Smart LV Distribution Networks: An Approach for
Power Flow Formulation with Smart Home Models
Efrain Bernal Alzate, Jian Xie
Institute of Energy Conversion and Storage, University of Ulm, Germany
Abstract—In the case of low voltage (LV) distribution
networks, the inclusion of smart homes is expected to increase the
systems complexity due to multiplicity of interacting users with
autonomous use of energy and the highly penetration of
photovoltaic (PV). Consequently, the shift towards smart LV
distribution systems implies that the traditional unidirectional
power flow formulation and control strategies are not more
realistic and flexible enough. At this aim, a systematic approach
for modeling and simulation of smart LV distribution networks
was developed to address this problem. It integrates a new power
flow formulation, a high-resolved power demand model for smart
homes and controllable PV inverters, allowing the simulation and
analysis of more realistic LV distribution systems. It is used
initially to estimate the benefits and future impacts of smart
homes in the LV distribution system in Germany. The
methodology can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of actual
voltage control strategies in diverse scenarios on the smart LV
distribution networks.
Keywords—LV distribution network, smart home; power flow;
high resolved load profile; photovoltaic.
I. INTRODUCTION
The smart grid conceptualization involves the need for
realization of the smart home concept [1]. The current
electricity distribution systems treat them as passive loads. In
the future, however, household items will be fully automated
systems and users of the electricity grid will be involved more
actively in the grid [2]. Current trends available in the
literature, concentrate solely on the chance of annual mean
daily demand profile, the implications as active part of the
energy market, or some home automation considerations as:
automatic meter, load management algorithm (HEM),
telecommunications, i.e. The problem with all these models is
that they are rarely integrated to represent a more realistic
smart home model. In contrast, a different approach is taken
here, including a high resolved smart home power demand
model presented in [20] into the LV distribution network
simulation and interacting with smart PV inverters to support
decentralized or centralized reactive power (VAR) control
methodologies.
In addition, it is clear that conventional control methods
with unidirectional power flow analysis will no longer be
effective to handle LV renewable energy sources. Then,
new strategies are called for modeling the bidirectional flow
incurred by the smart homes [24]. At this aim, an approach to
the formulation of load flow equations is developed; taking
into account the non-fix classification for the buses with
presence of smart homes and the transfer function that can be
extracted from the state-space representation of the
978-1-4799-5115-4/14/$31.00 (c)2015 IEEE
distribution system. This provides a more complete
mechanism to analyze smart LV distribution networks.
The methodology presented in this paper improves
significantly the models for LV distribution networks
proposed in [3]-[7]. The model is suitable for examination of
smart home interaction and the impact on the feeder profile at
different PV penetration levels, with fixed or time of use
(TOU) rate tariff and for different smart home setups.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II,
presents the approach for the power flow formulation and
illustrates a comparison analysis of a IEEE 30- and 57-bus
system to validate the proposed method. A detailed
presentation of the smart LV distribution model is given in
Section III. The experimental setup and simulation results are
illustrated in Section IV. Section V describes the conclusions
drawn from the study carried out in this paper and suggests
some guidelines for the future work.
II. POWER FLOW FORMULATION FOR SMART LV
DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
The special features of smart LV distribution networks
stem from the multiphase and unbalanced nature of the
configurations due to the unbalanced distribution load and
distributed generation represented by the PV-smart home
penetration. As systems become more complex, representing
them with single phase model becomes cumbersome [22],[24].
This is even more true, if the system has non-differentiable
P-Q and P-V buses as the case of the connection points in
presence of smart homes [31]. Those are mitigated by
applying a power flow formulation based on the state space
representation of the system and it’s transfer function as the
Ybus matrix. This is feasible using the connection point of the
smart homes with their respective smart meters, as follows.
