SAMINAR REPORT 201

INTRODUCTION

Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard
atomic weight of 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its
monatomic form (H) is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe,
constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass Non-remnant stars are mainly composed
of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium
(name rarely used, symbol 1H), has one proton and no neutrons.

Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of
acids on metals. In 1766–81, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize that hydrogen
gas was a discrete substance and that it produces water when burned, the property for
which it was later named: in Greek, hydrogen means "water-former".

Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas, and less often from
more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water Most hydrogen is used
near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing (e.g.,
hydrocracking) and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market. Hydrogen is a
concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals complicating the design of
pipelines and storage tanks.

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power.
Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen-fuelled space rockets, as well as automobiles and
other transportation vehicles. The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical
energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal
combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric
motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for fuelling transportation is a key element of a
proposed hydrogen economy .

As of 2016, there are 3 hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota
Mirai, the Hyundai ix35 FCEV, and the Honda Clarity. Several other companies are

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working to develop hydrogen cars. As of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from natural
gas. It can be produced using renewable sources, but that is an expensive process
Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power-to-gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are
exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to
compete with hydrogen production using natural gas. The drawbacks of hydrogen use are
high carbon emissions intensity when produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, low
energy content per unit volume, production and compression of hydrogen, and the large
investment in infrastructure that would be required to fuel vehicles.

Climate change is a serious issue becoming increasingly evident to much of the

population. Rising CO2 levels have directly contributed to the global warming
phenomenon. As shown in Figures 1 and 2, the CO 2 levels have rising dramatically in the
past 200 years, along with the global average temperature.

Fig. 1 carbon concentration

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PRODUCTION

Main article: Hydrogen production H2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories,

often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated
substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical
reactions.

1. Electrolysis of water

The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage

current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous
hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another
inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on
site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made
from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of
oxygen given off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic
value of hydrogen produced) is in the range 88-94%.

2 H2 O(l) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g)

When determining the electrical efficiency of PEM (proton exchange membrane)

electrolysis, the higher heat value (HHV) is used This is because the catalyst layer
interacts with water as steam. As the process operates at 80 °C for PEM electrolysis the
waste heat can be redirected through the system to create the steam, resulting in a higher
overall electrical efficiency. The lower heat value (LHV) must be used for alkaline
electrolysis as the process within these electrolysis requires water in liquid form and uses
alkalinity to facilitate the breaking of the bond holding the hydrogen and oxygen atoms

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together. The lower heat value must also be used for fuel cells, as steam is the output
rather than input.

2. Steam reforming

Hydrogen is often produced using natural gas, which involves the removal of hydrogen
from hydrocarbons at very high temperatures, with about 95% of hydrogen production
coming from steam reforming around year 2000. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually
produced by the steam reforming of natural gas.[89] At high temperatures (1000–1400 K,
700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon
monoxide and H2.

CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2

This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures
(2.0  MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-pressure H2 is the most marketable
product and pressure swing adsorption (PSA) purification systems work better at higher
pressures. The product mixture is known as "synthesis gas" because it is often used
directly for the production of methanol and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than
methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the
many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or
carbon:

CH4 → C + 2 H2

Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H2O. Additional hydrogen

can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift
reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial
source of carbon dioxide:

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

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Other important methods for H2 production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons:

2 CH4 + O2 → 2 CO + 4 H2

and the coal reaction, which can serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above:

C + H2O → CO + H2

Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without
being separated. In the Haber process for the production of ammonia, hydrogen is
generated from natural gas. Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces
hydrogen.

3. Hydrogen from coal (Gasification)

During gasification, the coal is blown through with oxygen and steam (water vapor)
while also being heated (and in some cases pressurized). If the coal is heated by external
heat sources the process is called "allothermal", while "autothermal" process assumes
heating of the coal via exothermal chemical reactions occurring inside the gasifier itself.
It is essential that the oxidizer supplied is insufficient for complete oxidizing
(combustion) of the fuel. During the reactions mentioned, oxygen and water molecules
oxidize the coal and produce a gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), water vapour (H2O), and molecular hydrogen (H2). (Some by-products
like tar, phenols, etc. are also possible end products, depending on the specific
gasification technology utilized.) This process has been conducted in-situ within natural
coal seams (referred to as underground coal gasification) and in coal refineries. The
desired end product is usually syngas (i.e., a combination of H2 + CO), but the produced
coal gas may also be further refined to produce additional quantities of H2:

