Hydrogen

Research on the element behind the Stars

The core ideas behind the creation of this research paper is to discuss the Hydrogen element and
its many properties that are believed to have great promise in the future developments of humanity.
The author of this study shares these beliefs; however, they will not cloud the judgement nor the
neutrality of this study. Despite this report’s target audience being an individual with an
understanding of hydrogen and possessing basic chemical knowledge, those with no prior
experience in the chemical field are still welcome to read this report and continue in their own
research.

To introduce the topic of this report, Hydrogen is a gaseous chemical found all throughout the
universe in many forms. Whether it be in its naturally occurring diatomic state, or in a compound or
in the many stars in the universe. Despite its abundance, however, it is not common on earth. Being
one of the lower presenting gases in the atmosphere at less than 1% in the atmosphere but taking
up a considerable third of the composition of earth’s surface in the form of Hydrocarbons and
Water. This rarity causes Hydrogen to be more costly to acquire than other gases for industrial use.

Hydrogen has the atomic number 1 in the periodic table and is placed above the elements due to it
not being assigned a group. Composed of only 1 proton and one electron, hydrogen is the lightest
element in the periodic table but still has no charge, as the proton and electron cancel each other’s
charge. This does not negate the possibility of hydrogen isotopes, as hydrogen has 3 naturally
occurring isotopes (and 2 unstable ones synthesised in laboratories).

Hydrogen is used in many fields, including Industry, biotechnology and its biochemical variation,
electrical production, nuclear use among many others. This can be attributed to its many different
chemical properties, such as its ease in combustion or it’s energy usage. Each field uses the element
in different ways to achieve similar results from a generalised scope, but to dive into specifics each
one must be taken separately to properly understand the innerworkings of each unique area.

Hydrogen and Industry:

Extraction
The extraction and synthesis of Hydrogen is a complicated process with many varying methods of
completion. Some intentional, such as the ones produced in chemical and biological labs through
electrolysis or reactionary methods, and some as an accidental bonus or by-product of a separate
objective such as the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates. Efficiency in hydrogen production
has increased dramatically, and it reflects in the estimated 70 million tons of hydrogen synthesised
worldwide from the drastically different and varying methods of obtaining this abundant gaseous
substance.

In this section of the report, we will explain the methods by following the four main sources of
hydrogen production, which are:

Coal, Oil, Electrolysis and Natural Gas

 Respectively.

Coal can be used to produce hydrogen in 2 ways, one of which is coal gasification. This process
requires the use of an extremely delicate combination of specific gasses alongside steam to produce
a concoction of different materials known as Syngas (made of Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide,
Methane, Water Vapour and Hydrogen) from coal, water and air (specifically Oxygen). This method
also has the added benefit of its byproducts having the ability to be used for electrical generation,
being a cleaner and cheaper option the traditional burning of coal. However, gasification can also
apply to other materials besides coal, such as coke. Both of these materials share the fundamental
base of Carbon, and both can be converted into hydrogen-rich Syngas (Which only contains
Hydrogen, Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen Sulphide if the sulphur content of the coke is sufficient
enough for it to form.)

To conclude, the coal gasification method is generally known among industrial manufacturers as a
very attractive option in the production of hydrogen, due to it’s relatively low cost and added
benefits after the usage of the Carbon fuel.

Oil has recently been used to extract hydrogen gas, as soon as 2019, in fact. Scientists have
recently discovered that any major source of oil, such as oil sands and oil reserves can be injected
with Oxygen gas to increase its natural temperature and allow the hydrogen gas to escape. Crude oil,
which is present in natural oil reserves, is comprised of very volatile hydrocarbons (which are
hydrogens and carbons) and other trace gases such as Nitrogen, Oxygen and Sulphur.

Natural Gas is the largest component used to synthesise hydrogen, being behind approximately
40-95% of all hydrogen produced. The reason behind this large percentage is the gas’ natural
abundance in the earth, alongside its favourable quality of being the fuel to the cheapest method of
hydrogen synthesis currently available. The method being Steam Reforming, an extremely
endothermic reaction that uses the production of the Syngas (refer to the Coal section for the
definition of Syngas) by reacting Hydrocarbons with water.

The process begins with the Natural Gas (Made of Mostly Methane, Hydrogen and Carbon) is
heated to an extreme temperature (approximately 700-1100 degrees Celsius depending on different
factors) in order to cause the thermal decomposition of the Methane molecules, which are made up
of Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen. Therefore, when the molecule decomposes into its components,
Hydrogen is formed alongside Carbon Monoxide as a by-product. This by-product can be used to
further increase the yield of hydrogen; however, this is up to the discretion of the producer. By
passing the Carbon Monoxide over steam with an oxide such as Iron of Nickel Oxide, it forces the
Carbon Monoxide to undergo a process known as Water Gas Shift reaction.