A. Load flow equations
The origins of the power flow formulation and the solution
based on Newton-Raphson’s technique are back to the late
1960 [10],[12]. Since then, a huge variety of studies have been
presented about the solution of the power problem [23]. In
particular, the proposed method by Trias [14] bases the power
flow formulation in the steady state equations of the power
systems and solve them with techniques of complex analysis.
It is observed that this unified approach is more robust for
real-time applications and does not depend on the reevaluation
of the Jacobian matrix as in other classical methods [10]-[13].
At this aim, the state-space representation of the
distribution system is used at first, to calculate the transfer
function F of the system and then, to solve the power flow
problem within a numerical iterative technique.
The general form for the state space representation of a
system is formulated as a set of nonlinear equations
•
x (t ) = Ax ( t ) + Bu (t ) (1)
y (t ) = Cx (t ) + Du ( t )
then, the transfer function F can be obtained by simple
algebraic manipulations of (1) as follows:
F(s) = Y(s) /U(s) = (C.B.(sI-A)-1 +D) (2)
Consider the distribution system with N buses described by
the voltage-current relationship of the system in terms of the
bus voltages U = [U1,…,UN]’, the currents I = [I1,…,IN]’ and
the admittance Ybus matrix, as follows:
I = Ybus . U (3)
Note that the analogy between (2) and (3) is
straightforward if one defines U(s) = U and Y(s) = I. Thus (2)
can be viewed as the Ybus matrix of the LV distribution Fig. 1. Flow chart of the proposed formulation for power flow analysis in
smart LV distribution networks.
system and can be evaluated for all different complex
distribution network topologies by using a Matlab® routine of active power and voltage magnitude on the one hand, and
based on the SimPowerSystems diagram of the system as reactive power and phase angles on the other [14].
Ybus = (C.B.(sI-A)-1 + D) (4) Furthermore, this functional formulation has a
Since the complex bus power is defined as straightforward solution and can be solved for all type of
network topologies without convergence problems. As
S = P+ jQ = U . I* (5) advantage, this formulation can be used to recalculate the
Hence, considering (4) and substituting (3) in (5), it is admittance matrix in case of temporary disconnection of sub-
possible to obtain the power as a function only of F and U by circuits, allowing the power flow estimation for control
strategies in real-time.
S = U. F*. U* (6)
B. Validation of the proposed method
Following the same argument, the value S for all buses i
can be rewritten as In order to validate the load flow formulation described
above, the respective power flow algorithm was implemented
N
S i * = U i * .㺌j =1 Fij .U j , for i = 1,...,N using MATPOWER Version 5.0, a package of Matlab for
solving power flow problems [26]. To ensure the validity of
(7) the results obtained, test results on the IEEE 30-bus and the
Equations (7) corresponds to the power flow formulation IEEE 57-bus system were validated against results obtained
for the system. As (7) are nonlinear and cannot be explicitly using different conventional load flow solution methods. A
inverted, a numerical iterative technique is used for the comparison was done, and the results obtained on each bus
solution of the load flow formulation, as show in Fig.1. were in agreement with the Newton-Raphson, Gauss Seidel
and Fast-Decoupled method.
Given an initial feasible vector S0, (7) can be written in
iterative form at the k-th iteration as: The final error obtained with the different methods in
reference with the voltage magnitude and angle at all the buses
reported by IEEE cases are given in Fig. 2. Table I presents a
S 0* Sk * comparison of the CPU times of the proposed Method, Gauss-
Uk+1 = +Uk (8) Seidel, Fast- Decoupled and Newton-Raphson method, for the
F .U k *
TABLE I
A explanation of (8) is given in Appendix A. Note that COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT METHODS FOR SOLVING
THE POWER FLOW OF THE IEEE BUS TEST CASES
although there are many state space representations of a
distribution system, all of those representations will result in Convergence time in seconds
the same transfer function F which corresponds in this case to METHODS IEEE 30 Case IEEE 57 Case
the Ybus admittance matrix. App method 0.01 0.01
Gauss-Seidel 0.21 0.41
Moreover, F only needs to be computed once, as all the
Fast- Decoupled 0.02 0.01
various decoupled methods based on Newton- Raphson [15]-
Newton-Raphson 0.01 0.02
[19], but no depends of the coupling between the new values

a. Voltage magnitude errors on IEEE 30-bus test case
b. Voltage angle errors on IEEE 30-bus test case
c. Voltage magnitude errors on IEEE 57-bus test case
d. Voltage angle errors on IEEE 57-bus test case
Fig.2. Comparison of measured errors at all the buses obtained with the
proposed formulation and conventional methods for power flow solution.