3C (i.e., coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 + 3CO

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If the refiner wants to produce alkanes (i.e., hydrocarbons present in natural gas, gasoline,
and diesel fuel), the coal gas is collected at this state and routed to a Fischer-Tropsch
reactor. If, however, hydrogen is the desired end-product, the coal gas (primarily the CO
product) undergoes the water gas shift reaction where more hydrogen is produced by
additional reaction with water vapor:

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

4. Solar – Hydrogen system

Solar–hydrogen energy cycle is an energy cycle where a solar powered electrolyzer is
used to convert water to hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen produced thus are
stored to be used by a fuel cell to produce electricity when no sunlight is available

STORAGE

Methods of hydrogen storage for subsequent use span many approaches including high
pressures, cryogenics, and chemical compounds that reversibly release H2 upon heating.
Underground hydrogen storage is useful to provide grid energy storage for intermittent
energy sources, like wind power, as well as providing fuel for transportation, particularly
for ships and airplanes.

Most research into hydrogen storage is focused on storing hydrogen as a lightweight,

compact energy carrier for mobile applications.

Liquid hydrogen or slush hydrogen may be used, as in the Space Shuttle. However liquid
hydrogen requires cryogenic storage and boils around 20.268 K (−252.882 °C or
−423.188 °F). Hence, its liquefaction imposes a large energy loss (as energy is needed to
cool it down to that temperature). The tanks must also be well insulated to prevent boil
off but adding insulation increases cost. Liquid hydrogen has less energy density by

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volume than hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline by approximately a factor of four. This
highlights the density problem for pure hydrogen: there is actually about 64% more
hydrogen in a liter of gasoline (116 grams hydrogen) than there is in a liter of pure liquid
hydrogen (71 grams hydrogen). The carbon in the gasoline also contributes to the energy
of combustion. Compressed hydrogen, by comparison, is stored quite differently.
Hydrogen gas has good energy density by weight, but poor energy density by volume
versus hydrocarbons, hence it requires a larger tank to store. A large hydrogen tank will
be heavier than the small hydrocarbon tank used to store the same amount of energy, all
other factors remaining equal. Increasing gas pressure would improve the energy density
by volume, making for smaller, but not lighter container tanks (see hydrogen tank).
Compressed hydrogen costs 2.1% of the energy conten. to power the compressor. Higher
compression without energy recovery will mean more energy lost to the compression
step. Compressed hydrogen storage can exhibit very low permeation

Compressed hydrogen

Compressed hydrogen is a storage form where hydrogen gas is kept under pressures to
increase the storage density. Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000
psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type
IV carbon-composite technology. Car manufacturers have been developing this solution,
such as Honda or Nissan.

Liquid hydrogen

BMW has been working on liquid hydrogen tanks for cars, producing for example the
BMW Hydrogen 7. Japan have liquid hydrogen (LH2) storage at a tanker port in Kobe,
and are anticipated to receive the first shipment of liquid hydrogen via LH2 carrier in
2020. Hydrogen is liquified by reducing its temperature to -253°C, similar to liquified

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natural gas (LNG) which is stored at -162°C. A potential efficiency loss of 12.79% can
be achieved, or 4.26kWh/kg out of 33.3kWh/kg.[7]

Fig.2 Storage density graph of hydrogen

Unlike mobile applications, hydrogen density is not a huge problem for stationary
applications. As for mobile applications, stationary applications can use established
technology:

 Compressed hydrogen (CGH2) in a hydrogen tank

 Liquid hydrogen in a (LH2) cryogenic hydrogen tank
 Slush hydrogen in a cryogenic hydrogen tank

Underground hydrogen storage

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'Available storage technologies, their capacity and discharge time.' COMMISSION

STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Energy storage – the role of electricity

Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground

caverns, salt domes and depleted oil and gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen
have been stored in underground caverns by ICI for many years without any difficulties.
The storage of large quantities of liquid hydrogen underground can function as grid
energy storage. The round-trip efficiency is approximately 40% (vs. 75-80% for pumped-
hydro (PHES)), and the cost is slightly higher than pumped hydro, if only a limited
number of hours of storage is required. Another study referenced by a European staff
working paper found that for large scale storage, the cheapest option is hydrogen at
€140/MWh for 2,000 hours of storage using an electrolyser, salt cavern storage and
combined-cycle power plant. The European project Hyunder indicated in 2013 that for
the storage of wind and solar energy an additional 85 caverns are required as it cannot be
covered by PHES and CAES systems. A German case study on storage of hydrogen in

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salt caverns found that if the German power surplus (7% of total variable renewable
generation by 2025 and 20% by 2050) would be converted to hydrogen and stored
underground, these quantities would require some 15 caverns of 500,000 cubic metres
each by 2025 and some 60 caverns by 2050 – corresponding to approximately one third
of the number of underground gas caverns currently operated in Germany. In the US,
Sandia Labs are conducting research into the storage of hydrogen in depleted oil and gas
fields, which could easily absorb large amounts of renewably produced hydrogen as there
are some 2.7 million depleted wells in existence.

