1.

INTRODUCTION
• Water is the greatest resource of humanity. It
helps not only in survival but also makes life
comfortable & luxurious
• The largest use of water in the world is made for
irrigating lands
• When sufficient and timely rainfall does not
become available to the crops, crop yield reduces,
creating famine and disasters.
• Thus, irrigation can save us from famine

By: Zewdu T. 1
 1. INTRODUCTION…
Definitions of irrigation
• A continuous and reliable water supply to
different crops in accordance with their needs
• The process of artificial application of water to the
soil for the growth of agricultural crops
• The art or science of artificial application of water
to the land in accordance with the crop
requirements during periods of ‘less rainfall’ or
‘no rainfall’ so as to obtain optimum crop yield
• It is the supplementation or replacement of
rainwater with another source of water
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
• It is a science of planning and designing a water
supply system for agricultural land to protect
crops from bad effects of drought or low rainfall
• Therefore, irrigation should give a response for
the questions: when to apply, where to apply,
how much to apply and why for?
• Irrigation eng’g is the technology adapted for
controlling and harnessing the various sources of
water by construction of different structures
• Irrigation system: a system which involves
planning, designing, construction, operation &
maintenance of various irrigation works
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Functions of irrigation water
• Supplies moisture partially or totally to crops for
optimum yield and enhances chemical & bacterial
process during plant growth
• Facilitates continuous cropping
• Cools the soil & the surroundings thus making the
environment favorable for plant growth
• Leaches excess salts (dilutes & washes out salts in
the soil)
• Enables application of fertilizers
• Reduces the adverse effects of frost on crops
• Softens clods (pans) & helps in tillage operation
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Necessity of irrigation
- In contrast to the ever increasing population, per
capita availability of land is dwindling, making
irrigation absolutely necessary. Thus, the following
factors govern necessity of irrigation
• Insufficient rainfall: when the RF is less than the
minimum requirement of crops
• Uneven distribution of rainfall: when the RF is not
evenly distributed both temporally & spatially
• Growing perennial crops: Some crops like sugar cane,
cotton require water throughout the year
• Need for increasing production intensity: Increasing
yield per unit area per year
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
• Development of agriculture in desert areas: agriculture
in desert areas where the RF is scanty
• The need for insurance against drought
Scope of irrigation engineering
• Irrigation engineering is not only limited to application
of water to the land for raising crops
• includes all aspects and problems extending from the
watershed to the agricultural fields
• Specifically, it deals with: hydrology, river engineering,
design and construction of dams, weirs, canals and
various other hydraulic and irrigation structures
• It also deals with surface and sub surface drainage
system, soil reclamation, water-soil-crop relationships
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Aspects of irrigation engineering
a) Water resources & hydrology - involves locating
various water sources of a given area to obtain
information on:
- The quantity of surface water that will be available
at reservoir site for storage
- Maximum discharge at river site &
- Reservoir capacity that ensures adequate quantity
of water for various purposes
- Quantity of groundwater that can be economically
exploited By: Zewdu T. 7
 1. INTRODUCTION…
b) Engineering aspect- involves construction of
various irrigation structures such as
-Dams, diversion head works, distribution
structures and minor irrigation schemes
c) Agricultural aspect – involves irrigation practice
and investigating agricultural characteristics of
the land
d) Management aspect-deals with successful
implementation and efficient management of
engineering and agricultural works
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Benefits/advantages of irrigation
• Increase in crop yield: yield can be increased by
supplying water in controlled manner
• Protection from famine: ensures protection against
failure of crops or famine due to drought
• Cultivation of superior (cash) crops: with assured
supply of water, farmers may be motivated to
cultivate superior variety of crops
• Elimination of mixed cropping:
- Mixed cropping is growing two or more crops in the
same field to reduce risk of crop failure in rain-fed
agriculture
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- Various crops need different field preparation,
amount of water & fertilizer/manure.
- Hence, mixing reduces the overall production of the
field
- Therefore, it is not generally acceptable unless
irrigation facilities are lacking.
• General prosperity (economic development):
- With assured irrigation, the farmers get higher
returns by producing crops throughout the year,
- Tax collected from these farmers helps in all-round
development of a country
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• Hydro-electric power generation:
- Canal outlets from dams & canal falls due to elevation
differences can generate electricity as a side product
using bulb-turbines
• Domestic & industrial water supply:
- If other sources of water are scarcely available, nearby
areas may utilize water from irrigation canals
• Facilities of communications:
- Dams and large irrigation channels are generally
provided with inspection roads & embankments.
Hence, provide a good road way to the villagers
• Inland navigations
• Development of fishery
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Disadvantages/ill-effects of irrigation
• Water logging (raising of water table):
- Over-irrigation and excessive seepage from canal beds &
banks may raise water table & reduce yield
• Pollution of water resources (SW & GW):
- Drained water from irrigated area may pollute surface
water as it carries fertilizers & pesticides
- Nitrates applied as fertilizers, may seep into
groundwater and if the water is consumed, it may
cause disease (anemia)
• Formation of marshy area:
- Seepage & leakage from canals may form marshy lands
along the course and cause breeding of mosquitoes
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• Dampness in weather:
- Temperature of the command area & the
surroundings may be much lowered & become
damp causing cold and cough to people
• Loss of valuable land & displacement of people:
- Land is submerged when dams or barrages are
constructed for storage
- loss due to canal construction
- People are usually displaced from retention areas
• Complexity & expensiveness:
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Irrigation methods
Surface Pressurized Subsurface