convergence tolerance E= 10-8. CPU times refer to an Intel
Core i5 running Matlab R2014a.
As expected, the proposed method, Fast-Decoupled and
Newton’s methods show comparable performances and are
generally faster than the Gauss-Seidel method.
III. STRUCTURE OF THE SMART LV DISTRIBUTION MODEL
In this section, the study aims to create a more realistic
model in SimPowerSystems on Matlab. The model includes
the most commonly used distribution systems components that
are important for modeling LV distribution systems.
The model was refined by adding the high-resolved smart
home profile as variable loads and controllable PV inverter
models. The details of these models are included in the
following subsections.
A. Low Voltage Grid Model
A model for an existing three-phase low voltage grid
section of a suburban area in Germany was used and deals as a
basis for the following simulations. The grid section comprises
57 households whereof 25 are smart homes equipped with a
scalable PV system. All main feeder cables are of type NYY
4x25mm2. The households have a three-phase connection with
a nominal line-to-neutral voltage of 230V. The voltage at the
secondary side of the transformer is considered to be 235V
during no load, which can be considered as a typical LV
transformer tap to avoid low voltages at the end of the feeder.
B. Smart Home load profile generation
The smart home model used in this paper is outlined below
and built on those presented by the same author in [20].
Variables such as a real-time price and storage systems are
now included into the present model.
At first, the model is able to reproduce the power activity
patterns of individual household members based on non-
homogeneous Markov chain and a German time use survey
(TUS) [35], which determines the vectors of probabilities for
the transition matrices of the Markov process. Subsequently,
the power activity by each household member is associated
with a home appliance to generate the electricity demand of a
single household consisting of multiple individuals.
Secondly, the model has been enhanced with a HEM
algorithm as shown in Fig. 3. The HEM algorithm responds to
changes activity patterns of individuals by, for instance,
turning appliances off or on as there are not used, controlling
the lighting with respect to a daylight level, as well as
Fig.3. Flow chart of the proposed load management (HEM) algorithm.
reducing the consume of energy according with the saving
projections presented in [36].
Another function included is the demand side management
for two specific scenarios: fixed tariff and TOU rate tariff. The
HEM algorithm is conceived to manage the energy produced
by a controllable PV inverter of 5kWh with or without 2kWh
-5kWh battery system support.
C. Variable Load Model
Typically, for modeling of LV distribution systems the
loads are assumed as constant power loads, focusing more on
the modeling of the generation units instead of the load design.
In contrast, in this paper the loads are variable and
representing the smart home power demand. This addition
improves the LV distribution model with respect to the
proposed in [28]-[-30]. The way to bring the high resolved
smart home model into the SimPowerSystems simulation is
with a variable load model.
To do that, a three-phase variable load is developed, rooted
in controlled AC current sources of value ǻI = ǻV/R, where
R is a variable linked to the output of the smart home model.
D. Controllable PV Model
Since 2011, the German feed-in tariff law has required
owners of small PV systems (less than 30kW) to either
support the local voltage by provision of reactive power and
active power curtailment or limit the active power output of
their systems to 70% of the installed PV capacity, if necessary
[27]. This requirement raises additional considerations from
the PV modeling perspective. Every smart home is equipped
with a 5kWp PV generator with a PV inverter model.