Power to gas

Power to gas is a technology which converts electrical power to a gas fuel. There are two
methods: the first is to use the electricity for water splitting and inject the resulting
hydrogen into the natural gas grid; the second, less efficient method is used to convert
carbon dioxide and hydrogen to methane, (see natural gas) using electrolysis and the
Sabatier reaction. A third option is to combine the hydrogen via electrolysis with a source
of carbon (either carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide from biogas, from industrial
processes or via direct air-captured carbon dioxide) via biomethanation, where
biomethanogens (archaea) consume carbon dioxide and hydrogen and produce methane
within an anaerobic environment. This process is highly efficient, as the archaea are self-
replicating and only require low-grade (60°C) heat to perform the reaction.

Another process has also been achieved by SoCalGas to convert the carbon dioxide in
raw biogas to methane in a single electrochemical step, representing a simpler method of
converting excess renewable electricity into storable natural gas.

The UK has completed surveys and is preparing to start injecting hydrogen into the gas
grid as the grid previously carried 'town gas' which is a 50% hydrogen-methane gas
formed from coal. Auditors KPMG found that converting the UK to hydrogen gas could
be £150bn to £200bn cheaper than rewiring British homes to use electric heating powered
by lower-carbon sources.

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Excess power or off peak power generated by wind generators or solar arrays can then be
used for load balancing in the energy grid. Using the existing natural gas system for
hydrogen, Fuel cell maker Hydrogenics and natural gas distributor Enbridge have teamed
up to develop such a power to gas system in Canada.

Pipeline storage of hydrogen where a natural gas network is used for the storage of
hydrogen. Before switching to natural gas, the German gas networks were operated using
towngas, which for the most part (60-65%) consisted of hydrogen. The storage capacity
of the German natural gas network is more than 200,000 GW·h which is enough for
several months of energy requirement. By comparison, the capacity of all German
pumped storage power plants amounts to only about 40 GW·h. The transport of energy
through a gas network is done with much less loss (<0.1%) than in a power network
(8%). The use of the existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen was studied by
NaturalHy

Fig.4 Automotive Onboard hydrogen storage

Targets for on-board hydrogen storage assuming storage of 5 kg of hydrogen

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Targets were set by the FreedomCAR Partnership in January 2002 between the United
States Council for Automotive Research (USCAR) and U.S. DOE (Targets assume a 5-kg
H2 storage system). The 2005 targets were not reached in 2005. The targets were revised
in 2009 to reflect new data on system efficiencies obtained from fleets of test cars. The
ultimate goal for volumetric storage is still above the theoretical density of liquid
hydrogen.

It is important to note that these targets are for the hydrogen storage system, not the
hydrogen storage material. System densities are often around half those of the working
material, thus while a material may store 6 wt% H2, a working system using that material
may only achieve 3 wt% when the weight of tanks, temperature and pressure control
equipment, etc., is considered.

In 2010, only two storage technologies were identified as having the potential to meet
DOE targets: MOF-177 exceeds 2010 target for volumetric capacity, while cryo-
compressed H2 exceeds more restrictive 2015 targets for both gravimetric and volumetric
capacity.

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HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

Fig.5 Working of fuelcell

Hydrogen + Oxygen = Electricity + Water Vapor

Cathode:O2+4H++4e–→2H2O
Anode:2H2→4H++4e–
Overall: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

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A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical potential energy (energy stored in molecular
bonds) into electrical energy. A PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) cell uses hydrogen
gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) as fuel. The products of the reaction in the cell are water,
electricity, and heat. This is a big improvement over internal combustion engines, coal
burning power plants, and nuclear power plants, all of which produce harmful by-
products.

Since O2 is readily available in the atmosphere, we only need to supply the fuel cell with
H2 which can come from an electrolysis process (see Alkaline electrolysis or PEM
electrolysis).

There are four basic elements of a PEM Fuel Cell:

The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the electrons
that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an external circuit.
It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the surface of
the catalyst.

