D E S I G N O F CONCRETE BLOCK REVETMENTS

S U B J E C T TO WAVE ACTION

A literature r e v i e w

K A P o w e l l , N W H A l l s o p and M W O w e n

R e p o r t N o S R 54
J u n e 1985

Registered Office: Hydraulics Research Limited.

Wallingford, Oxfordshire 0 x 1 0 8BA.
Telephone: 0491 35381. Telex: 848552
T h i s r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s work c a r r i e d o u t by members o f t h e C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g
Group of H y d r a u l i c s R e s e a r c h u n d e r Commission B f u n d e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f
A g r i c u l t u r e , F i s h e r i e s and Food, n o m i n a t e d o f f i c e r Mr A Allison. A t the
t i m e of r e p o r t i n g t h i s p r o j e c t , H y d r a u l i c s R e s e a r c h ' s nominated p r o j e c t
o f f i c e r was D r S W H u n t i n g t o n .

T h i s r e p o r t is p u b l i s h e d on b e h a l f of t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e , F i s h e r i e s
a n d Food, b u t any o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d a r e t h o s e of t h e a u t h o r s o n l y , a n d n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y t h o s e of t h e m i n i s t r y .

@crown C o p y r i g h t 1985

P u b l i s h e d by p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e C o n t r o l l e r o f Her M a j e s t y ' s S t a t i o n e r y
Off i c e .
ABSTRACT

A l i t e r a t u r e review haa been conducted i n t o t h e d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s f o r

c o n c r e t e block revetments i n a c o a s t a l environment. Both permeable and
r e l a t i v e l y impermeable a t r u c t u r e a have been conaidered, but no account haa
been taken of c a b l i n g o r i n t e r l o c k i n g of t h e blocks. The v a r i o u s h y d r a u l i c
loading mechaniama have been o u t l i n e d .

Expreasiona intended t o allow t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of wave p r e a s u r e s and f o r c e s

a r e preaented. However, many of t h e s e a r e i n a form u n a u i t a b l e f o r d e s i g n
work, based a s they a r e on e m p i r i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t s w i t h l i t t l e f i r m
juatification.

The r e p o r t l i s t s a number of s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a f o r both t h e p r o t e c t i v e

o u t e r l a y e r and t h e f i l t e r l a y e r a of c o a s t a l revetmenta. The h y d r a u l i c
performance i s a l s o diacueeed. Recommendations a r e made f o r f u r t h e r work,
i n t h e form of model a t u d i e a , t o improve both t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of
the a v a i l a b l e design guidelines.
Area of c o n c r e t e revetment b l o c k
T h i c k n e s s of f i l t e r l a y e r
V e l o c i t y of sound i n w a t e r
E m p i r i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t r e l a t i n g t o revetlnent s t a b i l i t y
Shape c o e f f i c i e n t s p e c i f i c t o b l o c k t y p e
Nominal sub-base s o i l p a r t i c l e diameter
Nominal f i l t e r p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r
T h i c k n e s s of c o n c r e t e b l o c k s
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e t h i c k n e s s of i n c l u d e d a i r c o n t e n t of
b r e a k i n g waves
E l a s t i c i t y of w a t e r
Mean e l a s t i c i t y of a i r
A c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y
Nominal wave h e i g h t
B r e a k i n g wave h e i g h t
S i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t
I r i b a r r e n number
P e r m e a b i l i t y of f i l t e r l a y e r s
P e r m e a b i l i t y of b l o c k l a y e r
Empirical s t a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t
Empirical s t a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t
E m p i r i c a l s t a b i l i t y number i n Hudson e q u a t i o n
P e r m e a b i l i t y of g e o t e x t i l e f i l t e r l a y e r
C o e f f i c i e n t of wave r e f l e c t i o n
P e r m e a b i l i t y of s u b - s o i l
Deepwater wave l e n g t h
Revetment s l o p e i n c l i n a t i o n (= t a n a )
Nominal g e o t e x t i l e p o r e s i z e
Maximum shock p r e s s u r e due t o wave i m p a c t s
Empirical slope coefficient
H y d r a u l i c r a d i u s of wave i m p a c t a r e a
C o e f f i c i e n t of u n i f o r m i t y of s o i l
Wave b r e a k e r v e l o c i t y a c t i n g normal t o r e v e t m e n t s l o p e
Weight of i n d i v i d u a l armour b l o c k
D i s t a n c e from b r e a k e r c r e s t t o bed
Angle of r e v e t m e n t s l o p e t o h o r i z o n t a l
PS - P
R e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of b l o c k (= )
P
Shock p r e s s u r e number
Seepage l e n g t h
D e n s i t y of water
D e n s i t y of armour block
 Page

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
1.2 Extent of review
1.3 Outline of report

HYDRAULIC LOADING CONDITIONS

2.1 General
2.2 External loading
2.3 Quasi-static pressure differences
2.4 Wave impact loading
2.5 Internal stability of revetment

S'rABLLITY DESIGN CRITERLA

3.1 General
3.2 Concrete block stability criteria
3.3 Filter layer stability criteria
3.4 The generation of additional stability
3.5 Discussion on block stability

HYDRAULIC PERFORMANCE OF REVETMENT SLOPES

4.1 General
4.2 Wave run-up
4.3 Wave overtopping
4.4 Wave reflection
4.5 Conclusions

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

1. Schematic representation of failure mechanisms of slope

revetments, after ~ilarczyk(')

2. Wave impact pressure distributions

3. Slope coefficients as a function of revetment slope

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s t a b i l i t y o f t h e r e v e t m e n t as i s t h e d e s i g n o f t h e
protective surface layers.

Impermeable revetment f a c i n g s g e n e r a l l y p r e v e n t t h e
f l o w of water t h r o u g h t h e s t r u c t u r e . They a r e ,
t h e r e f o r e , u n s u i t a b l e f o r use on permeable s o i l s
u n l e s s d r a i n a g e o u t l e t s and f i l t e r u n d e r l a y e r s a r e
provided t o r e l i e v e t h e i n t e r n a l h y d r o s t a t i c
p r e s s u r e s , w h i c h would o t h e r w i s e s e v e r e l y s t r e s s t h e
structure. The s u c c e s s of a n y i m p e r m e a b l e r e v e t m e n t
f a c i n g must d e p e n d o n i t s a b i l i t y t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n
of t h e s u b s o i l d u e t o t h e f i n e s b e i n g washed o u t . On
exposed c o a s t a l sites w i t h a wide v a r i a t i o n i n water
l e v e l s a n d o n dam f a c e s s u b j e c t t o r a p i d drawdown i t
may w e l l p r o v e i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e t h e n e e d For
a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e w i t h t h e i m p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e
structure. T h e r e f o r e revetment f a c i n g s impermeable t o
wave a c t i o n a r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d f u r t h e r i n t h i s
review.

1.2 Extent of review

T h i s r e v i e w a i m s t o draw t o g e t h e r a n d s u m m a r i s e t h e
a v a i l a b l e k n o w l e d g e o n t h e d e s i g n OF c o n c r e t e b l o c k
c o a s t a l r e v e t m e n t s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r s t a b i l i t y and
h y d r a u l i c performance. Although t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are l i m i t e d t o ' l o o s e ' b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s
without e i t h e r i n t e r l o c k o r c a b l i n g , t h e i n f l u e n c e of
t h e s e f a c t o r s o n t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e r e v e t r n e n t i s
q u a n t i f i e d where p o s s i b l e . No m e n t i o n i s made of t h e
d e s i g n of t o e beams o r of a n c h o r a g e s F o r t h e r e v e t m e n t
structure; i t i s however a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h i s t o p i c
w i l l b e c o v e r e d i n a f u r t h e r r e p o r t . As p r e v i o u s l y
s t a t e d , s t r i c t l y impermeable revetment f a c i n g s have
n o t b e e n c o n s i d e r e d ; r e l a t i v e l y low p e r m e a b i l i t y
s t r u c t u r e s c o m p r i s i n g of t i g h t l y F i t t e d c o n c r e t e
b l o c k s a r e , however, i n c l u d e d . D i s t i n c t i o n s a r e drawn
between r e v e t m e n t s s i t e d on permeable and impermeable
s u b s o i l s , and t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r f i l t e r l a y e r s
a r e a l s o reviewed, b u t o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t o which
they apply t o c o a s t a l revetments.

D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h i s r e v i e w i t q u i c k l y became
a p p a r e n t t h a t a v a r i e t y of d i E f e r e n t m e a s u r e s of wave
h e i g h t ( i e a maximum a n d s i g n i f i c a n t h e i g h t f o r random
waves a n d a r e g u l a r wave h e i g h t ) had b e e n u s e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e . However, i n many
cases, t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e a s u r e o f wave h e i g h t u s e d was
not e x p l i c i t l y d e c l a r e d . Thus, i n t h i s r e p o r t , where
a wave h e i g h t was c l e a r l y d e f i n e d i t i s s o u s e d ,
however w h e r e t h e r e i s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r
m e a s u r e of wave h e i g h t i t i s d e f i n e d i n t h i s r e p o r t as
H , a n o m i n a l d e s i g n wave h e i g h t .
1.3 O u t l i n e of r e p o r t
The h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g mechanisms f o r r e v e t m e n t s under
wave a c t i o n a r e reviewed i n C h a p t e r 2. P a r t i c u l a r
r e f e r e n c e i s made t o q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s
and t o wave impact l o a d s on s l o p e d r e v e t m e n t s .
Chapter 3 p r e s e n t s c u r r e n t d e s i g n formulae f o r both
t h e p r o t e c t i v e armour l a y e r and t h e f i l t e r u n d e r l a y e r s
of c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s . Methods of improving
t h e s t a b i l i t y a r e b r i e f l y reviewed, and, where
p o s s i b l e , a n e s t i m a t e of t h e p o t e n t i a l s t a b i l i t y g a i n
i s g i v e n . The h y d r a u l i c performance of c o n c r e t e b l o c k
c o a s t a l r e v e t m e n t s i s c o n s i d e r e d i n C h a p t e r 4. The
l i m i t e d number of r e f e r e n c e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e wave
run-up, o v e r t o p p i n g and r e f l e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e reviewed and t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a
compared t o t h a t f o r impermeable r e v e t l n e n t s .
T e n t a t i v e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s f o r c o n c r e t e block
r e v e t m e n t s a r e s u g g e s t e d . C h a p t e r 5 draws t o g e t h e r
t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a r i s i n g from t h i s review.
Recommendations a r e made f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h
f o l l o w i n g which d e t a i l e d d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s may be
formulated.

2 HYDRAULIC WADING
CONDITIONS

2.1 General
The p r i n c i p a l f o r c e s on c o a s t a l r e v e t m e n t s a r e t h o s e
due t o t h e a c t i o n of waves. These waves may be
b r o a d l y c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s , t h a t i s
l o c a l l y g e n e r a t e d wind waves and d i s t a n t l y g e n e r a t e d
s w e l l waves. The h e i g h t of l o c a l l y g e n e r a t e d waves
depends p r i n c i p a l l y upon,

a) t h e wind s p e e d

b) t h e d u r a t i o n f o r which i t h a s been blowing

c) t h e e f f e c t i v e f e t c h l e n g t h o v e r which i t a c t s

d) t h e a v e r a g e d e p t h of w a t e r o v e r t h a t f e t c h

e) the pre-existing sea s t a t e .