Hence, the proposed PV inverter model supports local PQ
control strategies as well central control strategies to optimize
the grid operation. A cartoon of the control scheme for the
developed smart inverter is show in Fig. 4.
the direct-axis and quadrature-axis current reference for the
inner loop, respectively. In short, the inner loop takes the
values from the outer loop and compares them to the Id and Iq
of common coupling point. The Vd and Vq values are obtained
by summing each respective PI output and cross term. The
inverse Park’s Transform is then applied to the Vd and Vq
values to obtain line voltages Va, Vb and Vc. These line
voltages are then fed to controlled AC voltage sources that
generate the output of the inverter signals.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
Assessing PV-smart home impacts necessitates concurrent
use of steady-state and dynamic simulation tools. A quasi-
static analysis [32] was developed involving time-series
statistical studies and solving sequential power flow with the
developed formulation per time step of interest within a
prespecified time frame.
Fig. 5a shows how the HEM algorithm leads to increase
the self-consumptions and thus to reduce the grid electricity
use in a sunny day for a smart home model. Using energy
storage shows a bridge between the peak demand and peak
generation. An example for fixed tariff and TOU tariff in a
a. Load management with 2kWh battery in a summer day

b. Load management with 2kWh battery and fixed tariff in a winter day

Fig.4. P-Q control inverter model.

The control system consists of two loops, an inner current

control loop and an outer power control loop. The outer loop
sets the real and complex power reference points Pref and
Qref. In general, voltage support is linked to the reactive
c. Load management with 2kWh battery and TOU tariff in a winter day
power delivery and frequency support is linked to the real
power delivered [37]. The output of the PI controllers become Fig. 5. Comparison of different types of load management scenarios.
winter day is show in Fig.5b and Fig. 5c. respectively.
Initially, the LV distribution system is simulated to analyze
the interaction of the proposed smart homes with the PV
inverters for a no-control scenario. The time domain behavior
of the principal nodal voltages for 5-day (Monday-Friday) are
presented in Fig. 6. It includes three smart home power
demand profiles in comparison with the daily solar power
generation. As unexpected, the magnitude of the voltage rise is
more than the voltage tolerance band, despite of the HEM
algorithm influence. This can be removed by implementing
conventional voltage regulation methods by using the PV
inverters, but it is not considered in the present study.
Fig. 6. The time domain behavior of the principal nodal voltages (Monday-
Friday) for selected three smart homes (SH3, SH13 and SH40) in comparison
with the daily solar power generation.
Fig. 7 presents an overall impact on the aggregated daily
demand profile. Using the current demand daily profile for
residential load in Bavaria-Germany reported by [38] as
normalized reference model, the analysis undertaken in this
study reveals that relative penetration of 1000 aggregated
smart homes can cause an elevated variation on the daily
demand profile. For fixed tariff scenarios, the variation on the
daily demand profile was up 44% with respect to the current
demand profile. Consequently, in the case of TOU rate tariff
scenarios, a critical variation for the peak and off-peak
transition period was found. This variation goes up 64% with
respect to the current demand profile pattern and 80% with
respect to the smart home demand profile pattern. This
represents a potential power and voltage rise in LV
distribution networks, and as result, the stability and
performance of the actual voltage control methods have to be
evaluated.
Fig.7. Projected demand profile variation in a summer day for the combination
of different scenarios: a reference scenario with PV, a reference scenario with
PV and 100% automations, 2kWh or 5kWh battery support, and fix tariff or
TOU rate tariff.
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
We introduced new systematic approach for modeling and
simulation of smart LV distribution networks. The proposed
model allows the simulation of the effects of smart home load
profile with different levels of photovoltaic penetration into
the LV distribution system. Moreover, a new formulation for
the power flow analysis based on the state-space
representation of the system was presented and validated.