Flow Lift
Sprinkler Natural
Flooding
Drip/Trickle Artificial
Border
Basin
Furrow
Check By: Zewdu T. 14
 1. INTRODUCTION…
When the source of water is at higher elevation
than the command area & the water is supplied by
the action of gravity, then it is called flow irrigation
When water is lifted from surface or underground
sources by man or animal power, mechanical or
electrical power, it is known as lift irrigation
- Wells & tube wells can be used for this system
- Unlike vast areas, isolated small areas can be
irrigated by this method
When mechanical or electrical power is
unaffordable to farmers, lifting of water from
surface sources can be done manually.
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Sprinkler irrigation method
• The water is applied to the land in the form of spray
• It is similar to natural rainfall. Water is pumped
through a pipe system and then sprayed at a rate
lower than the infiltration rate of a soil through
rotating sprinkler heads.
• The spraying of water is achieved through a
pumping unit, network of main pipes, sub-main
pipes and lateral pipes

By: Zewdu T. 16
1. INTRODUCTION…

By: Zewdu T. 17
 1. INTRODUCTION…

Sprinkler irrigation method

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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Drip irrigation method
• It is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves
dripping water onto the soil at very low rates through
emitters or drippers
• The system consists head, main, sub-main, laterals &
drop nozzles
• Water is applied slowly close to the plant roots
• Most efficient but most expensive method and hence
applicable in water scarce areas.
• water with sediment impurities should not be used
for drip as it may cause clogging of emitters
• It is more economical for orchards & unsuitable for
closely planted crops like wheat & barely
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Drip irrigation system By: Zewdu T. 20

 1. INTRODUCTION…
Subsurface irrigation method
• The practice of applying water to the root zone of
plants below the ground surface by capillary action
• The main advantage is reduction evaporation losses
and less hindrance to farm operations
Conditions which favor sub irrigation:
• The soil in the root zone should be quite permeable
• There should be an impermeable substratum below
the water table to prevent deep percolation
• There must be abundant and salt free water
• Uniform topographic conditions & moderate G.slope
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Artificial subsurface irrigation
• Suitable water table is maintained just below the root
zone of plants by providing perforated pipe laid in a
network pattern at a desired depth
• Applicable only if the soil in the root zone has high
horizontal permeability to permit free lateral
movement and low vertical permeability to prevent
deep percolation
• The pipes are required to be spaced very closely buried
not less than about 0.5m below the ground surface
• Not popular because of its high cost and possibility of
clogging of the perforations
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 1. INTRODUCTION…