The h e i g h t of s w e l l waves a l s o depends on t h e s e

p a r a m e t e r s but measured a t t h e d i s t a n t l o c a t i o n a t
which t h e waves were g e n e r a t e d , and a t a l l
i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s on t h e i r r o u t e t o t h e c o a s t . Over
l o n g d i s t a n c e s s w e l l waves a r e s u b j e c t e d t o two
g r a d u a l c h a n g e s , t h a t i s a l o s s of h e i g h t and a n
i n c r e a s e i n wave p e r i o d . This increase i n period i s
of p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e f o r c o n c r e t e b l o c k
r e v e t m e n t s , where t h e s t a b i l i t y i s s t r o n g l y d e p e n d e n t
on wave p e r i o d .
 As w a v e s p r o p a g a t e f r o m d e e p t o s t ~ a l l o w e rw a t e r t h e y
a r e s u b j e c t t o a number o f e f f e c t s w h i c h r e s u l t i n t h e
w a v e s b o t h s t e e p e n i n g and s w i n g i n g r o u n d t o a p p r o a c h
t h e c o a s t more n o r m a l l y . T h i s s t e e p e n i n g o f t h e w a v e s
i n c r e a s e s up t o a c r i t i c a l l i m i t a t w h i c h t h e waves
break. F o r waves b r e a k i n g on a s l o p e s e v e r a l
d i f f e r e n t b r e a k e r t y p e s c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d d e p e n d i n g
upon t h e wave s t e e p n e s s a n d t h e g r a d i e n t o f t h e s l o p e .
T h e s e are s p i l l i n g , p l u n g i n g , c o l l a p s i n g and s u r g i n g
b r e a k e r s . These breaker types w i l l d i f f e r both i n
t h e i r e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i n t h e
f o r c e s t h e y e x e r t upon t h e s l o p e . The b e h a v i o u r o f
s u c h b r e a k e r t y p e s i s d i s c u s s e d by many a u t h o r s . F o r
further d 1s t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d t o
Peregrine

2.2 External loading

The s t a b i l i t y of a c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t i s
d e p e n d e n t upon b o t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
r e v e t l n e n t a n d upon t h e l o a d s a p p l i e d t o i t . S i n c e t h e
r e v e t m e n t may f a i l by e r o s i o n o f i t s f i l t e r l a y e r s
u n d e r medium b u t f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r i n g l o a d s , a s w e l l
a s by d i r e c t e x c e s s i v e l o a d i n g , p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e
s h o u l d be a t t a c h e d t o t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f
s p e c i f i c l o a d s a t s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s OII t h e s t r u c t u r e .
T h e s e l o a d s a r e , however, d i f f i c u l t t o q u a n t i f y and
f o r h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g , a t l e a s t , are s u b j e c t t o a
number of v a r i a b l e s :

- wave h e i g h t s a n d p e r i o d s

- a n g l e o f wave a t t a c k

- t y p e a n d l o c a t i o n o f b r e a k i n g wave

- g r o u p i n g of waves

- wave r u n - u p

- tidal levels

- currents

~ t e p h a n ( ~c o) n s i d e r s t h a t t h e r e a r e two main
c a t e g o r i e s o f wave l o a d i n g o n r e v e t m e n t s :

a) s h e a r f o r c e s t a n g e n t i a l t o t h e s l o p e produced by
wave run-up/run-down

b) compressive f o r c e s normal t o t h e s l o p e produced

by wave i m p a c t l o a d i n g s a n d q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
ef f e c t s

pilarczyk(') g o e s f u r t h e r t h a n t h i s and i d e n t i f i e s
e i g h t s e p a r a t e l o a d i n g mechanisms f o r c o n c r e t e b l o c k s
u n d e r wave a c t i o n . T h e s e mechanisms a r e shown
s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 1 a n d o u t l i n e d below.

Mechanism 1:- A f t e r t h e wave h a s b r o k e n a n d t h e wave

run-up h a s r e a c h e d i t s maximum l e v e l , t h e w a t e r o n t h e
s l o p e s t a r t s t o f l o w b a c k u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of
gravity. During t h i s phase t h e p r e s a u r e s on t h e
r e v e t m e n t are reduced. I f , h o w e v e r , t h e r e v e t m e n t is
h y d r a u l i c a l l y r o u g h t h i s r e t u r n f l o w may r e s u l t i n
s e c o n d a r y d r a g , i n e r t i a and l i f t f o r c e s .

Mechanism 2:- D u r i n g t h e r e t u r n f l o w s t a g e w a t e r may

p e n e t r a t e between t h e b l o c k s i n t o t h e f i l t e r l a y e r s .
S i n c e t h e wave run-up i s g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e
wave draw-down, r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t i l l w a t e r l e v e l ,
seepage i n t o t h e revetment can t a k e p l a c e over a
l a r g e r a r e a t h a n s e e p a g e o u t of t h e r e v e t m e n t .
Consequently, t h e r e is a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e p h r e a t i c
l e v e l w i t h i n t h e f i l t e r l a y e r s , and through t h i s a n
i n c r e a s e i n t h e u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s on t h e r e v e t m e n t .
T h i s e f f e c t i s , h o w e v e r , d e p e n d e n t upon t h e r e l a t i v e
p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e c o n c r e t e block l a y e r and t h e
f i l t e r l a y e r s , a n d upon t h e g e o m e t r y of t h e r e v e t m e n t .
I t i s a l s o c u m u l a t i v e f o r a number o f w a v e s .

M e c h a n i s m 3:- A s t h e f o l l o w i n g wave a p p r o a c h e s t h e
s l o p e a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e s l o p e
o c c u r s . T h e s e p r e s s u r e s may t h e n b e t r a n s m i t t e d
t h r o u g h t h e f i l t e r l a y e r i m m e d i a t e l y i n f r o n t of t h e
wave r e s u l t i n g i n a n i n c r e a s e i n u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s
beneath t h e revetment. These u p l i f t pressures w i l l ,
however, o n l y o c c u r o v e r a l i m i t e d a r e a immediately
a d j o i n i n g t h e wave f r o n t .

M e c h a n i s m 4:- P r i o r t o t h e wave b r e a k i n g t h e r e a r e
a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e changes o c c u r r i n g i n t h e waves'
i n t e r n a l v e l o c i t y f i e l d as t h e s t r e a m l i n e s s t a r t t o
c u r v e upwards. These changes can r e s u l t i n a
r e d u c t i o n of p r e s s u r e s a b o v e t h e r e v e t m e n t w h i c h , i n
turn, w i l l lead t o an increase i n the pressure
gradient across the structure.

Mechanism 5:- I f t h e wave b r e a k s o n t h e s l o p e i t

w i l l c a u s e a n impact l o a d i n g , which w i l l r e s u l t i n a
severe, but short-lived increase i n pressure. This
i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e can be t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e
f i l t e r l a y e r s l e a d i n g t o t h e occurrence of
near-instantaneous u p l i f t pressures beneath the
revetment.

Mechanism 6:- A f t e r t h i s s h o r t l i v e d phenomenon

t h e r e i s a sudden, l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e a s a
r e s u l t o f t h e mass of t h e wave f a l l i n g b a c k o n t o t h e
s l o p e . T h i s p r e s s u r e may p r o p a g a t e t h r o u g h t h e f i l t e r
l a y e r s , j u s t i n f r o n t o f t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e wave
 b r o k e , a g a i n l e a d i n g t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e of u p l i f t
p r e s s u r e s on t h e r e v e t m e n t .

Mechanism 7:- S u b s e q u e n t t o t h e mass of t h e wave

s t r i k i n g t h e r e v e t m e n t t h e r e Inay be a l a r g e r e d u c t i o n
i n p r e s s u r e s on t h e s l o p e , even t o t h e e x t e n t of
n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e s ( i e , below a t m o s p h e r i c ) occurring.
T h i s phenomenon c a n be a s c r i b e d t o t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s of
t h e a i r p o c k e t e n c l o s e d w i t h i n t h e b r e a k i n g wave. The
e x t r e m e l y low p r e s s u r e s g e n e r a t e d may i n t h e ~ n s e l v e s be
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f a i l u r e of t h e r e v e t m e n t a s a
r e s u l t of t h e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t
across it.

Mechanism 8:- A f t e r t h e wave h a s broken run-up a g a i n

t a k e s p l a c e . D u r i n g t h i s l a s t s t a g e p r e s s u r e s on t h e
r e v e t m e n t i n c r e a s e . T h e r e a r e , however, no c r i t i c a l
c o n d i t i o n s p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e s l o p e i s smooth and
b l o c k s have n o t been p a r t l y r a i s e d a s a r e s u l t of
previous pressure e f f e c t s .

The Dutch "Guide t o C o n c r e t e Dyke Revetments" ( 8 ) ,

(CUR-VD) c o n c l u d e s t h a t l o a d l n g mechanisms 2 and 3
( q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s , and p r e s s u r e s due
t o t h e a p p r o a c h i n g wave f r o n t ) a r e of p a r t i c u l a r
i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e s t a b i l i t y of l o o s e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s .
CUR-VB a l s o e m p h a s i s e s t h a t t h e l o a d i n g mechanisms
l i s t e d above c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y , and
c o m b i n a t i o n s of t h e s e mechanisms w i l l o c c u r and may be
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f a i l u r e of t h e r e v e t m e n t .

2.3 quasi-static
pressure
differences
The D e l f t H y d r a u l i c s and S o i l l l e c h a n i c s l s b o r a t o r l e s
have j o i n t l y d e v e l o p e d a m a t h e m a t i c a l model f o r
r e v e t m e n t s t a b i l i t y under q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
differences. T h i s model i r i e f l y reporteq8Py den
Boer, K e n t e r and P i l a r c z y k t g P and by CUR-VB . The
model, a l t h o u g h c l a i m e d t o be a b l e t o cope w i t h a l l
t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c phenomena d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 2 . 2 ,
h a s s o f a r o n l y proved r e a s o n a b l y s u c c e s s f u l i n
p r e d i c t i n g pore p r e s s u r e s f o r mechanisms 2 and 3. It
h a s , however, d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e
p e r m e a b i l i t y between t h e p r o t e c t i v e s u r f a c e l a y e r and
t h e u n d e r l y i n g f i l t e r l a y e r s i s of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o
t h e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y of t h e r e v e t m e n t . It i s
s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y may b e s t be
e x p r e s s e d i n terms of a n o t i o n a l s e e p a g e l e n g t h , h,
as