We illustrate our approach by applying it on a LV
distribution network with high penetration of photovoltaic and
smart homes models in the case of Germany. The smart home
interactions and impacts on the feeder profile for different PV
penetration levels, with fixed or TOU tariff and for different
smart home setups was simulated and analyzed. The results
show highly realistic patterns that capture daily and annual
variations for the smart home profiles, the load fluctuations
and nodal voltages rises on the distribution system, which can
be more than the voltage tolerance band despite of the
inclusion of the HEM algorithm into the smart home model.
Besides, the analysis undertaken in this study reveals that
relative penetration of smart homes can cause an elevated
variation in the daily demand profile up to 44% with respect to
the current demand profile pattern for fixed tariff scenarios
and instantaneous variation up 64% for TOU rate tariff
scenarios.
Future work includes developing the smart LV distribution
model with voltage control integration to analyze the stability
and performance of different decentralized or centralized
control methodologies including the optimization of the
systems by using the PV inverters and the application in real
time.
 APPENDIX A [3] Casolino, G.M.; Di Fazio, A.R.; Losi, A.; Russo, M., "Smart modeling
and tools for Distribution System Management and operation," Energy
EXPLANATION OF (8) Conference and Exhibition (ENERGYCON), 2012 IEEE International ,
vol., no., pp.635,640, 9-12 Sept. 2012.
This appendix presents additional details of (8) through [4] Haifeng Liu; Licheng Jin; Le, D.; Chowdhury, A.A., "Impact of high
complex analysis. Considering the Wirtinger operators for a penetration of solar photovoltaic generation on power system small
complex function f as the linear partial differential operators of signal stability," Power System Technology (POWERCON), 2010
first order: International Conference on , vol., no., pp.1,7, 24-28 Oct. 2010.
[5] Mihet-Popa, L.; Han, X.; Bindner, H.; Pihl-Andersen, J.; Mehmedalic,
˜/˜z = ½(˜/˜x - j˜/˜y), ˜/˜z* = ½(˜/˜x + j˜/˜y) (9) J., "Grid modeling, analysis and simulation of different scenarios for a
smart low-voltage distribution grid," Innovative Smart Grid
And taking account the advantage of the Wirtinger Technologies Europe (ISGT EUROPE), 2013 4th IEEE/PES , vol., no.,
derivatives for a complex function f (z,z*), wherever it is pp.1,5, 6-9 Oct. 2013.
differentiable, as follows: [6] Mihet-Popa, L.; Koch-Ciobotaru, C.; Isleifsson, F.; Bindner, H.
* "Development of tools for simulation systems in a distribution network
˜f/˜z = 0 and ˜f/˜z = df /dz (10) and validated by measurements", Optimization of Electrical and
Electronic Equipment (OPTIM), 13th International Conference on, pp.
Thus, (7) can be rewritten in the following expanded form: 1022 ,1031, 2012.
˜S1*/˜U1 = F1,1.U1* [7] Mihet-Popa, L.; Han, X.; Bindner, H.; Pihl-Andersen, J.; Mehmedalic,
J., "Development and modeling of different scenarios for a smart
* *
˜S1 /˜U2 = F1,2.U1 distribution grid," Applied Computational Intelligence and Informatics
(SACI), IEEE 8th International Symposium on, pp.437,442, 2013.
... [8] Chun-Hao Lo; Ansari, N., "Decentralized Controls and Communications
* * for Autonomous Distribution Networks in Smart Grid," Smart Grid,
˜SN-1 /˜U1 = FN-1,1.UN-1 IEEE Transactions on , vol.4, no.1, pp.66,77, Mar. 2013.
... [9] Göran Andersson. Modeling and analysis of electric power systems.
ETH Zurich, Sept. 2012.
* *
˜SN-1 /˜UN-1 = FN-1, N-1.UN-1 (11) [10] J. B. Ward and H. W. Hale, “Digital computer solution of power-flow
problems,”Power Apparatus and Systems, Part III. Transactions of the
Note that (11) implies that: American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 75, no. 3, pp. 398–404,
Jan. 1956.