The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has channels etched into it that distribute
the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also conducts the electrons back from the
external circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and
oxygen to form water.

The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material, which
looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts positively charged
ions. The membrane blocks electrons. For a PEMFC, the membrane must be hydrated in
order to function and remain stable.

The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is
usually made of platinum nanoparticles very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth.
The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum surface area of the platinum can be

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exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the
PEM.

Fig.6 Engine

As the name implies, the heart of the cell is the proton exchange membrane. It allows
protons to pass through it virtually unimpeded, while electrons are blocked. So, when the
H2 hits the catalyst and splits into protons and electrons (remember, a proton is the same
as an H+ ion) the protons go directly through to the cathode side, while the electrons are
forced to travel through an external circuit. Along the way they perform useful work, like
lighting a bulb or driving a motor, before combining with the protons and O 2 on the other
side to produce water.

How does it work? Pressurized hydrogen gas (H 2) entering the fuel cell on the anode side.
This gas is forced through the catalyst by the pressure. When an H2 molecule comes in
contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons (e-).
The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way through the
external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return to the cathode side
of the fuel cell.

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Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is being forced through
the catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative
charge. This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through the membrane, where they
combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons from the external circuit to form a
water molecule (H2O).

All these reaction occurs in a so called cell stack. The expertise then also involves the
setup of a complete system around core component that is the cell stack.

The stack will be embedded in a module including fuel, water and air management,
coolant control hardware and software. This module will then be integrated in a complete
system to be used in different applications.

Due to the high energetic content of hydrogen and high efficiency of fuel cells (55%),
this great technology can be used in many applications like transport (cars, buses,
forklifts, etc)  and backup power to produce electricity during a failure of the electricity
grid.

Advantages of the technology:

 By converting chemical potential energy directly into electrical energy, fuel cells
avoid the “thermal bottleneck” (a consequence of the 2nd law of thermodynamics)
and are thus inherently more efficient than combustion engines, which must first
convert chemical potential energy into heat, and then mechanical work.
 Direct emissions from a fuel cell vehicle are just water and a little heat. This is a
huge improvement over the internal combustion engine’s litany of greenhouse
gases.
 Fuel cells have no moving parts. They are thus much more reliable than
traditional engines.
 Hydrogen can be produced in an environmentally friendly manner, while oil
extraction and refining is very damaging.

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COMPARISON WITH OTHER TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE

FUEL VEHICLE

Fig.7 hydrogen fuel station

Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel
powered vehicle infrastructure.

1. Plug-in hybrids

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, or PHEVs, are hybrid vehicles that can be plugged into
the electric grid and contain an electric motor and also an internal combustion engine.
The PHEV concept augments standard hybrid electric vehicles with the ability to
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recharge their batteries from an external source, enabling increased use of the vehicle's
electric motors while reducing their reliance on internal combustion engines. The
infrastructure required to charge PHEVs is already in place,and transmission of power
from grid to car is about 93% efficient. This, however, is not the only energy loss in
transferring power from grid to wheels. AC/DC conversion must take place from the
grids AC supply to the PHEV's DC. This is roughly 98% efficient. [124] The battery then
must be charged. As of 2007, the Lithium iron phosphate battery was between 80-90%
efficient in charging/discharging. The battery needs to be cooled; the GM Volt's battery
has 4 coolers and two radiators. As of 2009, "the total well-to-wheels efficiency with
which a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle might utilize renewable electricity is roughly 20%
(although that number could rise to 25% or a little higher with the kind of multiple
technology breakthroughs required to enable a hydrogen economy). The well-to-wheels
efficiency of charging an onboard battery and then discharging it to run an electric motor
in a PHEV or EV, however, is 80% (and could be higher in the future)—four times more
efficient than current hydrogen fuel cell vehicle pathways." A 2006 article in Scientific
American argued that PHEVs, rather than hydrogen vehicles, would become standard in
the automobile industry.A December 2009 study at UC Davis found that, over their
lifetimes, PHEVs will emit less carbon than current vehicles, while hydrogen cars will
emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.

2. Natural gas

Main article: natural gas vehicle

Internal combustion engine-based compressed natural gas(CNG), HCNG or LNG

vehicles (Natural gas vehicles or NGVs) use methane (Natural gas or Biogas) directly as
a fuel source. Natural gas has a higher energy density than hydrogen gas. NGVs using
biogas are nearly carbon neutral. Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicles have been
available for many years, and there is sufficient infrastructure to provide both commercial
and home refueling stations. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by

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the end of 2011. The other use for natural gas is in steam reforming which is the common
way to produce hydrogen gas for use in electric cars with fuel cells.