Artificial subsurface irrigation

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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Standard (quality) of irrigation water
• Objective of irrigation water quality assessment is
to choose appropriate water treatment & soil
management options
• Surface, ground and treated waste (municipal,
industrial, agricultural) water is generally used for
irrigation purpose
• Some irrigation waters can damage crops, soil,
surface & ground water, & human health
• Thus every water is not suitable for plant life
• The impact of irrigation water on soil & water
depends on the water, soil and crops
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
• The quality of irrigation water mainly depends on the
type and contents of dissolved & un-dissolved
substances
• Absolutely pure water cannot be expected for
irrigation. But, the following impurities which make
the water unfit for irrigation should be analyzed & be
within the acceptable limits
1. Sediment concentration in water
• The effect of sediment depends on its size & the type
of land (soil) to be irrigated
• Thus, fine grained sediments may improve fertility of
light soils (sand) but may adversely affect
permeability & aeration x-cs of heavy soils (clay)
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
• Excessive sediment also creates trouble in canals &
reservoirs. So, water should not contain excess sedimnt
2. Concentration of soluble salts-total dissolved solid
• Salt is a combination of +vly charged cat ions & -vly
charged anions
• Salts are supplied to the soil by irrigation, geologic
sources(soil parental material), fertilizers, manures e.t.c
• The salt in water may not appear harmful at beginning
of irrigation. But, it becomes harmful with passage of
time. Why?
• Water with high salinity is toxic to plants and can result
in a “physiological drought ” condition with consequent
reduction in yield if salt inputs exceed outputs
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
• Water salinity is usually measured by electrical
conductivity (EC) or total dissolved solids (TDS)
• EC is actually a measurement of electric current and
is reported in mmhos/cm, μmhos/cm & dS/m (mili
mohs per cm, micro mohs per cm, deci Siemens/m)
• The effect of salts on plant growth depends largely
upon the total amount of salts in the soil solution
• The higher the EC or TDS, the higher the salt hazard
• Salinity concentration of the soil solution (Cs) after
the consumptive use (Cu) has been extracted from
the soil is given by:
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
where Q = quantity of water applied
Cu = is consumptive use of water i.e. the
total amount of water used up by the plant for its
growth.
Peff = useful rainfall
Cu - Peff = used up irrigation water
C = concentration of salt in irrigation water
C*Q = the total salt applied to the soil with
Q amount of water
Cs is measured in PPM being equal to mg/l
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Classes of EC Values at
250C Use in irrigation
water (μmhos/cm)
ow Conductivity 100-250 •Can be used for almost all crops & soils
C1)= Excellent •May require slight leaching

Medium 250-750 •Can be used with moderate leaching

onductivity (C2)-
ood
igh conductivity 750-2250
C3)-Permissible
.high cond.(C4) >2250
•Normal salt tolerant plant can be grown
•Cannot be used on soils with restricted
drainage-leaching is obiligatory
•Only high salt tolerant plants can be
grown
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
What problems are caused by excess soluble salts
on crop yield & quality?
 Damage plants through an osmotic effect; water
movement from lower salt concentration (plant
root) to an area of higher salt concentration (soil)
causing water stress & wilting
Irrigation water with slats can desiccate (burn)
leaf tissue when applied to foliage
Salts deposited on crops can cause leaf & fruit
discoloration, reducing market value
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Leaf burn due to application of saline water foliage

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Crop tolerance to salinity
• Salt damage is related to crop sensitivity. High EC
irrigation water can affect tomato than wheat
yield.
• Crop tolerance can changes with crop growth
stage. Plants are most sensitive to elevated EC
levels at germination than maturity
• High air temperature, intense sunlight, and/or low
humidity can worsen leaf burn and salinity effect

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Salinity management strategies
• Leaching – application of water in excess of crop
water requirement to flush out salt below root zone
• Dilution (blending) – mixing saline water with non-
saline
• Frequent irrigation
-Salt concentration in the soil increases as water is
extracted by crops
– short irrigation interval helps to keep salts in solution
& making lower concentration than in crop roots
• Adopting salt tolerant crops
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3. Proportion of sodium ions to other cations
• Proportion of sodium ions present in the soil is
measured by Sodium adsorption Ratio (SAR)
• SAR is the ratio of sodium to calcium & magnesium
• SAR is a tool for evaluating sodium hazard
• Too much sodium relative to calcium & magnesium
in water can damage soil structure
• The higher the SAR, the greater the sodium hazard
• It is calculated as:

• All cations are expressed in milli equivalents per

liter (meq/L) By: Zewdu T. 34
 1. INTRODUCTION…
• Use of water with high SAR leads to adsorption and
attachment of sodium to soil particles resulting in
breakdown of the physical structure of the soil
• Sodicity causes dispersion of soil particles, surface
crusting and pore plugging. Hence, obstructs
infiltration and plants roots may not get adequate
water, despite pooling of water on the soil surface
after irrigation
• High sodium soils are plastic & sticky when wet,
and they crust on drying
• SAR can be reduced by addition of gypsum (CaSo4)
to the water or to soil.
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Class of water SAR Use in irrigation
values
Low sodium < 10 •Can be used on almost all soils &
crops except Na sensitive (fruits &
water (S1) avocados)
Medium 10-18 •Hazardous in fine textured soils
but may be used on coarse
sodium water (S2) textured or organic soils with
good permeability
High sodium 18-26 •Harmful on almost all soils
water (S3) and require good drainage,
leaching, gypsum
Very high Na >26 •Generally not suitable for
water (S4) irrigation
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
4. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC)
• RSC is another predictor of sodium hazard of water
• It is the sum of carbonates (CO-23+HCO-3) minus the
sum of the divalent cations (Ca+2 + Mg+2)
• Carbonates in water + soil calcium= calcium
carbonate (lime deposit in soil)
• As water RSC increases, so does the need for
monitoring pH & the rate of water infiltration into
soil
• Water with an RSC above 1 usually requires
amendments to decrease RSC
• Gypsum is added to reduce RSC & SAR
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Lime deposition
• Evaporation of water, loss of CO2 as a gas, increased
temperature & increased pH reduce solubility of
lime in water, and lime deposition from irrigation
water occurs
lime deposition can cause the following problems:
• Lime deposited in irrigation distribution systems
(e.g pipes, tubes or emitters) cause plugging
• The presence of lime on fruits & vegetables reduce
their marketability
• High concentration of lime can precipitate
phosphorus or micronutrient fertilizers
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5. Concentration of potentially toxic elements
• Elements such as Boron, selenium, Chloride, e.t.c can
damage crops
• Small quantity of Boron is essential to plant growth
but B concentration >0.5ppm is dangerous to certain
plants.
• B concentration >4ppm is harmful even for the most
tolerant crops
• Boron generally exists in various soaps. Thus, waste
water containing soap should be used with care
• Selenium, even in low concentration is toxic
• Excess Cl deposited on leaves causes leaf burn but
can be reduced by planting less sensitive plants,
avoiding leaf contact & rinsing the plants after
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6. Bi-carbonate concentrations
• High concentration of bi-carbonate ions may results
in precipitation of calcium and magnesium from the
soil solution, increasing the relative proportion of
sodium ions and causing sodium hazard
7. Bacterial contamination
• The bacterial contamination of irrigation water is
not directly harmful to plants, but the food grains or
fruits grown by using bacterial contaminated water
may be harmful to human being if eaten directly
with out being cooked
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Irrigation development in Ethiopia
Historical background
• Although Ethiopia has abundant rainfall and water
resources, its agricultural system does not yet fully
benefit from water resources.
• The majority of rural dwellers in Ethiopia are among
the poorest in the country, with limited access to
agricultural technology
• Improved water management for agriculture has
many benefits in reducing vulnerability and
improving productivity By: Zewdu T. 41
 1. INTRODUCTION…
Primary rationales for developing the irrigation
sector in Ethiopia:
■ Increased productivity of land and labor
■ Reduced reliance on rainfall, thereby mitigating
vulnerability to variability in rainfall
■ Reduced degradation of natural resources
■ Increased exports
■ Increased job opportunities, and promotion of a
dynamic economy with rural entrepreneurship.

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 1. INTRODUCTION…
• Water resource development (WRD) was
established in 1956 to undertake river basin
development studies, particularly for Nile basin
• However, irrigation development remained
concentrated in Awash valley
• Since 1962 different organizations focusing on
water & agriculture development were established
-Awash valley authority (AVA)-1962
-National water resources commission-1971
-Valleys agricultural development authority-1977
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• Prior to the mid-1980s, irrigation in Ethiopia was
concentrated on the production of commercial
crops, principally cotton and sugarcane on large
state farms
• The 1984 drought had a considerable impact on
Ethiopia’s development policy & top priority to
agricultural development was given
• Ministry of Water Resources organized irrigation
schemes of Ethiopia under four categories in 2002
based on ownership

