chapter-2

Electrical Circuits
Electrical Circuits
 Electrical Circuits/Chapter-2
Introduction:
We use Ohm’s law to analyze simple electrical circuits, but
when the circuits are complex , we use Kirchhoff’s law to solve them,
i.e., to find the values of currents, voltages and resistances in different
branches of the circuits. It has two laws.

i) Kirchhoff’s first law or Kirchhoff’s current law(KCL):

ii) Kirchhoff’s second law or Kirchhoff’s voltage law(KVL):

Kirchhoff’s current law(KCL):

Kirchhoff’s current law: it states that in any
network of the conductors, the algebraic sum of
currents meeting at a point is zero. It simply means
that the total current leaving a junction is equal to
the total current entering that junction. This law
follows from the principle of conservation of
charge and so it is called Kirchhoff’s current law.
Explanation: let us consider 5 currents meeting at a junction P
of the network as shown in figure. Let us adopt the following
sign conversions for determine the algebraic sign of different
currents. All current entering the junction would be taken as
positive whereas those leaving it would be taken as negative.
a/c to the above convention, I1 and I4 would be taken as
positive whereas I2, I3 and I5 would be taken as negative.
Using Kirchhoff’s of current law we have,

I1+(-I2)+(-I3)+I4 +(-I5)=0
or, ∑I=0
Also, taking the negative of the expression on one side and
positive sign on other side,
I1+ I4=I2+I3+I5
Incoming current =outgoing current, i.e., Iin=Iout
Kirchhoff’s second law or voltage law(KVL):

Explanation: let us consider a complex circuit as given below.

To find the current at the various part of the circuit, we use
Kirchhoff’s law. Let us consider that the direction of emf and
current flow in anticlockwise direction is taken as positive and
clockwise direction as negative.
Applying KVL in loop, ABCFA,
Solving these three equations, we can calculate the values of: I1 , I2
and I3 . This law follows from the principle of conservation of energy.

Wheatstone Bridge:
Wheat stone bridge’s principle: it is an electronic device which measures
accurate resistance of the conductor. It measures unknown resistance with the
help of known resistance. Let P, Q and R be three known resistances and X be
the unknown resistance connected in quadrilateral shaped closed electric
circuit and the two junctions of the quadrilateral are connected with battery and
the remaining two junctions are connected with a galvanometer( null
deflection).This condition is called balanced condition.

At this condition, current through the galvanometer, Ig = 0 and,

P X
=
Q R
This is Wheatstone Bridge’s principle.
Determination of the balanced condition for the bridge:
Let us consider four resistances arranged in quadrilateral form. When it is connected
with battery then current is divided into two parts i.e I1 and I3 passing through the
resistance P and Q. Similarly I2 and I4 are passing through resistance X and R
respectively as shown in fig.

Fig. Wheatstone bridge circuit

In the closed loop ADBA, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we can write,
P.O.Box:
The instrument was designed to measure the resistance of telegraph
wire in post offices and that’s why it is named as post office box. The P.O
Box works on the principal of Wheatstone bridge to identify resistance
of unknown wires. A very low resistance is not measured by P.O box.

P X
=
Q R

This is Wheatstone
Bridge’s principle used in
P.O. Box.

Fig. Wheatstone bridge circuit

Fig. Experimental circuit of P.O. Box used in physics laboratory.
Meter Bridge:
Meter bridge is an electronic device which is used for measuring unknown resistance
and working on the principle of Wheatstone bridge at balance condition. It consists 1
meter long wire having uniform cross-sectional area and low temperature coefficient
of resistance. A resistance box R is connected in the left gap between the strips and
unknown resistance X to the right as shown in figure.

Fig(i) Meter bridge Fig(ii) Equivalent Wheatstone bridge circuit

A galvanometer is connected with the point D which lies in between R
and X and is also connected with jockey which moves over the wire
between A and C. In figure, B is the point where the jockey touches the
wire which varies along the wire. A meter scale is fixed on the board
along the AC which is used to measure the balance length. A battery is
connected across the bridge to maintain the circuit and null point is
obtained on moving the jockey along the wire.