h = s i n a (bD k F)#
 leqnamos e s ~ u a s a ~ dnou a ~ eInmloj a q l l o q l
s ~ s a % % n's D s o 3 l e q l u o y ~ d m n s s eaq3 II'ITM' p u e '3
IluaTsTjjaos all2 0 3 s z . 0 30 anIeA e s a q y l x e ( 8 ) ~ ~ - n n 3
' e ~ n m l o j a q l pauyelqo p m x a L e ~ ~ a p uan~ q e a m l a d
e uo d l r ~ r q e l sy ~ o ~ a l aql J u o 3 30 s r s L ~ e u em n y l q y ~ r n b a
~ y l s y ~ d m yes l n o p a y l l e 3 sell ( O 1 ) y d z s ~ ~ ~pua y d syqq o ~
.sluaullaAal y ~ o ~a l aq l 3 u o 3 30 u a ~ s a pa q l l o j , , s ~ s a ~
Iapom aims m o l j s l I n s a l a q l uodn d ~ u y e mLIaa 02 aAeq
auo Buyaq amyl a q l l o j , , le111 s a p n l 3 u o 3 EA-Hn3
'paapul . s a x n l = n l l s q3ns j o u a ~ s a pall2 or) uo$$)e 3 y ~ d d e
palyolyI L ~ u oj o aq 01 maas p p o n 27 l u a s a ~ d
l e snqL aapem aq 02 l y 30 luautssasse p a I y e 2 a p alom
e n o I I e 01 p a q s y ~ q n du o y l e m x o 3 u ~ luaTsy33nsuy uaaq s e q
a l a q l s a l n I y e j l u a a l a A a x 30 BuTpuelsxapun i n o Buypye
uy a s n snoyAqo 30 s y p p o m IesTlemaqaeu ay2 qBnoq31-q
paanpax uaqq
a l e s a l n s s a l d a l o d a q l ' l a ~ a n o q ' l u a m l a ~ a x aqq
aIqeamxad alom a q l s a s e a x a u y IaAaT IeuyBylo s l y
aAoqe a 3 e 3 l n s 3y3ealqd ueam aq3 j o uoyleAaIa a q l (q
sasealxp l a d e ~
1 a J I y j aqq j o ' s s a u y ~ y q l 10 ' L l y ~ y q e a u l a d aq3 pue
s a s e a l 3 u y 1 a L q a 3 e j l n s a q l 30 L ~ y ~ y q e a o l aadq l
s e s a s e a i 3 a p 1uamaaAal aqa oa aBemep 30 y s y l a q l (e
: u n e l p aq 01
suoysnTJuo3 B u y n o ~ ~ oa qj l p a n o I I o o s I e s e q Iapom aqJ
. u o y l e s y j y ~ d a y s l a ~uo
o aq 1aAanoq Lem s y q ~
x a d q x a a T y j aqa 30 d a y ~ y ~ e a m a aaq3
d sy 7
s7301q a l a x 3 u o s aqa 30 ssauq3yqa aqa s y a
 c o n s e r v a t i v e d e s i g n approach. However, i n t h e
d e r i v a t i o n of t h e f o r m u l a no a c c o u n t was t a k e n of t h e
e f f e c t s of f r i c t i o n , r e l a t i v e s u r f a c e l a y e r f f i l t e r
l a y e r p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o r of t h e f i l t e r l a y e r t h i c k n e s s .
Furthermore the formula i s only a p p l i c a b l e t o
q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g s and d o e s n o t i n c l u d e
l o a d i n g s d u e t o wave i m p a c t p r e s s u r e s .

Blaauw e t a1( l 1 ) p r e s e n t a v e r y s i m i l a r f o r m u l a f o r
t h e d e s i g n of r e v e t m e n t s o n i n l a n d w a t e r w a y s : -
H = cos a
n KI
where K I i s a n e m p i r i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t d e p e n d i n g upon
f r i c t i o n / i n t e r l o c k b e t w e e n b l o c k s a n d upon
t h e p o r o s i t y of t h e r e v e t m e n t

F o r s h i p waves s u g g e s t e d v a l u e s o f K a r e 0 . 2 f o r f r e e
b l o c k s and 0.15 f o r b l o c k s w i t h t h e j o i n t s i n f i l l e d
w i t h g r a v e l . Although t h e formula supposedly i n c l u d e s
t h e wide r a n g i n g p e r m u t a t i o n s of F r i c t i o n a n d
permeability within a s i n g l e c o e f f i c i e n t , i t does n o t ,
b e i n g d e v e l o p e d For s h i p w a v e s , i n c l u d e t h e e f f e c t s of
wave p e r i o d . Indeed, n of t h i s formula with
t h a t d e v e l o p e d by P i l a rcompaff8?
czyk i n d i c a t e t h a t Blaauw' S
f o r m u l a i s v a l i d o n l y f o r o n e p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e of t h e
I r i b a r r e n number ( I r = 1 . 2 5 ) , a n d c a n n o t , t h e r e f o r e ,
b e c o n s i d e r e d a p p l i c a b l e t o r e v e t m e n t s s u b j e c t t o wind
a n d f o r s w e l l waves.

2.4 Wave i m p a c t
loading
R e s e a r c h i n West Germany by ~ t e ~ h a n ( ~ a n)d , B o e l k e a n d
~ e l o t i u s ( l ~h a) s t e n d e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e wave
i m p a c t l o a d i n g of r e v e t m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n o n
quasi-static pressure differences. Stephan, i n a
s e r i e s o f model t e s t s , q u a l i t a t i v e l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r e s s u r e s , r e s u l t i n g f r o m wave
i m p a c t s , For a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t r e v e t m e n t
constructions. These p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e given
i n F i g u r e 2. I n t h e case of c l o s e d ( s o l i d )
r e v e t m e n t s , p r e s s u r e s g e n e r a t e d by t h e i m p a c t s h o c k
l o a d i n g c a n be t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e p r o t e c t i v e
s u r f a c e l a y e r v i a e x i s t i n g cracks. These pressures
may t h e n r e s u l t i n u p l i f t f o r c e s on t h e r e v e t m e n t
i t s e l f (Fig 2a). C o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s are l o a d e d
i n a s i m i l a r way, h o w e v e r i n t h i s c a s e , t h e a d j a c e n t
j o i n t s w i l l have a r e l i e v i n g e f f e c t , ( F i g 2b), t h e
e x t e n t of w h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e i n t e r b l o c k b o n d i n g . If
t h e b l o c k s are v e r t i c a l l y bonded ( F i g 2 c ) t h e r e w i l l
be a n i n i t i a l d a m p e n i n g o f t h e s h o c k p r e s s u r e s a s t h e y
p e n e t r a t e t h e revetment. Adjacent j o i n t s w i l l not,
h o w e v e r , be a b l e t o r e l i e v e t h e p r e s s u r e s t o t h e
e x t e n t t h a t would o c c u r w i t h b l o c k s w i t h o u t i n t e r l o c k
a n d t h e p r e s s u r e s , a l t h o u g h l e s s , would b e d i s t r i b u t e d
over a l a r g e r a r e a ( i . e . , t o more b l o c k s ) . F o r any
b l o c k r e v e t m e n t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of shock p r e s s u r e s i s
l a r g e l y dependent upon t h e s i z e of t h e b l o c k s , t h e
w i d t h of t h e j o i n t s and t h e p a t t e r n of t h e a p p l i e d
p r e s s u r e f i e l d produced by t h e wave a c t i o n . 1f t h e
s p a c i n g between t h e j o i n t s i s t o o s m a l l , a d d i t i o n a l
shock p r e s s u r e s may be t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a d j a c e n t
j o i n t s r e s u l t i n g i n a superimposition of the
determinative u p l i f t f o r c e s (Fig 2g). F i l t e r layers
a r e a l s o p a r t i c u l a r l y important t o the t r a n s m i s s i o n of
shock p r e s s u r e s , and p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i l l be
d i f f e r e n t f o r homogeneous s u b - s o i l s w i t h o u t f i l t e r
l a y e r s (Fig 2d), f o r sub-soils with f a b r i c f i l t e r s
( F i g 2 e ) , and f o r g r a n u l a r f i l t e r s ( F i g 2 f ) .

The d e g r e e of shock p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g from wave i m p a c t s

a p p e a r s t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y dependent upon t h e s l o p e of
t h e r e v e t m e n t , which t o g e t h e r w l t h t h e wave s t e e p
determines the breaker type. Boelke and R e l o t i u s ?f 99
c a r r i e d o u t a s e r i e s of model t e s t s on s l o p e s of
d i f f e r e n t i n c l i n a t i o n and c o n c l u d e d t h a t a 1 : 3 s l o p e
e x p e r i e n c e d t h e h i g h e s t and most f r e q u e n t shock
p r e s s u r e s from wave impact l o a d i n g . They a l s o found
t h a t f o r s l o p e s l y i n g between 1 : 4 and 1:6, t h e shock
p r e s s u r e s o c c u r r e d i n a n a r e a from O.hHs below s t i l l
w a t e r l e v e l t o 0.3Hs above s t i l l w a t e r l e v e l , wliere Hs
i s t h e s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t . On t h e s e s l o p e s t h e
maximum f r e q u e n c y o c c u r r e d 0.5Hs below s t i l l w a t e r
l e v e l . On s l o p e s f l a t t e r t h a n 1 : 3 t h e s h o c k p r e s s u r e s
were found t o be reduced by t h e dampening e f f e c t of
t h e r e t u r n i n g w a t e r from t h e p r e v i o u s wave.

A similar trend, hallow s l o p e s S o b s e r v e d by

G r e s l o u and Montaz f9147 and W h i l l o c k t l ' ~ , t h e l a t t e r
a l s o o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e maxi~num u p l i f t p r e s s u r e due t o
wave i m p a c t s o c c u r s t below t h e impact a r e a .
Boelke and R e l o t i u s ("5 a l s o carried out f i e l d t e s t s
t o c o n f i r m t h e i r model r e s u l t s . From t h o s e t e s t s t h e y
c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e random phenomenon of shock p r e s s u r e
i m p a c t s was b e s t d e s c r i b e d by a G a u s s i a n log-normal
distribution.

For s l o p e s s t e e p e r t h a n 1:1, F u h r b o t e r ( l 7 ) d e v e l o p e d
t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r t h e rnaxitnum shock p r e s s u r e ,
P,,,, due t o wave i m p a c t s :

wliere v i s v e l o c i t y a c t i n g normal t o t h e s l o p e ,
defined as:

and y b i s d i s t a n c e from b r e a k e r c r e s t t o bed

 n is slope i n c l i n a t i o n

c i s v e l o c i t y of sound i n w a t e r

a i s s h o c k p r e s s u r e number, = (r.
EL i s mean e l a s t i c i t y of a i r

E i s e l a s t i c i t y of w a t e r

R i s h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s of i m p a c t a r e a

D, i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t h i c k n e s s of t h e
included a i r content

p i s d e n s i t y of w a t e r

By making s e v e r a l s i m p l i f y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s a n d u s i n g
d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m a s t u d y of j e t i m p a c t s on s l o p e s ,
F u h r b o t e r t h e n reduced e q u a t i o n s 2 . 4 and 2.5 t o :

where H B i s t h e b r e a k i n g wave h e i g h t .

A similar e q u a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Dutch
p u b l i c a t i o n "The u s e of a s p h a l t i n h y d r a u l i c
engineering", (l8)

where H i s a n o m i n a l wave h e i g h t

g is a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y

q is an empirical factor relating to slope

T h i s e q u a t i o n h a s a much s i m p l e r d e r i v a t i o n t h a n t h o s e
of Fuhrboter. However, t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s l o p e i s
a c c o u n t e d f o r p u r e l y by a n e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r which may
b e p a r t l y d e p e n d e n t upon t h e t e s t c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r
w h i c h i t was o b t a i n e d . T y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r q a r e g i v e n
below:

Slope 4

I n g e n e r a l t h e v a l u e 6 g i v e n by t h e D u t c h t e n d t o c o v e r
t h e s l o p e s most commo~ily used i n c o a s t a l r e v e t m e n t s .
However, i t may b e p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e a s i n g l e s l o p e
 f u n c t i o n a p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h s t e e p and s h a l l o w s l o p e s
by c o m p a r i n g e q u a t i o n s 2.6 and 2.7. This y i e l d s ,

Values f o r t h e s e two s l o p e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e p l o t t e d
a g a i n s t s l o p e , t a n a, i n F i g u r e 3. Although a
possible line-of-best-fit i s shown, Inany more v a l u e s
a r e needed, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r s l o p e s shallower than
1: 1, b e f o r e t h i s t r e n d can be c o n f i r m e d .

I t s h o u l d be emphasised t h a t b o t h e q u a t i o n s 2.6 and

2.7 a r e r e l a t i v e l y unproven; t h e y c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e be
recommended f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s . Indeed,
s u b s t a n t i a l l y more r e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d b e f o r e t h e
shock p r e s s u r e s r e s u l t i n g from wave i m p a c t c a n be
e s t i m a t e d w i t h any c o n f i d e n c e .