3. All-electric vehicles

A 2008 Technology Review article stated, "Electric cars—and plug-in hybrid cars—have
an enormous advantage over hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles in utilizing low-carbon
electricity. That is because of the inherent inefficiency of the entire hydrogen fueling
process, from generating the hydrogen with that electricity to transporting this diffuse gas
long distances, getting the hydrogen in the car, and then running it through a fuel cell—
all for the purpose of converting the hydrogen back into electricity to drive the same
exact electric motor you'll find in an electric car." Thermodynamically, each additional
step in the conversion process decreases the overall efficiency of the process

A 2013 comparison of hydrogen and battery electric vehicles agreed with the 25% figure
from Ulf Bossel in 2006 and stated that the cost of an electric vehicle battery "is rapidly
coming down, and the gap will widen further", while there is little "existing infrastructure
to transport, store and deliver hydrogen to vehicles and would cost billions of dollars to
put into place, everyone's household power sockets are "electric vehicle refueling" station
and the "cost of electricity (depending on the source) is at least 75% cheaper than
hydrogen." In 2013 the National Academy of Sciences[135] and DOE stated that even
under optimistic conditions by 2030 the price for the battery is not expected to go below
$17,000 ($200–$250/kWh) on 300 miles of range. In 2013 Matthew Mench, from the
University of Tennessee stated: "If we are sitting around waiting for a battery
breakthrough that will give us four times the range than we have now, we are going to be
waiting for a long time".Navigant Research, (formerly Pike research), on the other hand,
forecasts that “lithium-ion costs, which are tipping the scales at about $500 per kilowatt
hour now, could fall to $300 by 2015 and to $180 by 2020.” In 2013 Takeshi
Uchiyamada, a designer of the Toyota Prius stated: "Because of its shortcomings –
driving range, cost and recharging time – the electric vehicle is not a viable replacement
for most conventional cars".Many electric car designs offer limited driving range causing

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range anxiety. For example, the 2013 Nissan Leaf has a range of 75 mi (121 km),[140] the
2014 Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive has an estimated range of 115 mi (185 km)
and the Tesla Model S has a range of up to 335 mi (539 km).However, most US
commutes are 30–40 miles (48–64 km) per day round trip and in Europe, most commutes
are around 20 kilometres (12 mi) round-trip

In 2013, The New York Times stated that there are only 10 publicly accessible hydrogen-
filling stations in the U.S., eight of which are in Southern California, and that BEVs' cost-
per-mile expense in 2013 is one-third as much as hydrogen cars when comparing
electricity from the grid and hydrogen at a filling station. The Times commented: "By the
time Toyota sells its first fuel-cell sedan, there will be about half-million plug-in vehicles
on the road in the United States – and tens of thousands of E.V. charging stations." [5] In
2013 John Swanton of the California Air Resources Board, who sees them as
complementary technologies, stated that EVs have the jump on fuel-cell autos, which
"are like electric vehicles were 10 years ago. EVs are for real consumers, no strings
attached. With EVs you have a lot of infrastructure in place. The Business Insider, in
2013 commented that if the energy to produce hydrogen "does not come from renewable
sources, then fuel-cell cars are not as clean as they seem. ... Gas stations need to invest in
the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before FCEVs become practical, and it's unlikely
many will do that while there are so few customers on the road today. ... Compounding
the lack of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are "still very, very
expensive", even compared to battery-powered EVs.

LIST OF ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN FUEL

1. It is readily available.
As mentioned earlier, hydrogen is a basic earth element and it’s very abundant. However,
it takes a whole lot of time to separate hydrogen gas from its companion substances.
While that may be the case, the results produce a powerful clean energy source.

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2. It doesn’t produce harmful emissions.
When hydrogen is burned, it doesn’t emit harmful substances. Basically, it reacts to
oxygen without burning and the energy it releases can be used to generate electricity used
to drive an electric motor. Also, it doesn’t generate carbon dioxide when burnt, not unlike
other power sources.

3. It is environmentally friendly.
Hydrogen is a non-toxic substance which is rare for a fuel source. Others such as nuclear
energy, coal and gasoline are either toxic or found in places that have hazardous
environments. Because hydrogen is friendly towards the environment, it can be used in
ways that other fuels can’t even possibly match.

