‫محاضرات االسبوع الثالث‬

Oct 26

a- Flow over a cylinder

Fig.(12): Boundary layer formation and separation on a circular

cylinder in cross flow.

Fig.(13): Velocity profile associated with separation on a circular

cylinder in cross flow.
NuD=C (ReD) m x Pr1/3 0.4<ReD < 4x105, Pr> 0.7 …..(5)
Where the constants of equation C and m are shown in Table (1)

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Table (1): Constants C and m values for equation (5).
ReD C m
0.4–4 0.989 0.330
4–40 0.911 0.385
40–4000 0.683 0.466
4000–40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000–400,000 0.027 0.805
Equation (5) above may also be used for flow over cylinders of
noncircular cross section, with the characteristic length D and the
constants obtained from Table (2).

Table (2): Values for constants in equation (5).

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In working with equations other correlations have been suggested for
the circular cylinder in cross flow.

……(6)
where all properties are evaluated at Tœ except Prs, which is evaluated
at Ts. If Pr <10, n=0.37 . Values of C and m are listed in Table (3).

Table (3): Values of C and m for equation (6)

All properties except μs are evaluated at Tœ.

a- Flow Across Banks of Tubes
Heat transfer to or from a bank (or bundle) of tubes in cross flow is
relevant to numerous industrial applications, such as steam generation in
a boiler or air cooling in the coil of an air conditioner. The geometric
arrangement is shown schematically in Fig.(14).

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 Fig.(14).:Schematic of a tube bank in cross flow.
The tube rows of a bank can be either aligned or staggered in the direction
of the fluid velocity V Fig.(15). The configuration is characterized by the
tube diameter D and by the transverse pitch ST and longitudinal pitch SL
measured between tube centers.

Fig.(15): Tube arrangements in a bank. (a) Aligned. (b) Staggered.

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The corresponding flow conditions are shown in Fig.(16).

Fig.(16): Flow conditions for (a) aligned and (b) staggered tubes.
The Reynolds number ReD,max = ρ Vmax.D/ μ for the foregoing correlation
is based on the maximum fluid velocity occurring within the tube bank, .
For the aligned arrangement, Vmax occurs at the transverse plane A1 of
Fig.(15a), and from the mass conservation requirement for an
incompressible fluid.
Vmax = ST V/(ST-D)
For the staggered configuration, the maximum velocity may occur at
either the transverse plane A1 or the diagonal plane A2 of Fig.15b). It
will occur at A2 if the rows are spaced such that
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 2(SD- D)< (ST-D)
The factor of 2 results from the bifurcation experienced by the fluid
moving from the A1 to the A2 planes.
Hence Vmax occurs at A2 if

in which case it is given by

where NL is the number of tube rows, all properties except Prs are
evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the fluid inlet (Ti = Tœ) and outlet
(To) temperatures, and the constants C1 and m are listed in Table (4).

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Table (4): Constants of Equation for noncircular cylinders in cross flow
of a gas.

If there are 20 or fewer rows of tubes, NL< 20, the average heat transfer
coefficient is typically reduced, and a correction factor may be applied
such that

Table(5) : Correction factor C2 < for NL< 20 (ReD,max >103)

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Notes for engineers
Pr=  Cp/ K = viscous / conduction= H/T
Re=  VL/  = Inertia force/ viscous force
Gr= βg ρ2L3 ΔT/μ2 = Bouncyforce/viscous force
Nu= hL/kf = convection heat/heat conduction
Cp= It is a measure of ability to store thermal
energy. For example
Cp= 4.18 Kj/kg C for water
Cp= 0.45 Kj/kg C for iron
Turbulent heat transfer  laminar heat transfer

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 Methodology for a Convection Calculation
1- Define the shape of the geometry such as flow over flat plate,
cylinder, sphere or internal flow such as flow in pipe, annulus,
…etc.
2- Specify the temperature at which the properties of the fluid to be
calculated.
3- Specify the type of flow whether laminar or turbulent.
4- Specify the type of heat transfer coefficient to be calculated
whether it’s local or average.
Following above steps we can select the appropriate equation to solve
the problem.

WE LEARNED FROM HEAT TRANSFER COURSE

UP TO CHAPTER 10 IN TEXT

Our preceding discussions of convection heat transfer

have considered homogeneous single phase systems.

APPLIED HEAT STRATS FROM CHAPTER 10

Applied Heat Transfer with phase change Oct

26

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 ‫المحاضرة الثانية‬
Oct.28
Applications

In many types of power or refrigeration cycles one is interested in changing a

vapor to a liquid, or a liquid to a vapor, depending on the particular part of the

cycle under study. These changes are accomplished by boiling or condensation,
and the engineer must understand the processes involved in order to design the
appropriate heat-transfer equipment.
High heat-transfer rates are usually involved in boiling and condensation, and this
fact has also led designers of compact heat exchangers to utilize the phenomena for
heating or cooling purposes not necessarily associated with power cycles.

FROM FLUID MECHANICS

- Surface Tension

Fig. 4: Attractive forces acting on a liquid molecule at the surface and deep
inside the liquid.