2.5 Internal
s t a b i l i t y of
revetment
The i n t e r n a l s t a b i l i t y of a r e v e t l n e n t , t h a t i s t h e
s t a b i l i t y of i t s f i l t e r o r under l a y e r s , i s v i t a l l y
important t o t o v e r a l l performance of t h e s t r u c t u r e .
I n d e e d Stephant') c o n c l u d e s t h a t damage t o r e v e t m e n t s
r e p e a t e d l y o c c u r s because of t h e i n a d e q u a t e d e s i g n of
f i l t e r l a y e r s , none more s o t h a n i n t h e c a s e of
c o n c r e t e b l o c k s t r u c t u r e s l y i n g on f a b r i c f i l t e r s .

The manner i n which waves c o n s t i t u t e a d i r e c t e x t e r n a l

l o a d on a r e v e t m e n t , a s w e l l a s a n i n d i r e c t i n t e r n a l
l o a d , v i a wave i n d u c e d pore p r e s s u r e s , h a s a l r e a d y
b e e n d i s c u s s e d . However, t h i s i n t e r n a l l o a d i n g can
a l s o a c t d i r e c t l y on t h e f i l t e r l a y e r s a n d , i f s e v e r e
enough, can l e a d t o e r o s i o n of t h e f i l t e r l a y e r s and
hence t o t h e f a i l u r e of t h e r e v e t m e n t i t s e l f . The
mechanism f o r t h i s f a i l u r e l i e s w i t h t h e e x c e s s pore
p r e s s u r e s , w i t h i n t h e f i l t e r l a y e r s , r e s u l t i n g from
t h e p h r e a t i c s u r f a c e being unable t o immediately
f o l l o w a n y sudden l o w e r i n g of t h e e x t e r n a l w a t e r l e v e l
(wave run-up/run-down). These e x c e s s p r e s s u r e s w i l l
r e s u l t i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n of h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s i n
three separate directions:

a) along the revetment

b) up and down t h e r e v e t m e n t s l o p e

c) perpendicular t o the slope

Of t h e s e , t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t a l o n g t h e r e v e t m e n t
i s p r i m a r i l y due t o o b l i q u e wave a t t a c k and i s of
minor i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e .
The r e m a i n i n g g r a d i e n t s , however, i f t h e y exceed
c r i t i c a l v a l u e s , c a n c a u s e slumping and e r o s i o n of t h e
 f i l t e r l a y e r s . T h e s e c r i t i c a l v a l u e s are d i s c u s s e d
f u r t h e r i n S e c t i o n 3.3.

Blaauw e t a1( l 1 ) a t t e m p t e d t o e s t a b l i s h a r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e i n t e r n a l f i l t e r l o a d s and t h e e x t e r n a l
wave l o a d l n g , by u s l n g b o t h n u m e r i c a l and p h y s i c a l
m o d e l s , a n d p r o t o t y p e m e a s u r e m e n t s . The most
s a t i s f a c t o r y p r a c t i c a l measure f o r t h e i n t e r n a l
h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s was t h u s f o u n d t o be t h e p r o d u c t
o f t h e wave run-down ( f r o m maximum run-up t o maximum
draw-down) a n d t h e r a t e o f t h a t run-down. A variety
of r e v e t m e n t s e c t i o n s were t e s t e d , both w i t h and
without underlayers. The r e s u l t s of t h e s e t e s t s
indicated that:

a) t h e down s l o p e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t , b e n e a t h t h e
g e o t e x t i l e , on a c o n c r e t e b l o c k / g e o t e x t i l e
r e v e t m e n t c a n b e r e d u c e d by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30% i f
a granular f i l t e r is incorporated into the
system

b) p e r p e n d i c u l a r h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s are l i t t l e
a f f e c t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e , o r a b s e n c e , of f i l t e r
underlayers

c) t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t , by r e d u c i n g
t h e e f f e c t i v e g r a i n w e i g h t d u r i n g p e r i o d s of
upward f l o w , i s t h e p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g
t o t h e l o s s of u n d e r l a y e r s t a b i l i t y

P r o t o t y p e measurements (l1) g e n e r a l l y confirmed t h e s e

observations. However, t h e y a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t f o r a
c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t w i t h a j o i n t w i d t h of l e s s
t h a n 0.5mm, t h e u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s , w i t h a g r a n u l a r
f i l t e r , were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60% g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e
o c c u r r i n g on t h e same r e v e t m e n t w i t h o u t a g r a n u l a r
f i l t e r . Thus, t h e r e i s a c o n f l i c t between i n t e r n a l
a n d e x t e r n a l s t a b i l i t y . The p r e s e n c e of a g r a n u l a r
f i l t e r b e n e a t h a c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t may i n c r e a s e
u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s b u t , a t t h e same t i m e , i t r e d u c e s t h e
t r a n s v e r s e (down s l o p e ) h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t . I t would
seem t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e d e s i g n o f a n y r e v e t m e n t may
u l t i m a t e l y need t o be a c o ~ n p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e
d i f f e r l n g r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l
stability.

3 STABILITY DESIGN
CRITERIA

3.1 General
As h a s a l r e a d y b e e n ~ n e n t i o n e d , t h e s t a b i l i t y of a
c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t d e p e n d s upon t h e p e r f o r m a n c e
of b o t h i t s o u t e r p r o t e c t i v e l a y e r , and f i l t e r l a y e r .
Among t h e f a c t o r s t h a t w i l l i n f l u e n c e t h i s s t a b i l i t y
are:-
 a) the hydraulic loads

b) t h e w e i g h t a n d l o r d i m e n s i o n s of t h e b l o c k s

c) f r i c t i o n between b l o c k s and f i l t e r l a y e r , and

between a d j a c e n t b l o c k s

d) c o m p r e s s i v e f o r c e s i n t h e p l a n e of t h e r e v e t m e n t

e) t h e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e p r o t e c t i v e
s u r f a c e l a y e r and u n d e r l a y e r s

f) the revetment s l o p e

g) t h e s o i l t i g h t n e s s and e r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e
f i l t e r layers

h) t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e f i l t e r l a y e r s

i) any i n t e r l o c k o r cabling o r anchoraging of t h e

system

With a l l t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , i t i s p e r h a p s n o t s u r p r i s i n g
t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l development of c o n c r e t e b l o c k
revetment design is still i n its infancy. Indeed,
n e a r l y a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e d e s i g n e q u a t i o n s a r e based on
t h e r e s u l t s of s p e c i f i c model tests u n d e r p a r t i c u l a r
c o n d i t i o n s and a r e n o t , t h e r e f o r e , s t r i c t l y a p p l i c a b l e
f o r g e n e r a l use. However, f a c e d w i t h s u c h a d e a r t h o f
r e l i a b l e information, the engineer has l i t t l e choice
b u t e i t h e r t o b a s e h i s d e s i g n on r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e
empirical equations, or t o carry out scaled physical
model tests. T h e s e tests are t h e m s e l v e s o n l y
approximate, however, due t o t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d
i n c o r r e c t l y m o d e l l i n g t h e g e o t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s of
revetments.

3.2 Concrete block

stability
criteria
F o r many y e a r s t h e d e s i g n o f c o n c r e t e ck revetments
h a s b e e n c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h e Hudson (P43 equation;
a n e q u a t i o n w h i c h was o r i g i n a l l y d e r i v e d f r o m p h y s i c a l
model tests o f r o c k armoured b r e a k w a t e r s under r e g u l a r
wave a t t a c k . Rudson's equation gives:

where W i s t h e w e i g h t of a n i n d i v i d u a l armour
unit

KO i s a n e m p i r i c a l s t a b i l i t y number
PS - P
A is relative block density =
P
 ps i s t h e d e n s i t y of an armour u n i t

p i s t h e d e n s i t y of w a t e r

H i s a nominal wave h e i g h t

I n d e e d , many of t h e d e s i g n p r e s e n t e d by
m a n u f a c t u r e r s of t h e v a r i o u s p r o p r i e t o r y s y s t e m s a r e
based on t h i s e q u a t i o n , w i t h t h e s y s t e m w e i g h t s
r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y t o wave h e i g h t . However, Hudson's
equation has a basic f a i l i n g i n t h a t i t t o t a l l y
n e g l e c t s t h e e f f e c t of wave p e r i o d . Furtliermore, i t s
use implies t h a t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r revetment t h e r e i s
j u s t one s t a b i l i t y number. T h i s i s n o t s t r i c t l y v a l i d
and i t h a s been i n c r e a s i n g l y r e c o g n i s e d t h a t b e c a u s e
of t h e i n f l u e n c e of wave p e r i o d , t h e s t a b i l i t y of a n
armour u n i t i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d by a f u n c t i o n r a t h e r
t h a n a s i n g l e number.

P i l a r c z y k ('O) c o n s i d e r s t h a t f o r b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s i t
i s b e t t e r t o e x p r e s s t h e Hudson e q u a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n
of b l o c k t h i c k n e s s :

= ( K ~ . c o t a) 113

where D i s t h e b l o c k t h i c k n e s s

A comparison of t h e r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t i e s of two
d i f f e r e n t r e v e t m e n t s u s i n g e q u a t i o n s 3 . 1 and 3.3 i s
c i t e d by P i l a r c z y k a s proof t h a t e q u a t i o n 3.3 g i v e s a
more r e a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of b l o c k s t a b i l i t y .
However, t h i s e q u a t i o n s t i l l d o e s n o t i n c l u d e t h e
i n f l u e n c e of wave p e r i o d n o r many of t h e o t h e r
v a r i a b l e s and t h e r e f o r e needs t o be a p p l i e d w i t h
caution.

A l t h o u g h i t i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t wave p e r i o d c a n
i n f l u e n c e t h e s t a b i l i t y of c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s ,
t h e mann n which i t d s o i s somewhat c o n f u s e d .
W h i l l o ~ k ? ~Dorr ~ ~ , e t a1 9hB) and Weckmann and
scales('), a l l a g r e e t h a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e wave p e r i o d
r e d u c e s t h e wave h e i g h t a t which damap,
revetment begins t o occur. Lindenberg T2'y :!:ever,
c o n c l u d e d from t h e r e s u l t s of a s t u d y on t h e s t a b i l i t y
of A r m o r f l e x b l o c k s , t h a t t h e r e v c t m e n t W more
s t a b l e a t l o n g e r wave p e r i o d s . P i l a r c z y k a g ) t r i e s t o
r e c o n c i l e t h e s e o p p o s i n g views by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
s t a b i l i t y t o be a n o n - l i n e a r f u n c t i o n of wave p e r i o d .
He r e p o r t s t h e r e s u l t s of a s e r i e s of l a r g e s c a l e
t e s t s , w i t h r e g u l a r waves and 1 : 3 s l o p e , which
revealed t h a t the s t a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n f o r block
r e v e t m e n t s , i n terms of H I M a n d t h e I r i b a r r e n number
i s a g e n t l e 'U-shaped' c u r v e . A s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n h a d
p r e v i o u s l y been o b s e r v e d f o r r i p - r a p ; a l t h o u g h i n t h e
case of r i p - r a p t h e minimum s t a b i l i t y o c c u r s a t a
h i g h e r v a l u e of t h e I r i b a r r e n number.