4. It can be used as fuel in rockets.

Hydrogen is both powerful and efficient. It is enough to provide power for powerful
machines such as spaceships. Also, given that it is environmentally friendly, it is a much
safer choice compared to other fuel sources. A fun fact: hydrogen is three times as
powerful as gasoline and other fossil fuels. This means that it can accomplish more with
less.

5. It is fuel efficient.
Compared to diesel or gas, hydrogen is much more fuel efficient as it can produce more
energy per pound of fuel. This means that if a car is fueled by hydrogen, it can go farther
than a vehicle loaded with the same amount of fuel but using a more traditional source of
energy.

Hydrogen-powered fuel cells have two or three times the efficiency of traditional
combustion technologies. For example, a conventional combustion-based power plant
usually generates electricity between 33 to 35 percent efficiency. Hydrogen fuel cells are
capable of generating electricity of up to 65 percent efficiency.

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Also, a gasoline-powered engine in a conventional car is not as efficient as converting
chemical energy into gasoline into power that moves vehicles under normal driving
conditions. With vehicles that use hydrogen fuel cells, and also use electric motors, are
more efficient as they can use 40 to 60 percent of the fuel’s energy. As a result, there is
more than 50% reduction in fuel consumption.

Plus, fuel cells operate quietly, have fewer moving parts and are well-suited for various
kinds of applications.

6. It is renewable.
Hydrogen can be produced again and again, unlike other non-renewable sources of
energy. This means that with hydrogen, you get a fuel source that is limited. Basically,
hydrogen energy can be produced on demand. Also, it is widely available – all that is
needed is to break the water molecules so it gets separated from oxygen. It’s without
question a time consuming process but the outcome is great.

LIST OF DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS

1. It is expensive.
While widely available, hydrogen is expensive. A good reason for this is that it takes a lot
of time to separate the element from others. If the process were really simple, then a lot
would have been doing it with relative ease, but it’s not.

Although, hydrogen cells are now being used to power hybrid cars, it’s still not a feasible
source of fuel for everyone. Until technology is developed that can make the whole
process a lot more simpler, then hydrogen energy will continue to be an expensive option.

2. It is difficult to store.
Hydrogen is very hard to move around. When speaking about oil, that element can be
sent though pipelines. When discussing coal, that can be easily carried off on the back of
trucks. When talking about hydrogen, just moving even small amounts is a very

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expensive matter. For that reason alone, the transport and storage of such a substance is
deemed impractical.

3. It is not easy to replace exiting infrastructure.

Gasoline is still being widely used to this day. And as of the moment, there just isn’t any
infrastructure that can support hydrogen as fuel. This is why it becomes highly expensive
to just think about replacing gasoline. Also, cars need to be refitted in order to
accommodate hydrogen as fuel.

4. It is highly flammable.
Since it is a very powerful source of fuel, hydrogen can be very flammable. In fact, it is
on the news frequently for its many number of risks. Hydrogen gas burns in air at very
wide concentrations – between 4 and 75 percent.

5. It is dependent on fossil fuels.

Although hydrogen energy is renewable and has minimal environmental impact, other
non-renewable sources such as coal, oil and natural gas are needed to separate it from
oxygen. While the point of switching to hydrogen is to get rid of using fossil fuels, they
are still needed to produce hydrogen fuel.

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REFERENCES

1) Dougherty W, Kartha S, Rajan C, Lazarus M, Bailie A, Runkle B, Fencl A.

Greenhouse gas reduction benefits and costs of a large-scale transition to hydrogen in the
USA. Energy Policy (2008), doi:\10.1016/j.enpol.2008.06.039
2) Baschuk JJ, Li X. A comprehensive, consistent and systematic mathematical model of
PEM fuel cells. Applied Energy, 2009, 86, 181-193.
3) Gasification Technologies Council. http://www.gasification.org (October 20, 2008)
4) Committee on Alternatives and Strategies for Future Hydrogen Production and Use,
National Research Council. The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and
R&D Needs. Washington, D.C.: The National Academy Press. 2004.
5) Kelly, N.A.; Gibson, T.L.; Ouwerkerk, D.B.; A solar-powered, high-efficiency
hydrogen fueling system using high-pressure electrolysis of water: Design and initial
results. Int. J. of Hydrogen Energy. 2008, 33, 2747-2764.

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6) Kim J, Lee Y, Moon I. Optimization of a hydrogen supply chain under demand
uncertainty. Int. J. of Hydrogen Energy. 2008, 33, 4715-4729.

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