To visualize how surface tension arises, we present a microscopic view in

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Fig. 4 by considering two liquid molecules, one at the surface and one
deep within the liquid body. The attractive forces applied on the interior
molecule by the surrounding molecules balance each other because of symmetry.
But the attractive forces acting on the surface molecule are not symmetric,
and the attractive forces applied by the gas molecules above are usually
very small. Therefore, there is a net attractive force acting on the
molecule at the surface of the liquid, which tends to pull the molecules on
the surface toward the interior of the liquid. This force is balanced by the
repulsive forces from the molecules below the surface that are being compressed.
The resulting compression effect causes the liquid to minimize its
surface area. This is the reason for the tendency of the liquid droplets to
attain a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given
volume.

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Table 1: Surface tension of liquid–vapor interface for water

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Table 2: Surface tension of some fluids.

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DEFINITIONS

We know from thermodynamics that:

When the vapor quality is equal to 0, it is referred to as the saturated
liquid state (single-phase).
On the other hand, when the vapor quality is equal to 1, it is referred to as
the saturated vapor state or dry steam (single-phase).
Between these two states, we talk about vapor-liquid mixture or wet
steam (two-phase mixture). At constant pressure, an addition of energy
does not changes the temperature of the mixture, but the vapor
quality and specific volume changes.

- Saturation state
The term saturation defines a condition in which a mixture of vapor and liquid can
exist together in equilibrium conditions. Saturation temperature or boiling point.

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 - Saturation temperature and pressure
The term saturation defines a condition in which a mixture of vapor and liquid
can exist together at a given temperature and pressure.
The temperature at which vaporization (boiling) starts to occur for a given
pressure is called the saturation temperature or boiling point.
The pressure at which vaporization (boiling) starts to occur for a given
temperature is called the saturation pressure.

When the temperature of a liquid at a specified pressure is raised to the saturation

temperature Tsat at that pressure, boiling occurs.

Likewise, when the temperature of a vapor is lowered to Tsat, condensation

occurs.
Boiling and condensation differ from other forms of convection in that they depend
on :
- the latent heat of vaporization( hfg) of the fluid and
- the surface tension(ϭ) at the liquid–vapor interface, in addition to
- the properties of the fluid in each phase.

- Latent Heat of Vaporization

Latent heat of vaporization is a physical property of a substance.
When a material in liquid state is given energy, it changes its phase from liquid to
vapor without change in temperature, the energy absorbed in the process is called
latent heat of vaporization. The latent heat of vaporization of water for example is
about 2260kJ/Kg .

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The most common types of constant-temperature processes are phase changes,
such as melting, freezing, vaporization, or condensation.
The energy is considered to be "latent" because:
- It is essentially hidden within the molecules until the phase change occurs.
It is "specific" because:
- It is expressed in terms of energy per unit mass. The most common units of
specific latent heat are joules per gram (J/g) and kilojoules per kilogram
(kJ/kg).
- Latent Heat of Fusion: Latent heat of fusion is the heat absorbed or
released when matter melts, changing phase from solid to liquid form at a
constant temperature.
-

The processes of melting and vaporization are shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: Melting and vaporization.

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Main difference between boiling and evaporation processes
Boiling and evaporation, while sharing the same general idea of water
transforming from a liquid state into a gaseous state, overall, they are two very
different concepts overall. These terms cannot be used interchangeably.

Boiling
1 Boiling refers to any liquid which turns
into gas after continuous heating
2 Boiling occurs when the temperature of
the liquid is greater than the boiling point
of the substance
Evaporation
Evaporation refers to a natural process where
liquid changes into gas due to high
temperature or pressure.
Evaporation occurs at any temperature. It
occurs as long as the substance remains
liquid at a particular temperature

3 Boiling occurs at high temperature and Evaporation occurs at room temperature and

therefore, occurs at a faster rate when therefore, occurs at a slower rate when

compared to evaporation. compared to boiling.

- Boiling
Boiling is a liquid-to-vapor phase change process just like evaporation, but
there are significant differences between the two.
- Evaporation
Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when the vapor pressure is less
than the saturation pressure of the liquid at a given temperature.

A liquid-to-vapour phase change process is called evaporation if it occurs at a

liquid–vapour interface as shown in Fig.6

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 Fig. 6: Evaporation
Boiling, on the other hand, occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid
is brought into contact with a surface maintained at a temperature Ts sufficiently
above the saturation temperature Tsat of the liquid as shown in Fig.7

Fig. 7: Boiling
As a form of convection heat transfer, the boiling heat flux from a solid
surface to the fluid is expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as:

q·boiling = h(Ts - Tsat) = h_Texcess (W/m2)

where Texcess= Ts -Tsat is called the excess temperature, which represents

the excess of the surface above the saturation temperature of the fluid.

In the preceding chapters we considered forced and free convection heat

transfer involving a single phase of a fluid. The analysis of such convection
processes involves the thermophysical properties ρ, μ, k, and Cp of the fluid.

The analysis of boiling heat transfer involves these properties of the

Liquid (indicated by the subscript l) or vapor (indicated by the subscript v) as well
as the properties hfg (the latent heat of vaporization) and (the surface tension).
The hfg represents the energy absorbed as a unit mass of liquid vaporizes
at a specified temperature or pressure and is the primary quantity of energy.

The hfg values of water at various temperatures are given in Table.

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