Based on t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s P i l a r c z y k o b t a i n e d minimum
s t a b i l i t y numbers f o r a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t r e v e t ~ n e n t
c o n s t r u c t i o n s . He c o n c l u d e d t h a t :

a) f o r l o o s e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s on p e r m e a b l e
u n d e r l a y e r s , minimum s t a b i l i t y o c c u r s a t :
H = 2.5 f o r s l o p e s r L:2 (3.4)

b) f o r l o o s e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s on impermeable
u n d e r l a y e r s , minimum s t a b i l i t y o c c u r s a t :

=H 7 f o r slopes L: 3 (3-5)

F u r t h e r m o r e , i n f i l l i n g of t h e j o i n t s b e t w e e n b l o c k s
w i t h g r a v e l c a n i n c r e a s e t h i s s t a b i l i t y by b e t w e e n 2 5 2
a n d LOO%. I t s h o u l d a l s o be n o t e d t h a t t h e s e minimum
s t a b i l i t y numbers may b e p a r t l y d e p e n d e n t upon t h e
b l o c k t y p e ( s e e S e c t i o n 3.4).

~ h i l l o c k ( ' ~ )c a r r i e d o u t a s e r i e s o f model t e s t s u s i n g
s q u a r e b l o c k s s u p p o r t e d a t d i f f e r i n g h e i g h t s above a n
i m p e r m e a b l e b a s e . A g a i n r e g u l a r waves w e r e u s e d .
From t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e t e s t s h e c o n c l u d e d t h a t f o r
r e v e t m e n t b l o c k s on a n i m p e r m e a b l e u n d e r l a y e r t h e
b l o c k t h i c k n e s s should n o t be less t h a n o n e - s i x t h o f
t h e wave h e i g h t . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a s t r i c t e r c r i t e r i o n
t h a n t h a t g i v e n p r e v i o u s l y by P i l a r c z y k . It is,
however, v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t s u g g e s t e d by CUR-VB('))
w h i c h recommends a l o w e r s t a b i l i t y l i m i t o f ,

f o r l o o s e b l o c k s w i t h f i l t e r l a y e r s , and
H 5 (ie U = l
H - € i s 1
f o r l o o s e b l o c k s on a r e l a t i v e l y i m p e r m e a b l e c l a y .
However, CUR-VB t h e n g o e s on t o s t a t e t h a t t h e
p a r a m e t e r s H / D and t h e I r i b a r r e n number o n l y v e r y
p a r t i a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e f a i l u r e ~oechanisms, and t h a t
g r e a t care is therefore required i n the application of
these criteria.

A f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n upon t h e s e ininimum s t a b i l i t y
numbers i s t h a t t h e y c a n n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be e x t e n d e d t o
s l o p e s o u t s i d e t h o s e f o r w h i c h t h e y were d e r i v e d .
I n d e e d , where a r a n g e of s l o p e s h a s b e e n g i v e n f o r a
 p a r t i c u l a r s t a b i l i t y number, t h o s e s h o u l d be s t r i c t l y
adhered to. It is g e n e r a l l y agreed t h a t the revetment
s l o p e i n f l u e n c e s t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e .
However, t h e a c t u a l e f f e c t i s t h e s u t of some
contention. Amongst o t h e r s W h i l l o c k Tuxford ( 4 )
and t h e Dytap r e v e t m e n t d e s i g n handbook(') a l l s u g g e s t
t h a t l o o s e concrete blocks more s t a b l e on f l a t t e r
s l o p e s . However, P i l a r c z y k argues t h a t t h e
r e v e r s e i s t r u e and t h a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e s l o p e r e d u c e s
t h e u p l i f t f o r c e s and hence i n c r e a s e s s t a b i l i t y .
Moreover, t h e s u p p o r t due t o end-loading by b l o c k s
l y i n g f u r t h e r up t h e s l o p e a l s o i n c r e a s e s a s t h e s l o p e
steepens. I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t w h i l e
g r a v i t y e f f e c t s a r e l e s s a t steeper sIopes, the
interlock/interblock f r i c t i o n is conslderably
increased. Thus a s t e e p s l o p e r e v e t m e n t may have a
s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r s t a b i l i t y than a shaIlow s l o p e
revetlnent b u t , c o n v e r s e l y , i t s f a i l u r e i s l i k e l y t o be
more a b r u p t . In p r a c t i s e revetments a r e g e n e r a l l y
c o n s t r u c t e d a t s l o p e s of around i : 3 , s t e e p e r s l o p e s
a r e r a r e l y used. I t i s however c l e a r t h a t t h e problem
of t h e r e v e t m e n t s l o p e e f f e c t w i l l o n l y be r e s o l v e d by
f u r t h e r research.

Althougli t h i s s e c t i o n h a s mainly been d e v o t e d t o t h e

e f f e c t s of wave p e r i o d and r e v e t m e n t s l o p e upon t h e
s t a b i l i t y of c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s , i t h a s t o be
emphasised t h a t i t i s t h e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e
armour l a y e r and under l a y e r s t h a t i s t h e o v e r - r i d i n g
f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of t h e
structure(11*15). So f a r , however, no r e a d i l y
a v a i l a b l e d e s i g n methodology h a s been d e v e l o p e d whlch
takes i n t o account t h i s r e l a t i v e permeability.

3.3 F i l t e r layer
stability
criteria
The d e s i g n of g e o t e x t i l e f i l t e r s i n s l o p otection
works h a s b n w e l l document d y I n g o l d P295
F a u r e e t a 1Y 5 l ' ) and C h a r l t ~ n f ; ~ ~ !a, l l of wllom
presented design c r i t e r i a . This review w i l l t l ~ e r e f o r e
c o n c e n t r a t e m a i n l y on t h e c r i t e r i a r e q u i r e d f o r
g r a n u l a r f i l t e r s i n a c o a s t a l environment, although a
b r i e f summary of t h e g e o t e x t i l e c r i t e r i a w i l l be
included.

The most i m p o r t a n t r e q u i r e m e n t of a f i l t e r i n s l o p e
p r o t e c t i o n works i s t h a t i t s h o u l d p r o t e c t t h e
u n d e r l y i n g s o i l a g a i n s t e r o s i o n by waves o r c u r r e n t s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e f i l t e r s h o u l d p r e v e n t m i g r a t i o n of
the s o i l particles. If t h e i n t e r n a l flow i s
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e i n t e r f a c e between f i l t e r a n d
s u b - s o i l , t h e f i l t e r w i l l a l w a y s be s o i l t i g h t
provided t h a t the h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t i s l e s s than a
c r i t i c a l value. For c o h e s l o n l e s s s o i l s t h i s c r i t i c a l
v a l u e i s a b o u t one. Without c o h e s i v e f o r c e s between
t h e s o i l p a r t i c l e s , o r o t h e r a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e s due
t o s u r c h a r g e s , t h e e q u i l i b r i u m w i l l be d i s t u r b e d by
g r a d i e n t s i n e x c e s s of t h i s c r i t i c a l v a l u e , and
movement OF t h e s o i l p a r t i c l e s i s p o s s i b l e . I n the
c a s e of u n i - d i r e c t i o n flow, t h e s o i l p a r t i c l e s may
'arch' a t the entrance t o the F i l t e r pores, thus
improving t h e s o i l t i g h t n e s s of t h e F i l t e r . Under
such c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n a t u r a l f i l t e r can be Formed s o
t h a t f o r s o i l t i g h t n e s s i t would be s u f f i c i e n t t o
e x c l u d e o n l y t h e l a r g e s t p a r t i c l e s From m i g r a t i n g
t h r o u g h t h e F i l t e r . However, i n p r a c t i s e , c o a s t a l
revetments a r e usually subjected t o cyclic loading,
and under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a n a t u r a l f i l t e r would be
u n l i k e l y t o Form.

I F t h e i n t e r n a l flow i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e i n t e r f a c e
between F i l t e r and s u b - s o i l , t h e i t e m s of major
importance t o s o i l t i g h t n e s s a r e t h e h y d r a u l i c
g r a d i e n t , and t h r o u g h t h a t t h e flow v e l o c i t y , w i t h i n
t h e F i l t e r . When a c r i t i c a l v a l u e of t h e g r a d i e n t i s
exceeded t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y i n t h e F i l t e r becomes s o
g r e a t t h a t t h e b a s e m a t e r i a l b e g i n s t o move and t h e
s o i l t i g h t n e s s is l o s t .

C U R - V B ( ~g)i v e s t h e Following r e q u i r e m e n t s For F i l t e r s

s u b j e c t e d t o s t r o n g c y c l i c flows:

a) For g r a n u l a r f i l t e r s w i t h n e a r l y uniForm F i l t e r
and b a s e m a t e r i a l s ,

where s u b s c r i p t ' F ' r e F e r s t o f i l t e r and

s u b s c r i p t ' b ' t o b a s e , and d i s a nominal s o i l
p a r t i c l e diameter

b) For g r a n u l a r F i l t e r s w i t h non-uniform p a r t i c l e s ,

To e n s u r e t h e i n t e r n a l s t a b i l i t y of g r a n u l a r f i l t e r s
t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l r u l e s h o u l d be a p p l i e d :

T h i s r u l e assumes t h a t no i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n w i l l
o c c u r i r r e s p e c t i v e OF t h e s t e e p n e s s OF t h e g r a d i e n t .
However, f o r s m a l l h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s t h i s c r i t e r i o n
c a n be e a s e d . I t s h o u l d perhaps be mentioned, though,
t h a t a t p r e s e n t no a c c u r a t e v a l u e s f o r t h e c r i t i c a l
h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s r e l a t i n g t o i n t e r n a l revetment
s t a b i l i t y are available.

CUR-VB(') a l s o r e p o r t s t h a t i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t
b l o c k a g e of a g r a n u l a r F i l t e r t h e Following c r i t e r i o n
s h o u l d be observed:
I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t f i n e p a r t i c l e s from t h e s u b - s o i l
b e i n g washed i n t o t h e f i l t e r l a y e r a n d e v e n t u a l l y
causing interna r o s i o n of t h e s u b - s o i l , t h e Dytap
d e s i g n handbookt1? s u g g e s t s a f i l t e r c r i t e r i o n v e r y
s i m i l a r t o t h a t g i v e n by CUR-VB:

While Paure et present the expression,

Ue Craauw e t a1( 4 2 ) p r e s e n t r e s u l t s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s of
f u n d a m e n t a l work on flow a l o n g and a c r o s s c o r e l f i l t e r
i n t e r f a c e s under b o t h s t e a d y and c y c l i c flow. Tests
wit11 c o a r s e s a n d s u n d e r c y c l i c f l o w s a t p e r i o d s a r o u n d
1 0 s e c o n d s ( c l o s e t o lmny p r o t o t y p e s i t u a t i o n s ) ,
revealed t h a t the critical hydraulic gradients for the
o n s e t of s a n d t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h t h e f i l t e r u n d e r
c y c l i c c o n d i t i o n s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y lower than f o r t h e
s t e a d y f l o w s i t u a t i o n . F o r a s a f e d e s i g n , i t is
recommended t h a t i n t h e case o f s t r o n g c y c l i c f l o w ,

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t means o f d r a i n i n g a c o a s t a l
revetment is t o i n c l u d e both g r a n u l a r and f a b r i c
filters. A l t h o u g h , as p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , t h e
d e s i g n of g e o t e x i l e f a b r i c s h a s been w e l l documented,
a b r i e f summary o f t h e c r i t e r i a i s i n c l u d e d f o r
completeness:

~ n g o l d ( ~p r~e )s e n t s v a r i o u s f i l t e r c r i t e r i a i n terms
of t h e g e o t e x t i l e p o r e s i z e , OgO, and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
of u n i f o r m i t y of t h e s o i l , U, where U i n c r e a s e s a s t h e
s o i l becomes more w e l l g r a d e d .

a) For 1 < U c 5 0 ;

b) F o r U < 5, a uniform s o i l ;

c) For U h 5, a w e l l g r a d e d s o i l ;

but '90 2d9~b

 d) For non c o h e s i v e s o i l s c o n t a i n i n g more t h a n 50%
by w e i g h t of s i l t :

~ u x f o r d ( ~s u) g g e s t s s i m i l a r c r i t e r i a t o t h e s e , but
i n c l u d e s some a d d i t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n s f o r c o h e s i v e
soils:

and '90 < d90b

He c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h o s e c r i t e r i a , i f met, w i l l p r e v e n t
e x c e s s i v e l o s s of t h e s u b - s o i l f i n e s . However, t h e
g e o t e x t i l e must a l s o be permeable e n o u g l ~t o p r e v e n t a
h i g h p r e s s u r e b u i l d up w i t h i n t h e s u b - s o i l . This
r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e g e o t e x t i l e , K g ,
must be r o u g h l y f i v e t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e
p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e s u b - s o i l , Ks.

ie, Kg Z 5 K, (3.20)

For c o a s t a l r e v e n t E i l t e r s under s t r o n g c y c l i c
l o a d i n g , CUR-VBTb7 s u p p l i e s t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n
f o r s o i l t i g h t n e s s of t h e g e o t e x t i l e , r e g a r d l e s s of
t h e flow c o n d i t i o n s :

However, t h i s e x p r e s s i o n t a k e s no a c c o u n t of t h e
g r a d i n g of t h e s u b - s o i l .