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 1. INTRODUCTION…
1. Traditional small scale schemes
• Can range from 50 to 100 ha
• Built and operated by farmers in local communities
with technical and material support from gov’t
• Water users’ associations / committees manage the
schemes and
• Such schemes covered an estimated total area of
60,000ha in 1992
2. Modern communal schemes
• Range from 100 to 200 ha and built by government
agencies with farmer participation
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
• These schemes are generally based on run-of -
diversion of streams and rivers and may also involve
micro dams for storage
• Technical support including maintenance is done by
government
3. Modern private schemes
• Range up to 2000ha
• Owned and operated by private investors: individually,
in partnership, or as corporations
4. Public Schemes
• Over 3,000 ha,
• Owned and operated by public enterprises as estate
farms
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Recent studies categorized existing irrigation schemes
of Ethiopia under three based on size:
Small scale-irrigation (SSI)
• are often community-based and traditional
methods, covering less than 200 ha
• Examples of SSIs include household-based RWH,
hand-dug wells, shallow wells, flooding (spate) &
individual household-based river diversions
• The responsible body for these schemes is MoARD
and the regions
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Medium-scale irrigation (MSI)
• Are community based or publicly sponsored,
covering 200 to 3,000 hectares
• Examples of MSIs include the Sille, Hare and Ziway
irrigation schemes
Large-scale irrigation (LSI)
• Cover more than 3,000 ha
• commercially or publicly sponsored.
• Examples of LSIs include the Wonji-shoa, Methara,
Nura Era and Fincha irrigation schemes
• MSI and LSI are under control of the MoWR
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Irrigation potential in Ethiopia
• Water resources management for agriculture includes
both support for sustainable production in rain-fed
agriculture and irrigation
• Ethiopia has 12 river basins with an annual runoff
volume of 122 billion m3 of water and an
• As compared to surface water resources, Ethiopia has
lower ground water potential(2.6 - 6.5Bm3)
• However, by many countries’ standard the total
exploitable groundwater potential is high
• The total potential irrigable land in Ethiopia is
estimated to be between 3.7-5.3 million ha assuming
use of existing technologies
• Current irrigation schemes cover about 640,000 ha
across the country By: Zewdu T. 49
 By: Zewdu T. 50
Irrigation potential in Ethiopia by river basin
1. INTRODUCTION…

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• The distribution of the surface water potential
breakdown by size is 5%SSI, 9%MSI and 86%LSI
• However, master plan studies focus mainly on medium
and large-scale irrigation development, with little on
small-scale irrigation and none related to RWH
Abbay River Basin
• Has the major sub-basins of Anger, Beles, Dabus,
DebreMarkos, Didesa, Dindir/Rahid, Fincha, Guder,
Jemma, Lake Tana, Mota, and Muger
• The total mean annual flow from the river basin is
estimated to be 54.8 BMC
• Covers parts of Amhara, Oromia andBen-Gumuz
regional states. By: Zewdu T. 52
 1. INTRODUCTION…
Awash River Basin
• Awash River originates from Central West part of
Ethiopia
• It is relatively the most utilized river basin and the
only river entirely in the country
• Covers parts of the Amhara, Oromia, Afar, Somali
regional states, and Dire Dawa, and Addis Ababa
City administrative states of the country
• The total mean annual flow from the river basins is
estimated to be 4.9 BMC
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Denakil River Basin
• Covers Tigray, Amhara and Afar regional states
• The total mean annual flow from the river basins is
estimated to be 0.86 BMC
Genale Dawa River Basin
• Covers parts of Oromia, SSNRP, and Somali regions
• The total mean annual flow from the river basins is
estimated at about 5.8 BMC
Wabi Shebele River Basin
• Covers parts of the regions Oromia, Harari and Somali
• The total mean annual flow from the river basins is
estimated at about 3.16 BMC
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Baro Akobo River Basin
• Covers parts of the Ben-Gumz,Gambella, Oromia,
and SNNPR
• The total mean annual flow from the river basins is
estimated to be 23.6 BMC
Tekeze River Basin
• Covers parts of the Amhara and Tigray regional
states
• The total mean annual flow from the river basins is
estimated to be 8.2 BMC
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 1. INTRODUCTION…
Omo Ghibe River Basin
• Covers parts of the SNNPR and Oromia.
• The total mean annual flow from the river basin is
estimated at about 16.6 BMC
Rift Valley Basin
• Covers parts of the Oromia, SNNPR regions.
• The total mean annual flow from the river basins is
estimated at about 5.6 BMC
Other River Basins (Mereb, Aysha and Ogaden)
• Aysha and Ogaden basins are relatively considered as
dry in most cases with seasonal river flows.
• Their potential in terms of irrigation development is
considered not so significant
• Mereb Basin is small in size, having about 0.65 BMC
By: Zewdu T. 56