 2
An alternative method of scaling the masses of elements in elset1 is to assign a stable time increment to them and allow
Abaqus/Explicit to determine the mass scaling factors.
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=50.0
*FIXED MASS SCALING, DT=.5E-6, TYPE=BELOW MIN, ELSET=elset1
The first fixed mass scaling definition scales the masses in the entire model by a factor of 50. The second fixed mass scaling
definition overrides the first definition by scaling the masses of any elements in elset1 whose stable time increments are less
than .5 × 10−6.

Mass scaling at the beginning of the step

Fixed mass scaling is used to prescribe mass scaling only at the beginning of a step and always scales the original element
masses. When the scale factor is defined directly, the mass is scaled by the value assigned to the scale factor. If the element-
by-element stable time increment, dt, is specified, the mass scaling is based on this value. If both the scale factor and the
element-by-element stable time increment are specified, the mass is first scaled by the value assigned to the scale factor and
then possibly scaled again, depending on the value assigned to the element-by-element stable time increment and the type of
fixed mass scaling chosen.
Local mass scaling can be defined for a specific element set. If no element set is specified, the fixed mass scaling definition will
apply to all elements in the model. Only one fixed mass scaling definition is permitted per element set. Multiple fixed mass
scaling definitions cannot contain overlapping element sets. Local mass scaling definitions will overwrite global definitions for
the specified element sets.
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Input File Usage:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=factor, DT=dt, TYPE=type, ELSET=elset
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: At beginning of step, Scale by factor: factor, Scale to
target time increment of: dt

Example
Assume that for a quasi-static analysis a mass scaling factor of 50 is applied to all the elements in the model. Furthermore,
assume that even after being scaled by a factor of 50, a few extremely small or poorly shaped elements are causing the stable
time increment to be less than a desired minimum. To increase the stable time increment, the following option is used:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=50., TYPE=BELOW MIN, DT=.5E-6
The specified scale factor causes the masses of all the elements in the model to be scaled by a factor of 50. If any element's
stable time increment is still below 0.5 × 10−6 after being scaled by a factor of 50.0, its mass will be scaled such that its stable
time increment is equal to 0.5 × 10−6.

Mass scaling throughout the step

Variable mass scaling with a specified element-by-element stable time increment is used to define mass scaling that is to be
performed at the beginning and throughout the step. Either the frequency in increments or the number of intervals must be
specified to define how frequently mass scaling is to be performed. In increments other than those in which mass scaling is
performed, the time increment used will generally be different from the value assigned to the element-by-element stable time
increment.
Local mass scaling can be defined for a specific element set. If no element set is specified, the variable mass scaling definition
will apply to all elements in the model. Only one variable mass scaling definition is permitted per element set. Multiple variable
mass scaling definitions cannot contain overlapping element sets. Local mass scaling definitions will overwrite global definitions
for the specified element sets.
Input File Usage:
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, DT=dt, TYPE=type, ELSET=elset
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: Throughout step, Scale to target time increment of: dt

Calculating the mass scaling at equally spaced increments

You can specify the number of increments between mass scaling calculations. For example, specifying a frequency of 5 will
cause mass scaling to be performed at the beginning of the step and at increments 5, 10, 15, etc.
Care should be taken when choosing the value of the frequency, since performing mass scaling every few increments during an
analysis may result in noticeable additional computational cost per increment.
Input File Usage:
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, TYPE=type, DT=dt, FREQUENCY=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: Throughout step, Scale to target time increment of: dt,
Scale: Every n increments

Calculating the mass scaling at equally spaced time intervals

Alternatively, you can specify the number of equally spaced time intervals at which the mass scaling calculations are to be
performed. For example, specifying 5 intervals in a step with a duration of one second will cause mass scaling to be performed
at the beginning of the step and at times of .2 , .4, .6, .8, and 1.0 seconds.
Input File Usage:
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, TYPE=type, DT=dt, NUMBER INTERVAL=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: Throughout step, Scale to target time increment of: dt,
Scale: At n equal intervals

Different mass scaling at the beginning and during the step

There are cases where it is desirable to include mass scaling at the beginning of a step that may be modified further throughout
the step.
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Input File Usage:
Use both of the following options:
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=factor, TYPE=type, DT=dt_init
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, TYPE=type, DT=dt_min, FREQUENCY=n
or NUMBER INTERVAL=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Create both of the following mass scaling definitions:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create:
Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: At beginning of step
Semi-automatic mass scaling, Scale: Throughout step

Example
Assume that in a dynamic impact analysis, a few extremely small or poorly shaped elements exist in the mesh and
consequently control the stable time increment. To prevent these elements from controlling the stable time increment, it is
desirable to scale their masses at the beginning of the step. In addition, elements in a region of the mesh will develop severe
distortions as a result of impact with a fixed rigid surface. Consequently, elements in the impact zone may eventually control
the stable time increment.
Since the elements in the impact zone are essentially stationary against the rigid surface, selectively scaling their masses will
guarantee that the overall dynamic response is not adversely affected. Mass scaling these elements by prescribing a time
increment to limit the reduction in the element-by-element stable time increment may decrease run time substantially.