3.4 The g e n e r a t i o n of
additional
stability
The s t a b i l i t y of a c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t can be
improved i n a number of ways:

a) by i n f i l l i n g t h e j o i n t s w i t h g r a v e l

b) by t h e use of i n t e r l o c k i n g b l o c k s

C) by c a b l i n g t h e b l o c k s t o g e t h e r i n t o mats a n d / o r
a n c h o r i n g t h e m a t s / b l o c k s down.

The i n f i l l i n g of t h e j o i n t s of c o n c r e t e b l o c k
r e v e t m e n t s w i t h a m i x t u r e of sand f i n e grave
recommended by v kmann and Scales8'j, Pilarczykt l j ?
and Lindenberg . The e f E e c t of t h i s i n f i l l i n g i s
t o i n c r e a s e t h e f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e between b l o c k s
and hence produce a system whose s t a b i l i t y i s g r e a
t h a n t h a t of non g r a v e l f i l l e d s y s t e m s . P i l a r c z y k
p r e s e n t s r e s u l t s f o r a number of d i f f e r e n t b l o c k s
which s u g g e s t t h a t t h e u s e of g r a v e l i n f i l l i n g c a n
i n c r e a s e t h e r e v e t m e n t s t a b i l i t y by between 25% and
100%. However, t h e g r a v e l l s a n d m i x t u r e can be p a r t l y ,
o r even t o t a l l y , washed o u t from t h e j o i n t s o v e r a
p e r i o d of t i m e , and any s t a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e must
t h e r e f o r e be u n c e r t a i n .

The s t a b i l i t y of i n t e r l o c k e d k s formed t h e s u b j e c t
of a n e x t e n s i v e s t u d y by Halltt9?. The rest(ytisi;f
t h i s s t u d y have been p r e s e n t e d by P i l a r c z y k
t e r m s of t h e p a r a m e t e r s HID and t h e I r i b a r r e n
number.

a) Tongue and g r o o v e b l o c k s ,

H/B - 4.1 f o r s l o p e 1:2 (3.22)

b) Tongue and g r o o v e b l o c k s w i t h r e l i e f s l o t t o
reduce u p l i f t pressures,

HIB = 7.3 f o r s l o p e 1:2 (3.23)

c) Shiplap blocks with s p a c e r s t o r e l i e v e u p l i f t

pressures,

HIB = 5.7 f o r s l o p e 1:2 (3.24)

w h i l l o c k ( 1 6 ) a l s o presented r e s u l t s f o r an i n t e r l o c k e d
b l o c k and c o n c l u d e d t h a t , on f l a t t e r s l o p e s ,
H / d D = 1 0 . T h i s i s i n q u a l i t a t i v e agreement w i t 1 1 t h e
v a l u e s g i v e n by P i l a r c z y k .

C l e a r l y t h e p r e s e n c e of a complex j o i n t i n g s y s t e m
improves s t a b i l i t y . However, a d d i t i o n a l m e a s u r e s , t o
relieve the u p l i f t pressures, a r e required, i f t h i s
e x t r a s t a b i l i t y i s t o be e x p l o i t e d t o t h e f u l l .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e more complex t h e b l o c k , t h e more
c o s t l y and t i m e consuming i t beco~oes t o l a y .

Both g r a v e l i n f i l l i n g and i n t e r l o c k i n g have one

f u r t h e r disadvantage, t h a t is, t o increase the
s t a b i l i t y of a r e v e t m e n t by e i t h e r of t h e s e methods
must n e c e s s i t a t e a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e f l e x i b i l i t y . If
t h e f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e r e v e t m e n t i s reduced i t w i l l
h a v e a tendancy t o span v o i d s and w i l l t h u s be
s u s c e p t i b l e t o wave impact l o a d s . Despite these
problems a c a r e f u l l y d e s i g n e d r e v e t m e n t w i t h e i t h e r
i n f i l l e d o r i n t e r l o c k e d b l o c k s can s u c c e s s f u l l y be
u s e d i n many s i t u a t i o n s where e x t r a s t a b i l i t y i s
required.

The c a b l i n g t o g e t h e r of l o o s e b l o c k s i n t o a f l e x i b l e
mat i s f a s t becoming a p o p u l a r method of p r o v i d i n g
slope protection. Such c a b l i n g s y s t e m s may be e i t h e r
one o r t w o - d i r e c t i o n a l , w i t h t h e l a t t e r b e i n g
p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e under e x t r e m e c o n d i t i o n s . The
cable, although acting principally a s an aid t o
c o n s t r u c t i o n , may a l s o h e l p t o p r e v e n t s l o p e f a i l u r e
 by p r o g r e s s i v e b l o c k d i s l o d g e m e n t . However, t h e
a c t u a l s t a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e of a r e v e t m e n t d u e t o t h e
i n c o r p o r a t i o n of a Le i s d i f f i c u l t t o q u a n t i f y .
Indeed, Lindenberg ("j makes t h e i m p l i c i t s u g g e s t i o n
t h a t such systems should be designed w i t h o u t t h e
cabling. Any i n c r e a s e i n s t a b i l i t y due t o t h e
p r e s e n c e of t h e c a b l e s h o u l d t h e n b e viewed a s a
bonus. P e r h a p s t h e most comp +,Q? a c c o u n t of c a b l i n g
s y s t e m s i s t h a t g i v e n by Wise . This covers t h e
e c o n o m i c s and c o n s t r u c t i o n a l d e t a i l s of s u c h s y s t e m s
but not, unfortunately, the s t a b i l i t y aspects.

3.5 D i s c u s s i o n on
block s t a b i l i t y
I n p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s of t h i s c h a p t e r , a number of
s i m p l e d e s i g n e x p r e s s i o n s have been c o n s i d e r e d . These
h a v e g e n e r a l l y b e e n p r e s e n t e d i n terms of HID, a
d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave h e i g h t . Flexible concrete
r e v e t m e n t s y s t e m s a r e , however, o f t e n s p e c i f i e d i n
terms of a mass p e r u n i t area, W/A. This parameter
may b e compared w i t h t h e n o t i o n a l b l o c k t h i c k n e s s D:

where C l i s a s h a p e c o e f f i c i e n t s p e c i f i c t o e a c h t y p e
of b l o c k , a n d ps i s t h e mass d e n s i t y of t h e c o n c r e t e
u s e d (kg/m 3 ) .

The p a r a m e t e r H / D m i g h t t h e n be r e - e x p r e s s e d :

The s t a b i l i t y e x p r e s s i o n s i n s e c t i o n 3.2 a b o v e m i g h t
t h e n be w r i t t e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l form:

where K1 i s a s t a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t c o v e r i n g t h e b l o c k
and u n d e r l a y e r p e r m e a b i l i t l e s , wave p e r i o d , s t e e p n e s s
and s l o p e e f f e c t s . I t m i g h t be p o s s i b l e t o g e n e r a l i s e
d e s i g n i n f o r m a t i o n u s i n g t h i s appruach. However,
v a l u e s of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e , as y e t , n o t d i r e c t l y
assessible i n the literature.

4 HYDRAULIC
PERFORMANCE OF
REVETKENT SLOPES

4.1 General
C o a s t a l s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s s e a w a l l s when s u b j e c t t o
wave a t t a c k , w i l l e x p e r i e n c e wave run-up. If the
s t r u c t u r e c r e s t i s l o w e r t h a n t h e maxi~num run-up, t h e
s t r u c t u r e w i l l s u f f e r o v e r t o p p i n g . T h i s may i n t u r n
l e a d t o f l o o d i n g a n d / o r damage t o t h e r e a r w a r d f a c e of
the structure. I n t h e p l a n n i n g a n d d e s i g n of c o a s t a l
s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y s e a w a l l s , wave run-up a n d
o v e r t o p p i n g a r e o f t e n t h e two p r i m a r y f a c t o r s
d i c t a t i n g t h e c r e s t l e v e l o f t h e w a l l . As t h e c r o s s
s e c t i o n a l area a n d t h e c o s t i n c r e a s e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
w i t h t h e s q u a r e of t h e s t r u c t u r e h e i g h t , a c l e a r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s e s o f wave run-up a n d
o v e r t o p p i n g i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e economic d e s i g n of
such s t r u c t u r e s .

D e s i g n e r s o f s e a walls h a v e o f t e n a t t e m p t e d t o d e s i g n
t h e c r e s t l e v e l of t h e i r s t r u c t u r e h i g h enough t o
prevent overtopping. T h i s was d o n e by c a l c u l a t i n g a
maximum run-up l e v e l a n d s e t t i n g t h e c r e s t l e v e l a b o v e
i t . T h i s d o e s , h o w e v e r , p r e s u p p o s e t h a t a maximum
run-up l e v e l may be i d e n t i f i e d . W i t h a f u l l e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e random n a t u r e o f wind w a v e s , i t
h a s become c l e a r t h a t o v e r t o p p i n g c a n n o t a l w a y s be
w h o l l y p r e v e n t e d , a l t h o u g h t h e mean e x p e c t e d
o v e r t o p p i n g d i s c h a r g e f o r a d e s i g n e v e n t may be
reduced t o n e g l i g i b l e proportions. The d e s i g n
a p p r o a c h f o r s i m p l e sea walls i n t h e UK h a s t h e r e f o r e
r e c e n t l y been a l t e r e d t o one of d e s i g n i n g f o r v a r i o u s
l e v e l s of t o l e r a b l e d i s c h a r g e under t h e e x t r e
c o n s i d e r e d , u s i n g t h e method p r o p o s e d by Owen ~ ~ ~ y 6 ~
T h i s method was d e r i v e d f r o m a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s
o f m o d e l t e s t s o n s i m p l e , a n d bermed, s m o o t h seawall
s l o p e s , w i t h o u t wave r e t u r n walls. F o r s t r u c t u r e w i t h
parapet walls, the predicti E overtopping dlscliarge
becomes more c o m p l e x . Owen ?913 a r g u e s t h a t model
tests a r e needed t o d e t e r m i n e t h e h y d r a u l i c
performance of s u c h crest d e t a i l s . Calculations of
wave run-up l e v e l s may t h e r e f o r e s t i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r
some p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n s , a n d f o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f
s t r u c t u r e s of c o m p l e x f o r m .