˜Si*/˜Uj = Fi , j .Um* for i =1, … ,N-1 and j=1, …,N-1 (12)
[11] F. De Leon and A. Sernlyen. Iterative solvers in the Newton power flow
Assume the tangent line to the function at a given point problem: preconditioners, inexact solutions and partial Jacobian updates.
using information from the derivative as Generation, Transmission and Distribution, IEEE Proceedings,
149(4):479 – 484, Jul. 2002.
y - f ( xi ) = f ’( xi ).(x - xi) (13) [12] W.F. Tinney, C.E. Hart, Power flow solution by Newton’s method,
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-86
then, (12) can be rewritten in iterative form at the k-th 1449–1460, Nov. 1967.
iteration for all buses i as follows: [13] C. S. Cheng and D. Shirmohammadi, “A Three-Phase Power Flow
Method for Real-Time Distribution System Analysis,” IEEE Trans.
Si,0 – Si , k = ˜S*/˜U (Uk +1 – Uk) Power Systems, vol. 10, no. 2,pp. 671–679, May. 1995.
= (˜Si*/˜U1)(U1,k +1 – U1,k)+… [14] Antonio Trias. The holomorphic embedding load flow method. IEEE
PES general meeting, Jul.2012.
+(˜Si*/˜UN-1)(UN-1, k +1 – U N-1,k) [15] B. Scott and O. Alsac, “Fast decoupled load flow”, IEEE Trans. Power
App. Syst., vol. PAS-93, no. 3, pp. 859-569, May. 1974.
= Fi ,1(U1, k +1 – U 1,k) Ui*+…
[16] F.C. Schweppe and D.B.Rom, “Power System Static State Estimation,
+Fi ,N-1(UN-1, k +1 – U N-1,k) Ui* (14) part-II: Approximation Model”, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. PAS-89, No. 1, pp. 125-130, Jan. 1970.
Finally, rearranging (14), the new voltage value Ui,k+1 for [17] Ying Chen and Chen Shen. A Jacobian-free Newton-GMRES(m)
the bus i can be defined as: method with adaptive preconditioner and its application for power flow
calculations. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on, 21(3):1096 –1103,
Aug. 2006.
S 0* Sk * [18] H. Dag and A. Semlyen. A new preconditioned conjugate gradient
Uk+1 = +Uk power flow. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on, 18(4):1248 – 1255,
F .U k * Nov. 2003.
[19] F. De Leon and A. Sernlyen. Iterative solvers in the Newton power flow
which implies (8). problem: preconditioners, inexact solutions and partial Jacobian updates.
Generation, Transmission and Distribution, IEEE Proceedings,
149(4):479 – 484, Jul. 2002.
REFERENCES [20] Alzate, E.B.; Mallick, N.H.; Jian Xie, "A high-resolution smart home
power demand model and future impact on load profile in Germany,"
[1] S. Nyborg and I. Røpke. Energy impacts of the smart home – conflicting Power and Energy (PECon), 2014 IEEE International Conference on ,
visions. Conference proceedings, Energy efficiency first: The foundation vol., no., pp.53,58, 1-3 Dec. 2014.
of a low-carbon society (ECEEE), pp.1849,1860. 2011. doi: 10.1109/PECON.2014.7062413
[2] Dimeas, A.; Drenkard, S.; Hatziargyriou, N.; Karnouskos, S.; Kok, K.; [21] Bundesnetzagentur (German regulator): “Smart Grid” und “Smart
Ringelstein, J.; Weidlich, A., "Smart Houses in the Smart Grid: Markets” Eckpunktepapier der Bundesnetzagentur zu den sich
Developing an interactive network.," Electrification Magazine, IEEE , ändernden Aspekten des Energieversorgungssystems (“Smart Grid” and
vol.2, no.1, pp.81,93, March 2014. “Smart Markets” White paper of Bundesnetzagentur regarding the
 changing aspects of the energy supply system), Bonn, 2012. Available:
http://www.bundesnetzagentur.de
[22] Andrei, H.; Chicco, G., "Identification of the Radial Configurations
Extracted From the Weakly Meshed Structures of Electrical Distribution
Systems," Circuits and Systems I: Regular Papers, IEEE Transactions on
vol.55, no.4, pp.1149,1158, May 2008.