For example, specify fixed mass scaling for all elements in the model with stable time increments below a value of 1.0 × 10−6.
In addition, specify variable mass scaling for the elements in the impact zone (elset1) with stable time increments below a value
of 0.5 × 10−6. In this case all the elements in the model are checked at the beginning of the step. If any have stable time
increments less than 1.0 × 10−6, their masses are scaled (independently) such that the element-by-element stable time
increment equals 1.0 × 10−6. This scaling remains in effect throughout the step and is not further modified, except for those
elements in elset1. The variable mass scaling definition causes the elements contained in elset1 to be scaled throughout the
step so that their stable time increments do not become less than 0.5 × 10−6. Because only elements in elset1 are scaled
during the step, it is possible that a stable time increment less than 0.5 × 10−6 may result.

Mass scaling in a multiple step analysis

The scaled element masses at the end of one step and any variable mass scaling methods specified in that step are carried
forward automatically to the subsequent step, ensuring continuity in the mass matrix at the step boundaries and continued
application of the variable mass scaling methods. However, you can reset the element masses to their original values or
recompute the element masses by using a new fixed mass scaling method at the beginning of the subsequent step. You can
also remove the variable mass scaling methods inherited from the prior step or replace an inherited method with a new variable
mass scaling method.
To reset the initial mass matrix, specify a fixed mass scaling method in the subsequent step. Similarly, specify a variable mass
scaling method in the subsequent step to discontinue all of the variable mass scaling methods of the prior step. The examples
below illustrate the following special cases: (a) continuous mass matrix with no further mass scaling, and (b) reverting the
mass matrix to the original state with no further mass scaling.
Very large changes in element mass across the steps due to mass scaling may lead to precision problems in the mass
calculations. These precision problems may give rise to erroneous or misleading results. When large changes in element masses
are desired in such situations, it is recommended that fixed mass scaling be used in the new step to reset the element masses
to their original values before using additional mass scaling definitions, as required, to scale the element masses to their desired
values.

Continuous mass matrix with no further scaling

To define a continuous mass matrix with no further scaling, remove any variable mass scaling definitions inherited from the
prior step by redefining a new variable mass scaling definition.
Input File Usage:
Use the following option without any parameters in a new step:
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Disable mass scaling throughout step
Example
Assume that during the first step of a quasi-static analysis, elements will experience distortions that will cause the stable time
increment to decrease dramatically. Furthermore, assume that the deformation during the second step will not be large enough
to have any further effect on the stable time increment.

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*HEADING
…
*STEP
…
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=1.1
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, TYPE=BELOW MIN, DT=1.E-5, FREQUENCY=10
…
*END STEP
*STEP
…
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING
…
*END STEP
During the first step the fixed mass scaling increases the element mass by the factor 1.1. The variable mass scaling definition
scales the mass of the entire model at the beginning of the step and every tenth increment such that the element-by-element
stable time increment equals at least 1 × 10−5. The variable mass scaling definition in the second step replaces the one
continued from the first step. This particular definition of variable mass scaling without any parameters in the second step also
prevents any further mass scaling during the second step. The scaled mass matrix from the first step is carried over to be used
during the entire second step.

Reverting the mass matrix to the original state

You can introduce a fixed mass scaling method in the subsequent step to discontinue all of the mass scaling methods of the
prior step. Further, if the default specification of fixed mass scaling is used, element masses revert to their original values at the
beginning of the subsequent step. Thus, specify just the default fixed mass scaling method to prevent the scaled mass of the
previous step from being used in a new step. This is useful going from a quasi-static simulation step where mass scaling is
appropriate to a dynamic step in which no scaling is desired.
Input File Usage:
Use both of the following options without any parameters:
*FIXED MASS SCALING
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Create both of the following mass scaling definitions:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create:
Reinitialize mass
Disable mass scaling throughout step
Example
Assume that an analysis contains a quasi-static step followed by a dynamic step. Mass scaling can be performed during the
quasi-static step but turned off during the dynamic step.
*HEADING
*STEP
…
*FIXED MASS SCALING, FACTOR=1.1
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, TYPE=BELOW MIN, DT=1.E-5, FREQUENCY=10
*END STEP
*STEP
*FIXED MASS SCALING
*VARIABLE MASS SCALING
*END STEP
During the first step the fixed mass scaling increases the element mass by the factor 1.1. The variable mass scaling definition
scales the mass of the entire model at the beginning of the step and every tenth increment such that the element-by-element
stable time increment equals at least 1 × 10−5. The new fixed mass scaling definition without any parameters in the second
step then reverts the mass matrix back to the original state. The new variable mass scaling definition replaces all the variable
mass scaling definitions inherited from the first step. Further, since the new variable mass scaling definition has no parameters,
no mass scaling is applied during the second step. Thus, the mass matrix for the second step reverts to that of the original
state.