Much o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o v e r i n g wave run-up a n d

overtopping has b c o n s i d e r e d r e c e n t l y by A l l s o p ,
d Hawkes a n d by Gadd, P o t t e r , S a f i e a n d
Franc?3$p
R esio . The l a t t e r r e v i e w however ores the
o v e r t o p p i n g p r e d i c t i o n method o f Owen ( W a n d t h e
i m p o r t a n t work on t h e e f f e c t of o b l i q u e wave a t t a c k on
run-up a n q 3 g j e r t o p p i n g Tautenhaim, Kohlase and
Partensky and n o , and i s t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y t o
be of r e s t r i c t e d u s e f u l n e s s .

Also of importance i n q u a n t i f y i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c
p e r f o r m a n c e o f r e v e t l n e n t s l o p e s i s t h e d e g r e e o f wave
r e f l e c t i o n , n o t least because i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e
r e f l e c t e d a n d i n c i d e n t waves c a n l e a d t o a n i n c r e a s e
i n t h e r a t e of s c o u r o c c u r r i n g o f f s h o r e o f t h e
structure. The a c t u a l d e g r e e o f r e f l e c t i o n w i l l v a r y
w i t h wave s t e e p n e s s a n d s t r u c t u r e s l o p e a n g l e , a n d f o r
r o u g h a n d l o r p e r m e a b l e s l o p e s w i l l g e n e r a l l y be
r e d u c e d by t h e e f f e c t s o f s l o p e p o r o s i t y a n d
roughness.
 pue e p e s o l Lq y l o n .suoyqypuoa aAen Teay2uapy
103 ' a d o ~ s qlooms l u a ~ e ~ y n ha aq l uo l e q l 01 ' a d o ~ s
q 8 n o l aq2 uo TaAaT d n - u n ~ 1 e a y d L ~e 30 o y 2 e l aq2 s e
p a u y j a p aq Leru l o a s e 3 s y q ~ - 3 o J a e j s s a u q 8 n o l aAyleTal
e 30 uoy2eTnalea aq2 8 u y n o ~ ~Xqe a 9 ~ e q a s y p8 u y d d o 2 ~ a ~ o
jo q u a u s s a s s e a q l uy a 8 e 2 s 2ue21odu1y ue u ~ o Lem j
a a u e u l o j ~ a ddu-unl 30 uoyleuyuua2ap aqL -1noyAeqaq
dn-unl 30 a s e a ~ e y a a d se s e u e q l l a q 2 o 'quaul2aAal aq2
j o a a u e u ~ o j l a d8 u y d d o 2 l a ~ oa q l s l a p y s u o s L ~ ~ e a y j y a a d s
nayAa3 syq2 uy p a l a p y s u o a a l n 2 e l a 2 y I aqq j o auoN
S u y d d o q ~ a ~aAefi
o E-7
. u o y 2 e u l o j u y l a q l l n j anoqqyn
poq2aul u o y l a y p a l d Lue q2yn u o s y l e d u o a noTTe 2ou s a o p
T H / X u e q l l a q l e l O H / X 30 a s n aq2 l n q ' alaquapuyl
Lq u a ~ y 8asoq2 ueq2 ~ a l e a ~ 8 ( g i 3 u e 2 s u 1 n a ~ l s
a u o s uy pue ' ~ a n oL ~~ l q B y ~LsT ~ e ~ a u aaq 8 02 ~ e a d d e
x a T j a l 2 a d pue x a l j l o n l v q l o q uo sTaAa1 dn-unl aqL
- Te l a d o s ~ ~Lqv pue o2ln3-zauaml3 pue e p e s o l
' ( z z ) ~ a q u a p u y lLq pasn ~ ($E)
e q 02 m ~ o j
JeTyuys 30 s q d e ~ 8
a ~ y 801 p a s d ~ e u e - a 1 aq ' ~ a ~ a n o 'Leu q sanTeA asaqL
. p a l a ~ d ~ a l uXy ~ y s e assaT a l e ' ( , ) p ~ o j x n ~Lq p a 2 u a s a ~ d
x a T s e l 2 a a l o j asoq2 pue ' q a a 2 e ~ 2 apue ~
pua ueuysafi Xq p a 2 u a s a l d ( $ $ { j l o m ~ v l o j S I T AasaTesSJ 2saJ
. d n - u n ~ uy noy2anpax q u e a y j y u 8 y s Lue q s y n 3 u y l s y p
01 a ~ q y s s o dleaddw a l o j a l a q q IOU s a o p 31 -sado~s
qloouls 103 a q s w pue u o s a e s s I Lq p a l s a 8 8 n s p u a l l
a q l M O T T O J 02 s ~ e a d d ed n - ~ i n l aATqeTa1 a q l E - Z 11 10j
. s a d o ~ sqlooms J O J lunH Xq p a l a y p a ~ d s e ' E - z 2noqe
ueqq ssaT '11 ' ~ a q u n u u a l l e q y l I a q l j o sanTeA J O J
u o r s s a l d x a lunH a q l 8 u y n o ~ ~dn-unl o ~ aAyleTa1 s n o q s
q d e ~ 8s y q ~ ' l q 8 y a q aAen luapyauy a q l 30 s u a l
U 'F 8 ~ a q u a p u y lLq p a l u a s a ~ ds y q d e ~ 8T n j a s n a l o u
v (z.?alaaeled ~ n j d ~ a q ul enq n a n o s e ' a ~ e npar)aaTjal
pue 2uapyauy q l o q 01 anp l q 8 y a q unuyxea aqr) aq 03
s ~ e a d d es y q ~ .XeUb I l q 8 y a q aAen mnmyxeu aqq j o s u a q
uy a l e B ~ a q u a p u y lpue S l a g uap ueh Xq p a q u a s a ~ d
sanTeA dn% aA1leTal a q l l e q l punoj s y l y ' l a ~ a n o q
' s y s L l e u e uo o l l n 3 - z a u a u y 3 pue e p e s o l Lq
p a l u a s a ~ d s e pue aqayu 'AtE& ue lunH 02 p a q ~ l a s espoqqam
Lq p a l a y p a ~ d s a d o ~ sq l o o u s uo dn-unl a A y l e 1 a i 30
sanTeh 1 1 1 paleduioa ~ L l y s e a lsom l e a d d e xaI3lorulv uo
dn-unl 103 B ~ a q u a p u y lLq u a ~ y 8s l T n s a l a q l 'ruaql
30 . x a T j e S $ 5 i E ko as auo PUP x a ~ j ~ o m luo v on2 'sisal
j o s l a s a a l q l JaAos L ~ u oasaqL q a a l e ~ l apue
~
81aquapuyl * o n ( $1;&051y7 9 8 n a u a p ( 6 h l
s a I e s g pue(8kuxaafi ~q p $ 3 u a s a l d a l e saAen ~ e T n 8 a l
") sitysn s l I n s a l qsaq a u o s luaya133aoa
s s a u q 8 n o l aqq Jo sanIeA($s;6sish8 ueq:, l a q a o
' s a d o ~ s luamlaAa2 j o a a u e m ~ o j ~ addn - u n ~ ~ e ~ n a y l l e d
a q l uo p a l j s y ~ q n duaaq s e q a ~ 3 3 yL ~~ a ~ y a e ~' l a ~l a n o H
X ~ l u a a a xs ~ o q l n e30 laqmnu e Lq p a n a p a l
' 6 & ~ ~ ~ G $ " s a d o 1qaeaq s 01 pasoddo s o ' s a d o p d a a l s
uo dn-unl aAen uo a l n j e l a l y ~a q l ' a ~ o q e p a u y p n o sv
dn-unl aaefi z.7
 ~ i m e n e z - ~ u r t o ( and ~ ~ )by A l l s o p e t has
demonstrated t h a t t h i s f a c t o r is not s t r i c t l y
c o n s t a n t , but v a r i e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t wave c o n d i t i o n s .
However, s u i t a b l e v a l u e s may be s e l e c t e d t o b
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e method d e s c r i b e d by Owen
p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n p u r p o s e s . Examples of roughness
factors i v e d f f 9 t f ) r e g u l a r wave t e s t s a r esented
by S t o a ( j 5 j , Owen and i n t h e Dutch code bar.
4.4 Wave r e f l e c t i o n s
The i n f l u e n c e of t h e roughness and p e r m e a b i l i t y of
r e v e t m e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n on i t s wave r e f l e c t i o n
performance h a s r e c e i v e d l i t
l i t e r a t u r e . Only Lindenberg F", a t t e n t i o n i n the
p r e s e n t s r e s u l t s of
t e s t measurements on Armorflex, which compare c l o s e l y
with a t
and Hahe
feel . f o r smooth s l o p e s s u g g e s t e d by G r e s l o u
A s l i g h t l y more f a v o u r a b l e comparison
Inay be made w i t h t h e s i m p l e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e
r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , K r , s u g g e s t e d by ~ a t t j e s ~ ~ l ) :

where

Ir = n a
-t-a7
(H/Lo)
Many of t h e r e f l e c t i o n measurements p r e s e n t e d by
L i n d e n b e r g a p p e a r t o l i e below t h i s t r e n d l i n e .
However, t h e s e v a l u e s a r e g e n e r a l l y measured w i t h
s m a l l e r waves and t h e v a l u e s measured f o r l a r g e r waves
l i e more c l o s e l y t o both t h e s u g g e s t e d t r e n d l i n e s f o r
smooth s l o p e s .

4.5 Conclusions
Run-up, and hence o v e r t o p p i n g , o v e r a rough revetment
s l o p e may be l e s s t h a n o v e r a smooth r e v e t m e n t of t h e
same s l o p e a n g l e . However, t h e s i z e of t h e roughness
e l e m e n t and t h e e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y , o v e r a wave
p e r i o d , of t h e r e v e t m e n t must r e l a t e s e n s i b l y t o t h e
i n c i d e n t wave h e i g h t and p e r i o d . The b l o c k s i z e , and
hence t h e e f f e c t i v e r o u g h n e s s , i s normally s e t by t h e
minimum b l o c k s i z e n e c e s s a r y f o r s t a b i l i t y , w i t h t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n of a s u i t a b l e f a c t o r of s a f e t y . T h i s may
o f t e n l e a d t o b l o c k s of t h i c k n e s s around H/5, where H
i s a nominal d e s i g n wave h e i g h t . A t t h i s r a t i o of
b l o c k s i z e t o wave h e i g h t t h e roughness of most
c o n c r e t e r e v e t m e n t systems i s r e l a t t v e l y low. Model
t e s t s reported i n the l i t e r a t u r e generally i n d i c a t e
t h a t any r e d u c t i o n of run-up and hence o v e r t o p p i n g
o v e r t h a t f o r a smooth s l o p e i s m a r g i n a l . Similarly,
wave r e f l e c t i o n s a t t h e p r i n c i p a l d e s i g n wave p e r i o d s
w i l l depend p r i m a r i l y on t h e l o c a l wave
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and revetinent s l o p e a n g l e and
r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e upon t h e b l o c k s i z e o r s h a p e .
5 CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
T h i s l i t e r a t u r e review h a s i d e n t i f i e d a number of
d e s i g n f a c t o r s of c r u c i a l importance t o t h e s t a b i l i t y
of c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s . Foremost amongst t h e s e
i s t h e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e p r o t e c t i v e s u r f a c e
l a y e r and f i l t e r layers. The s t a b i l i t y of t h e
r e v e t m e n t i n c r e a s e s a s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e b l o c k s
i n c r e a s e s , and a s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o r t h i c k n e s s of t h e
f i l t e r l a y e r s d e c r e a s e . S e v e r a l a u t h o r s have
s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e most s t a b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n would
c o n s i s t of c l o s e f i t t i n g b l o c k s on an impervious
foundation. However, problems t h e n a r i s e t h r o u g h
e r o s i o n of t h e s u b - s o i l , which would otherwise be
p r o t e c t e d by a f i l t e r l a y e r . It is therefore
recommended t h a t r e s e a r c h be c a r r i e d o u t t o o b t a i n t h e
optimum r a n g e of r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s f o r r e v e t m e n t
stability.