Water Gas Shift Reaction is the reaction in which Carbon Monoxide undergoes when passed over
gaseous Hydrogen Dioxide to form Hydrogen and Carbon Dioxide.

This Process is generally frowned upon due to it resulting in large quantities of greenhouse gases
such as Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide, which contribute to the greenhouse effect and global
warming of the planet. However, it is still the most efficient and least costly method of obtaining
Hydrogen.
 Electrolysis is one of the simpler methods used to date to form hydrogen, also being the least
used simply due to its high operating cost. However, it still produces around 4% of the world’s total
hydrogen through a process known as Water Splitting, which naturally requires water as it’s fuel
source if we look beyond electricity.

Electrolysis is defined as a process in which compounds are broken down into their natural
components using the power of electricity. If we take this principle and apply it to water, Water
Splitting (as the name implies) is the process of breaking down water molecules (which are Hydrogen
Dioxide) into their components, AKA Hydrogen and Oxygen. The process uses three types of cells in
order to allow the electrolysis: a Solid Oxide Electrolyser Cell, a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Cell
and an Alkaline Electrolysis Cell.

The Electrolysis follows the same principle as basic electrolysis modules, where in the cell is
connected to 2 electrodes made of inert metals, such as platinum, and then dipped into the water
before the electrical current is allowed to pass through the circuit. The electrolyte type also differs in
this method, as the pureness of water affects how much hydrogen and oxygen the experiment
yields. Pure water is the least ideal electrolyte to use, as it requires much more energy in the form of
overpotential due to the water’s lack of conductivity (one-millionth that of seawater of the same
volume). Many producers will add an electrolyte such as a salt to increase the water’s conductivity
to not only increase the total yield of the process but also significantly decrease the cost of the
method due to the decreased electrical energy required to separate the hydrogen and oxygen from
each other.

Hydrogen mainly forms at the cathode, where in a reduction reaction occurs which is
represented by the following ionic equation:

2 H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)

The cathode is the negative electrode, where the
electrons enter the electrolyte. Where they meet the positively charged Hydrogen Ion, which
attracts it and reduces it to a Hydrogen atom. Naturally in the Anode, which is the positive
electrode, the oxygen ions are oxidised, and Oxygen atoms are formed. To summarise, the total
reaction is the breakdown of Hydrogen Dioxide (also known as water) into it’s core components
which are Oxygen and Hydrogen, as represented by the following Ionic equation:

2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4e−

Usage: Petrochemical Industry

The Petrochemical Industry thrives on maximizing their efficiency and production of energy
sources from chemicals such as fossil fuels and natural gas. One of the ways this could be done is
through the usage of Hydrogen to “upgrade” fossil fuels to elevate their output, efficiency and
quality in order to net more energy sources.

The Petrochemical Industry are one of the most frequent and abundant consumers of Hydrogen,
thanks to the many processes they initiate throughout their many facilities, such as
Hydrodealkylation (as the name suggest, is rooted in hydrochemistry.), Hydrodesulphurisation and
Hydrocracking.
 Hydrodealkylation is the scientific name of the chemical process used to transform
hydrocarbons into aromatic hydrocarbons that lack a functional group through the usage of
hydrogen and a transition metal such as chromium as a catalyst under extreme conditions such as
high pressures and temperatures.

Hydrodesulphurization is one of the most widely used processes in fuel industries such as the
petroleum industry. Due to the nature of fossil fuels containing sulphur, which can lead to the
production of sulphur dioxide under incomplete combustion of engines and cause severe
environmental harm after mass pileup. Alongside this, even in small concentrations the sulphur can
cause damage to the combustion systems of the vehicle operating using the fuel containing it.
Hydrodesulphurisation is a technique used to extract the sulphur from natural gas, fossil fuels and
more refined fuels such as gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene and the like.

The process takes place in industrial machinery, such as large furnaces, due to its high
temperature demands of around 300-400 degrees Celsius alongside its pressure demands of 30 to
130 times normal atmospheric pressure. The process also requires a catalyst such as nickel in order
to speed up the reaction rate.