Mass contribution from external programs connected to Abaqus via co-simulation

Co-simulation can lead to mass and/or rotary inertia from external programs being added to the Abaqus model during a step.
However, that contribution along with other quantities imported from the external program must be removed once the co-
simulation step is completed. If co-simulation is expected to add mass and/or rotary inertia to the Abaqus model, Abaqus
automatically reverts the mass matrix back to the original state once such a co-simulation step is completed. You need to
respecify any mass scaling that must be continued beyond the co-simulation step.

When mass scaling is or is not used

The following entities are not affected by mass scaling:

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Thermal solution response in a fully coupled thermal-stress analysis
Gravity loads, viscous pressure loads
Adiabatic heat calculations
Equation of state materials
Fluid and fluid link elements
Surface-based fluid cavities
Spring and dashpot elements

Densities associated with any of the relevant items in this list will remain unscaled. Mass, rotary inertia, infinite, and rigid
elements can be scaled. However, because none of the elements has an associated stable time increment, they can be scaled
only using either a user-specified scale factor or an element-by-element stable time increment applied uniformly. If the
element-by-element stable time increment is specified, at least one element with a stable time increment must be included in
the mass scaling definition. Rotary inertia in shell, beam, and pipe elements is based on the scaled mass.
The mass of infinite elements can be scaled; however, the infinite elements will not act as quiet boundaries unless the densities
of each adjacent deformable element are scaled by the same factor. The mass of both elements will be scaled by the same
factor if they are both included in the same fixed or variable mass scaling definition.

Automatic mass scaling for analysis of bulk metal rolling

Bulk metal rolling is generally considered a quasi-static process, but the process is often modeled with Abaqus/Explicit because
of its ability to handle the contact problem well. To achieve an economical solution with Abaqus/Explicit, it is often useful to
increase the mass of the product artificially. However, the mass scaling factor must be chosen such that the changes in the
mass and the corresponding changes in the inertial forces do not alter the solutions significantly. Choosing too high a scaling
factor will not produce quasi-static results. Choosing too low a scaling factor, while conservative, will result in long run times.
Rolling variable mass scaling can be used to make the choice of the optimal scaling factor automatic for this process.
The automatic strategy is based on the semi-automatic method of scaling all elements to have equal element stable time
increments. The method is made automatic by determining the appropriate value for the target stable time increment from
several parameters of the rolling process. The value used for the target stable time increment, Δt, is based on the average
element length in the rolling direction, Le; the feed rate, V; and the number of nodes in the cross-section of the product, n. The
feed rate is defined as the average velocity of the product in the rolling direction during steady-state conditions. The value of Δt
is adjusted during the analysis to account for the actual value of the feed rate. You must specify estimated values for the
average velocity, the average element length in the rolling direction, and the number of nodes in the cross-section of the
product.
The mass of any element will never drop below its original mass. This is different from the method of scaling all elements to
have equal element stable time increments. Imposing this restriction means that rolling problems that have significant inertial
effects will not have their mass adjusted automatically when they are analyzed as quasi-static.
To achieve a good result, it is recommended that:
the product be meshed by extruding a two-dimensional cross-section of the product;
the average element length in the rolling direction not vary significantly along the length of the product;
the product have an initial velocity in the rolling direction approximately equal to the steady-state feed rate;
the element size in the cross-section be equal to or less than the size in the rolling direction; and
no other mass scaling be used on elements scaled with rolling automatic variable mass scaling.

Input File Usage:

*VARIABLE MASS SCALING, ELSET=elset1, FREQUENCY=n,
TYPE=ROLLING, FEED RATE=V, EXTRUDED LENGTH=Le,
CROSS SECTION NODES=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Step module: Create Step: General, Dynamic, Explicit or Dynamic, Temp-disp, Explicit: Mass scaling: Use scaling
definitions below: Create: Automatic mass scaling, Feed rate: V, Extruded element length: Le, Nodes in cross section:
n

Output
Output variable EMSF provides the element mass scaling factor. Abaqus/CAE can be used to obtain contour and history plots of
EMSF. Output variable DMASS provides the total percent change in mass of the model as a result of mass scaling and is
available for history plotting in Abaqus/CAE. Output variable DMASS is not available on an element set basis.
Output variable EDT provides the element stable time increment. The element stable time increment includes the effect of mass
scaling. Abaqus/CAE can be used to obtain history plots of EDT.

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