The c o n t r a d i c t i o n s between t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
f l e x i b i l i t y and t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r revettnent
s t a b i l i t y have been o u t l i n e d . A r e v e t m e n t w i t h a h i g h
d e g r e e of i n t e r l o c k / i n t e r b l o c k f r i c t i o n w i l l be inore
s t a b l e b u t w i l l have a reduced f l e x i b i l i t y . It w i l l
t h e r e f o r e have a t e n d e n c y t o s p a n v o i d s , which may
r e s u l t from s e t t l e m e n t of t h e u n d e r l a y e r s a n d / o r poor
c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e , and w i l l t h u s be s u s c e p t i b l e t o
wave impact l o a d s . C o n v e r s e l y a f l e x i b l e ' l o o s e '
b l o c k s y s t e m may w e l l f o l l o w t h e c o n t o u r s of t h e under
l a y e r s , t h u s l e s s e n i n g t h e e f f e c t of wave impact
l o a d s , b u t i n d o i n g s o would p r e s e n t an uneven s u r f a c e
v u l n e r a b l e t o wave induced d r a g , i n e r t i a and l i f t
f o r c e s . The s t a b i l i t y of such a r e v e t m e n t would
t h e r e f o r e be reduced. It f o l l o w s t h a t t h e embankment
d e s i g n and p r e p a r a t i o n must e n s u r e t h a t o n l y v e r y
small s e t t l e m e n t s occur. If l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s a r e
a n t i c i p a t e d b l o c k s a r e p e r h a p s n o t t h e b e s t c h o i c e of
protection.

Wave p e r i o d h a s a l s o been shown t o have a n i n f l u e n c e

upon t h e s t a b i l i t y of r e v e t m e n t s . R e v e t ~ n e n t so f t e n
s u f f e r more damage a t lower wave h e i g h t s f o r t h e
l o n g e r wave p e r i o d s t h a n f o r t h e s h o r t e r wave p e r i o d s .
T h i s e f f e c t can be a c c o u n t e d f o r i n revetlnent d e s i g n
by t h e u s e of a minimum s t a b i l i t y number. However, of
more p r a c t i c a l use t o t h e d e s i g n e r would be t h e a c t u a l
s t a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n s , r e l a t e d t o wave p e r i o d .
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s recommended t h a t , f o r t h e most
commonly used s y s t e m s , such s t a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n s s h o u l d
be o b t a i n e d .

T h i s review h a s a l s o h i g h l i g h t e d t h e e f f e c t of t h e
revetlnent s l o p e both upon t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e
r e v e t m e n t and upon t h e wave impact l o a d s . I t h a s been
suggested that the s t a b i l i t y is g r e a t e r f o r steeper
s l o p e s , however f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s needed t o c o n f i r m
 this. F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o wave i m p a c t l o a d i n g s i s
a l s o recommended, a i m e d a t e x t e n d i n g D u t c h a n d German
work t o a l l s l o p e s , and a t o b t a i n i n g a g r e a t e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h i n t h e
revetlnent.

From a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d d a t a
a v a i l a b l e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , it does n o t a p p e a r t h a t
any s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n o f run-up, o v e r t o p p i n g
d i s c h a r g e o r wave r e f l e c t i o n s o v e r t h o s e d e t e r m i n e d
f o r s m o o t h s l o p e s s h o u l d be a l l o w e d f o r . I n t h e
a b s e n c e o f s u i t a b l e h y d r a u l i c model t e s t s , p r e d i c t i o n s
o f run-up, o v e r t o p p i n g , a n d r e f l e c t i o n s s h o u l d a s s u m e
t h a t t h e r e v e t m e n t a c t s as a s m o o t h s l o p e .

Although not s p e c i f i c a l l y considered i n t h i s review,

t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g , c a b l i n g and i n f i l l i n g w i t h g r a v e l ,
o f r e v e t m e n t b l o c k s i s r e c o g n i s e d as a p o t e n t i a l means
of i n c r e a s i n g t h e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y of revetments.
However, t h e b e h a v i o u r o f s u c h c o m p l e x s y s t e m s w i l l
n o t be f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d u n t i l r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e
unravelled t h e mysteries of r e l a t i v e l y simple,
d i s c r e t e concrete block systems.

The f i n a l , o v e r - r i d i n g c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s r e p o r t m u s t
be t h a t t h e r e i s at p r e s e n t very l i t t l e a v a i l a b l e i n
t h e way oE a r e a l i s t i c d e s i g n m e t h o d o l o g y Eor c o n c r e t e
block revetments. I i s p o s s i b l e t o d e d u c e Erom
r e c e n t publications('. 'l) t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a
c o h e r e n t D u t c h s t r a t e g i c r e s e a r c h programme,
c o n s i s t i n g of l a r g e s c a l e p h y s i c a l model t e s t i n g
combined w i t h m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l l i n g o f t h e
g e o t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s , a n d aimed a t p r o v i d i n g d e s i g n
g u i d a n c e Eor D u t c h e n g i n e e r s c o n c e r n e d w i t h
revetmente. E s s e n t i a l d e t a i l s o f t h i s programme d o
n o t h o w e v e r , a p p e a r t o be a v a i l a b l e . Therefore, i f
t h e d e s i g n of s u c h s t r u c t u r e s i n t h i s c o u n t r y i s t o be
a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n p r i m a r i l y by r u l e o f thumb, a
f u n d a m e n t a l r e s e a r c h programme must be set up t o
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e b e h a v i o u r of c o n c r e t e b l o c k r e v e t m e n t s
from f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s .

6 ACKNOWLEDGEHENTS
T h i s r e p o r t summarises t h e f i n d i n g s of a l i t e r a t u r e
r e v i e w c o n d u c t e d by members o f t h e Elaritime
E n g i n e e r i n g Department of H y d r a u l i c s R e s e a r c h . The
a u t h o r s a r e g r a t e E u l f o r t h e h e l p f u l comments r e c e i v e d
from s u p p l i e r s of r e v e t m e n t systeins and o t h e r s .
7 REFERENCES
1. RBS B r o o k l y n s L t d . "Dytap r e v e t m e n t s y s t e m
d e s i g n handbook".

2. Weckmann J a n d S c a l e s J. " D e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s f o r
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8 GLOSSARY OF TERM
I. CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT: The g r a d i e n t a t ,
and a b o v e , w h i c h movement of t h e m a t e r i a l i n
which. t h e Elow i s o c c u r r i n g commences.

EMBANKMENT: An a r t i f i c i a l bank s u c h as a mound

o r d y k e d e s i g n e d t o h o l d b a c k water s o a s t o
prevent flooding.

FETCH: The d i s t a n c e o v e r w a t e r o n which t h e wind

a c t s t o g e n e r a t e waves.

FILTER LAYER: A l a y e r of g r a n u l a r material

and/or a g e o t e x t i l e l a i d under t h e p r o t e c t i v e
armour l a y e r . The f i l t e r h a s t h r e e m a i n
Eunctions; ( a ) E i l t r a t i o n oE Elow a c r o s s t h e
sub-soil/armour l a y e r boundary, t o prevent
s u b - s o i l f i n e s b e i n g washed o u t ; (b) drainage
under t h e armour l a y e r ; and ( c ) e r o s i o n
p r o t e c t i o n oE t h e E o r m a t i o n of t h e s u b - s o i l d u e
t o water motion above i t .

GEOTEXTILE: S y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l w h i c h may b e
woven o r non-woven and u s e d as a f i I t e r l a y e r .

INTERLOCKING BLOCKS: The method by w h i c h

c o n c r e t e b l o c k e n g a g e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r by
overlapping o r r e c e s s i n g one w i t h a n o t h e r .

INTERNAL STABILITY: A r e v e t m e n t may be r e f e r r e d

t o as i n t e r n a l l y s t a b l e i f none o f i t s u n d e r
l a y e r m a t e r i a l s s t a r t m i g r a t i n g due t o t h e e f f e c t
of a s p e c i f i c w a t e r motion.

OVERTOPPING: P a s s i n g of w a t e r o v e r t h e t o p of a
s t r u c t u r e a s t h e r e s u l t of wave run-up o r s u r g e
action.

REFLECTED WAVE: T h a t p a r t of a n i n c i d e n t wave

t h a t i s r e t u r n e d s e a w a r d when a wave i m p i n g e s on
a structure.

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT: The r a t i o of t h e h e i g h t

of a wave r e f l e c t e d f r o m a s t r u c t u r e t o t h e
h e i g h t o f t h e i n c i d e n t wave.

REVETMENT: The f a c i n g l a y e r s o r a r m o u r i n g
s y s t e m s u s e d t o p r o t e c t a n embankment o r s l o p e
a g a i n s t e r o s i o n by c u r r e n t a n d wave a c t i o n .

RIP-RAP: A l a y e r , f a c i n g o r p r o t e c t i v e mound o f
s t o n e s randomly p l a c e d t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n , s c o u r
o r s l o u g h i n g of a s t r u c t u r e o r embankment; a l s o
t h e s t o n e s o used.

RUN-UP: The r u s h of w a t e r u p a s t r u c t u r e on t h e
 b r e a k i n g o f a wave. The amount o f run-up i s t h e
v e r r i c a l h e i g h t a b o v e s t i l l water l e v e l t h a t t h e
r u s h of w a t e r r e a c h e s .

14. SCOUR: Removal o f u n d e r w a t e r material by w a v e s

and c u r r e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e b a s e o r t o e of a
shore structure.

15. SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT: A s t a t i s t i c a l term

r e l a t i n g t o t h e a v e r a g e h e i g h t of t h e o n e - t h i r d
h i g h e s t w a v e s o f a g i v e n wave g r o u p . T h i s i s t h e
m o s t common d e f i n i t i o n o f wave h e i g h t i n random
sea a n d i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o t h a t v i s u a l l y
estimated.

16. SUB-SOIL (SUB-BASE): The f o r m a t i o n o n w h i c h t h e

revetment system is c o n s t r u c t e d .

17. SWELL WAVES: Wind g e n e r a t e d waves t h a t h a v e

t r a v e l l e d o u t of t h e a r e a i n which t h e y were
originally g e n e r a t e d . E x h i b i t a more r e g u l a r a n d
l o n g e r p e r i o d , and have a f l a t t e r c r e s t t h a n
l o c a l l y g e n e r a t e d waves.

18. UNDERLAYERS: A 1 1 f o r m a t i o n s l y i n g b e n e a t h t h e
p r o t e c t l v e s u r f a c e l a y e r of a r e v e t m e n t .
I n c l u d e s both t h e f i l t e r l a y e r s and t h e
sub-base.

19. WAVE PERIOD: The time i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t w o

s u c c e s s i v e wave c r e s t s p a s s i n g a f i x e d p o i n t
 q s n ~ - d n 04 anp sa3Jod = g
juawu!e.qua
J!e 0 4 anp adols uo s a ~ n s s a ~ndo 1 = L
adols uo 6u!lle4
q e n 40 ssew 04 anp s a ~ n s s a ~44!ldn d = 9
p e d w ! aheM = tj
pp!4 r ( j ! ~ o l aU!~ a 6 u e q = 7
4uo.q ahen
d
f i u ! q ~ e o ~ d d04e anp s a ~ n s s a ~44!ldn =E
a41!4 U! J a j e n o+ anp s a ~ n s s a ~44!ldn d =z
q s n ~ - u n o p 04 anp sa3Jo-j = L
Fig 2 Wave impact pressure distributions
0'7 O'E 0t c
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