Hydrocracking is the enhanced version of a cracking reaction (a process that takes place in
hydrocarbons where extremely complex hydrocarbons are broken down and split into lighter
hydrocarbons through the cutting of carbon bonds in order for many improvements, such as to
improve the fuel supply in some oil refineries.) It is enhanced by adding the usage of Hydrogen to
the reaction.

This process is most popular in areas such as Europe and Asia, where it’s resulting products are
most demanded, those products being Jet Fuel and Diesel Fuel. (to the point where Asia is currently
leading the world in Hydrocracking). The United States are an outlier, as gasoline is the more
demanded product there so Hydrocracking is outperformed by another chemical process known as
fluid catalytic cracking.

Usage: Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is a term that refers to the treatment of chemicals using hydrogen. Meaning
that it is process of adding hydrogen molecules to a large hydrocarbon, specifically an alkene, in
order to break the double bond present and change the chemical from an alkene into an alkane. This
is done by adding hydrogen, usually adsorbed to the surface of a precious metal acting as a catalyst
such as platinum or nickel, to the alkene. The hydrogen then binds with the carbons forming the
double bond, breaking it to allow both carbons to attach to the hydrogen atoms, transforming the
alkene into an alkane.

This is used in many food industries to transform unsaturated hydrocarbons (hydrocarbons

with a double bond in its structure, also known as Alkenes.) into saturated hydrocarbons (Alkanes).
These are more commonly known as Hydrogenated Fats and Oils in the food industry, and many
consumers have heard of the term beforehand. This is mainly also used for the synthesis of
Margarine, a consumable spread by adding vegetable oil (the unsaturated liquid) and treating it with
hydrogen under heat and nickel as a catalyst.

This process is also used in many non-food related reactions, and perhaps one of the more
famous examples of this is the Haber-Bosch Process. The Haber-Bosch Process is a complex process
that has the end goal of obtaining ammonia (NH 4) by hydrogenising a nitrogen diatomic particle
alongside iron to act as a catalyst to produce the ammonia gas. This process is currently the most
widely used method of synthesising Ammonia in Industry, despite its extremely high pressure and
temperature demands (They vary from every production plant, but they are always extreme.) The
demands are a result of the nitrogen gas’ extreme unreactive nature, which stems from its
composition containing a triple bond between the two Nitrogen atoms. Manufacturers rely on the
catalyst added to shorten the time required to break this triple bond to allow the ammonia gas to
form. The process becomes complex due to the equilibrium, which quickly becomes an obstacle at
higher temperatures. This reaction is an exothermic reaction, which leads to the reaction conditions
quickly becoming unsuitable for the reaction to occur at an optimum rate. Experiments have also
enlightened manufacturers that the iron catalyst also requires a high temperature in order to
function as intended (around 400 degrees Celsius,) therefore lowering the temperature of the
reaction would not be in the possible list of solutions.

Therefore a high temperature is required, as it allows the

equilibrium to remain constant and increases the product yield, providing a satisfactory solution.
Many have suggested that removing the ammonia gas produced during the reaction would also
increase the yield, and while this has been proven to be correct it is not favoured amongst producers
due to the difficulty of doing so thanks in part to the extreme temperatures at which the reaction
takes place.

Afterwards, the ammonia produced is used in the creation of fertilisers. By reacting

ammonia, which is an alkaline substance, with any acid (such as nitric acid or sulfuric acid) the
product will be an ammonium salt, which can be used as fertilisers.

Hydrogen and Energy:

Hydrogen Fuel:
Hydrogen fuel is a substance synthesised with the prime purpose of generating large
amounts of energy through being combined alongside an Oxidising agent such as Oxygen inside
combustion engines or Fuel Cells in a sort of redox reaction in order to release the energy stored.
However, hydrogen itself is not fuel nor can it be used as fuel alone. Pure hydrogen is classified as an
energy carrier, a classification that can also be used to describe electricity. Commercially, hydrogen
can be used as a more efficient fuel carrier in the future once the necessary technology is developed.

Used in modern spacecrafts for propulsion, hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel that
has a widespread use globally, despite the challenge of efficiency due to the need to extract the
hydrogen from the hydrocarbons or water molecules it is in. (Hydrogen Production was covered
earlier, please refer to that section if you need a refresher.)

Hydrogen Fuel is most commonly combined with oxygen to form water molecules,
which is the main method in which the energy is produced. A hydrogen fuel cell contains a tank of
both hydrogen and oxygen, and once it is instructed to release, the two react and form water
molecules, releasing large amounts of thermal radiation in the process. The fuel cell uses this
chemical energy and transfers it into electrical energy, which has led many to compare it to a
battery. The two substances, Hydrogen and Oxygen, are notably used in their liquid forms during
rocket propulsion, which is acquired by cooling the two gasses into extreme temperatures alongside
using a compressor to speed up the forming process. Hydrogen fuel has been noted to be used in
other forms of transportation such as personal vehicles and submarines, however in much lower
quantities than the ones used in rocket propulsion.