[23] F. Milano. Continuous Newton’s method for power flow analysis. Power
Systems, IEEE Transactions on, 24(1):50 – 57, Feb. 2009.
[24] Balamurugan, K.; Srinivasan, D., "Review of power flow studies on
distribution network with distributed generation," Power Electronics and
Drive Systems (PEDS), 2011 IEEE Ninth International Conference on ,
pp.411,417, Dec. 2011.
[25] Kavranoglu, Davut; Bettayeb, M., "System theory properties of a new
general state-space representation," Decision and Control, 1994.,
Proceedings of the 33rd IEEE Conference on , vol.3, no., pp.2046,2047
vol.3, Dec. 1994.
[26] R. D. Zimmerman, C. E. Murillo-Sanchez, and R. J. Thomas,
“Matpower: SteadyState Operations, Planning and Analysis Tools for
Power Systems Research and Education," Power Systems, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 12,19, Feb. 2011.
[27] von Appen, J.; Braun, M.; Stetz, T.; Diwold, K.; Geibel, D., "Time in the
Sun: The Challenge of High PV Penetration in the German Electric
Grid," Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.11, no.2, pp.55,64,
March-April 2013.
[28] Stetz, T.; Marten, F.; Braun, M., "Improved Low Voltage Grid-
Integration of Photovoltaic Systems in Germany," Sustainable Energy,
IEEE Transactions on , vol.4, no.2, pp.534,542, Apr. 2013.
[29] Weckx, s.; Gonzalez, C.; Driesen, J. "Combined Central and Local
Active and Reactive Power Control of PV Inverters", Sustainable
Energy, IEEE Transactions on, On page(s): 776 - 784 Volume: 5, Issue:
3, Jul. 2014.
[30] W. Labeeuw and G. Deconinck "Residential electrical load model based
on mixture model clustering and Markov models" IEEE Trans. Ind.
Informat., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1561-1569, 2013.
[31] K. Turitsyn , P. Sulc , S. Backhaus and M. Chertkov "Options for
control of reactive power by distributed photovoltaic generators" Proc.
IEEE, vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 1063-1073, 2011.
[32] Katiraei, F.; Agu ero, J.R., "Solar PV Integration Challenges," Power
and Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.9, no.3, pp.62,71, May-June 2011.
[33] Pipattanasomporn, M.; Kuzlu, M.; Rahman, S., "An Algorithm for
Intelligent Home Energy Management and Demand Response Analysis,"
Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on, vol.3, no.4, pp.2166, 2173, 2012.
[34] Boynuegri, A.R.; Yagcitekin, B.; Baysal, M.; "Energy management
algorithm for smart home with renewable energy sources," Power
Engineering, Energy and Electrical Drives (POWERENG), Fourth
International Conference on, pp.1753, 1758, 2013.
[35] Ehling, M., Erlend, H. and Kahle, I.“Erhebungsdesign der
Zeitbudgeterhebung 2001/2002”, Statistisches Bundesamt – Wirtschaft
und Statistik, , 427-436, 2002.
[36] Energieagentur Nordbayern- Bund Naturschutz in Bayern e.V.
“Electricity potential savings in Bavaria 2010-2030“. 2012. Available:
http://www.bundnaturschutz.de/fileadmin/download/
energie/Stromsparen/EinsparpotentialStromBayern_BN.pdf
[37] Ojeda, A.” A load shedding scheme for inverter based microgrids”.
Thesis (M. Eng.). Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2011.