According the principle of Wheatstone bridge,

P
Q = R
X or, Re sis tan ce of length AB
Re sis tan ce of length BC = R
X
We have formula, R = ρ Al , then for P, P = ρ. Al i.e., P α l

For Q, Q = ρ. ( 100A−l) i.e., Q α (100-l)

Since the wire has uniform cross-sectional area(A)and ρ is constant, its
resistance is directly proportional to the length of wire i.e. P α l and Q α
(100-l) then, we have from above equation,

( 100 −l)
l
(100 −l ) = R
X or, X= l .R
This expression is used to measure the resistance of unknown
resistance.
Potentiometer:
Actual figures of a potentiometer are as follows.
Potentiometer and its principle:

Fig(ii) Simplified form of a potentiometer

Fig(i) Potentiometer
Principle of potentiometer:
it states that when the current is passed through a conductor having
uniform cross-sectional area then the potential drop(V) on any part of
the wire is proportional to its length (‫ )ﺎ‬at balanced condition. i.e.,
Vα‫ﺎ‬

where k is a constant and we can write,

Vα‫ﺎ‬
This is the principle of a potentiometer.
Determination of internal resistance of a cell:
The internal resistance of a cell is determined by using a potentiometer.
Let us consider a cell of emf E connected with the potentiometer whose
internal resistance (r) is to be determined.
Principle: when the current is passed through a conductor having
uniform cross-sectional area then the potential drop(V) on any part of
the wire is proportional to its length (L) at balanced condition. i.e.,
VαL

Fig. Circuit diagram for the determination of internal resistance of a cell

The positive terminal of E is connected to point A where the positive
terminal of driving cell is connected and negative terminal to
galvanometer. A resistance box R is connected with parallel to the cell
with key. A steady current is passed through the wire by the driving cell.

First of all the key K is opened and the emf E of cell is balanced in the
wire of the potentiometer. Let the balanced point be obtained at S and
the length from A to S is L1. Then E is balanced by p.d (VAS ) i.e.,
E=VAS
According to principle of a potentiometer, V α L , i.e., VAS α L1
so, E α L1……………………………….1
Since the resistance R is provided by resistance box(R.B) and the key is
closed, a current I1 will pass in the closed circuit of E and R. Then a
terminal p.d V is obtained across the cell which is again balanced by the
p.d in the potentiometer wire. Let S’ be the point at which null
deflection is obtained and p.d. across AS’ be VAS’ .
so, V = VAS’
If L2 is the length of the portion AS’ of the potentiometer wire, then
VAS’ α L2
or, V α L2………………………………….2
Dividing Equation 1 by Equation 2, we get
E
V = L1
L2
…………………………….3

Since, E=I1( R +r) and V=I1R , we can write equation 3 as,

R +r
R = L1
L2
Or,
r
R +1= L1
L2
(L1 − L 2 )
Or, r =[ L2 ].R
By measuring all the quantities on R.H.S, we can calculate the internal
resistance of the cell.
Comparison of emf of two cells:
The emf of two cells can be compared using a potentiometer as
discussed below.
Principle: when the current is passed through a conductor having
uniform cross-sectional area then the potential drop(V) on any part of
the wire is proportional to its length (L) at balanced condition. i.e.,
VαL

Fig. Circuit diagram for the comparison of emf of two cells

let us consider two cells having emf E’ and E” connected with
potentiometer for the comparison of emf as shown in figure.

Let E be the emf of a driving cell to maintain a steady current in

potentiometer circuit. The positive terminals of E, E’ and E” are
connected to the point A and the negative terminals of E’ and E” to the
galvanometer through the keys as shown in figure. The other terminal of
the galvanometer is joined to a jockey which moves on the
potentiometer wire . Here , E is greater than E’ and E”.

Let us consider that one cell E’ is connected in the circuit by closing the
key K’ and E” is opened by K”. The jockey is sliding along the wire
between AB to find the null point. When the jockey is at P nearer to the
A on the wire, the length of portion AP is smaller and hence the
potential difference is also smaller. Since the emf E’ is grater than VAP
,current flows through the galvanometer and deflection occurs in the
opposite direction.
Again when the jockey is placed at Q nearer to the point B, the length of
portion AQ is greater and hence the potential difference is also greater.
Since the emf E’ is smaller than VAQ ,current flows through the
galvanometer and deflection occurs in the opposite direction. and
current flow through the galvanometer and deflection occurs in the
opposite direction. This shows that the circuit is correct. On moving
jockey on the wire AB, we find a point R (say) at which the galvanometer
shows null deflection at which the potential difference at R (i.e., VAR ) is
equal to E’ and no current flows. Let the balanced length be L’.

So, E’= VAR

According to principle of a potentiometer, V α L , i.e., VAR α L’
From above equations, we can write:
E’ α L’ ………………………………1
Similarly if the process is repeated for the next cell E”, then we have
E” α L”……………………………….2
 Dividing Eq. 1 by Eq. 2, we have:

E'
E '' = L' ………………………………3
L''

Hence by measuring all the quantities on R.H.S, the ratio of emf of the
two cells can be determined.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Short question-answer and numerical problems

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The end