Nuclear Fusion:
Nuclear Fusion is the process of combining 2 or more atoms of the same element
into one to produce a heavier element and release immense amounts of energy in the process. This
reaction is a heavily exothermic process, most observed in large stars such as our Sun. It has been
speculated that fusion energy alongside hydrogen can be used in the future as a means of clean
energy production that would replace the usage of environmentally hostile fuel sources such as
fossil fuels and natural gas.

Fusion takes place due to 2 important forces, the nuclear attraction force and the coulomb
force. The nuclear force is the main perpetrator behind the bond that atomic nuclei have, therefore
it is the reason protons and neutrons stay grouped together to form different elements. The
Coulomb force dictates how protons repel each other due to their similar charge and increases in
strength as more protons are present in an atomic nucleus. Therefore, these two forces govern the
fusion of atomic nuclei and are the reason as to why heavy elements such as Iron and Nickel cannot
be fused (due to their large atomic nuclei and by proxy large coulomb force.). This also presents
Hydrogen as the easiest and most optimal candidate for nuclear fusion, due to it’s simple makeup of
only one proton and electron, its coulomb force is a fraction of that of heavier elements and
therefore, alongside helium, is the easiest element to use in nuclear fusion to produce energy.

However, the forces inside a hydrogen atom are still considerable, and nuclear fusion
requires extreme conditions that are currently extremely difficult if not impractical and impossible to
justify the attempt of creation on earth. In stars, the overwhelming combination of incredibly fast
speeds, excruciatingly high temperatures and unprecedented amounts of pressure cause the nuclei
to be pushed together extremely tight, allowing the nuclear force to become stronger and overcome
the coulomb force and fuse the elements together. This is the main reason why fusion is currently
still a future dream of power on earth and only presently observable in stars.

Conclusion
Hydrogen is an extremely dangerous substance, due in part to its extreme explosive
flammability, its asphyxiating nature in its pure form and its cryogenic properties. However, the
potential that is either already realised in it’s mass use of production in industry, power and
infrastructure alongside its potential to unlock a new age of clean power production for humanity
could allow hydrogen to be one of the greatest achievements humanity could unlock. This report is
extremely generalised and not all of the information on this topic could be added, so you are urged
to further research this topic if you are interested. For the sources from which this report was
generated, please check below and be aware that not all sources could’ve been or have been linked.
Thank you for reading.

Created By: Aly Tamer Zaghloul, 10D, MNS.

References:
 https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/ask_astro/stars.html#961112a
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen
 https://www.universetoday.com/26656/composition-of-the-earths-atmosphere/
 https://socratic.org/questions/what-percentage-of-the-earth-s-atmosphere-is-hydrogen
 https://web.archive.org/web/20080213144956/http://www.sc.doe.gov/bes/hydrogen.pdf
 https://davidgamecollege.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/hydrogen-to-which-chemical-group-
does-it-belong/
 https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/uses-of-hydrogen-part-1-industry/
 https://hydrogeneurope.eu/hydrogen-industry
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_production
 https://hydrogeneurope.eu/hydrogen-production-0
 https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production
 https://phys.org/news/2019-08-scientists-hydrogen-gas-oil-bitumen.html
 https://www.britannica.com/science/crude-oil
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_reforming
 https://www.nwnatural.com/Residential/Safety/gaseducation/thestoryofnaturalgas
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas
 Chemistry Notes
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water
 https://www.homesciencetools.com/article/saltwater-circuit-project/
 https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-ionic-equation-605262
 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/chemical-reactions-stoichiome/types-of-
chemical-reactions/a/complete-ionic-and-net-ionic-equations
 https://www.britannica.com/science/electrolysis
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemical_industry
 https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/petrochemical-industry
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodealkylation
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization
 https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zshvw6f/revision/5
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)
 https://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/alkanes/cracking.html
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrocracking
 https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=9650
 https://www.gasworld.com/asia-leads-global-refinery-hydrocracking-capacity-
growth/2019055.article
 https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-hydrogenation-process-reaction.html
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process
 https://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html
 https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/types-of-renewable-energy/hydrogen/
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/liquid-hydrogen
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion#Process
 https://science.howstuffworks.com/fusion-reactor1.htm