1.

Flow Across Banks of Tubes (External Flow)

Heat transfer to or from a bank (or bundle) of tubes in cross flow is relevant to numerous industrial
applications, such as steam generation in a boiler or air cooling in the coil of an air conditioner.
The geometric arrangement is shown schematically in typically, one fluid moves over the tubes,
while a second fluid at a different temperature passes through the tubes. In this section we are
especially interested in the convection heat transfer associated with cross flow over the tubes.

Figure 1. Schematic of a tube bank in cross flow

The tube rows of a bank can be either aligned (inline) or staggered in the direction of the fluid
velocity V. The configuration is characterized by the tube diameter D and by the transverse pitch
ST and longitudinal pitch SL measured between tube centers. Flow conditions within the bank are
dominated by boundary layer separation effects and by wake interactions, which in turn influence
convection heat transfer.

Figure 2. Tube arrangements in a bank. (a) Aligned, (b) Staggered.

Flow around the tubes in the first row of a tube bank is like that for a single (isolated) cylinder in
cross flow. Correspondingly, the heat transfer coefficient for a tube in the first row is
approximately equal to that for a single tube in cross flow. For downstream rows, flow conditions
depend strongly on the tube bank arrangement. Aligned tubes beyond the first row reside in the
wakes of upstream tubes, and for moderate values of SL convection coefficients associated with
downstream rows are enhanced by mixing, or turbulation, of the flow. Typically, the convection
coefficient of a row increases with increasing row number until approximately the fifth row, after
which there is little change in flow conditions and hence in the convection coefficient. For large
SL, the influence of upstream rows decreases, and heat transfer in the downstream rows is not
enhanced. For this reason, operation of aligned tube banks with S T/SL< 0.7 is undesirable. For the
staggered tube array, the path of the main flow is more tortuous, and mixing of the cross-flowing
fluid is increased relative to the aligned tube arrangement. In general, heat transfer enhancement
is favored by the more tortuous flow of a staggered arrangement, particularly for small Reynolds
numbers (ReD ≤100).

Typically, we wish to know the average heat transfer coefficient for the entire tube bank. Grimson
proposed the following equation for the cross flow of air over a bundle of 10 or more rows (NL≥10).

C1 and m coefficients were given in Table 3 for different geometric and flow arrangements. This
result can be generalized for the other fluids multiplying with 1.13𝑃𝑟1/3 . Finally, the following
relations are obtained.

The properties in the equations above must be taken into consideration at average film
temperature. If NL<10, correction factor C2 is used in the previous equation. C2 values are given
in the table below.

Table 1. C2 correction factors for NL<10

Zhukauskas has proposed another correlation as below;

where NL is the number of tube rows, all properties except Prs (Prandtl Number at the surface
temperature) are evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the fluid inlet (Ti=T∞) and outlet (To)
temperatures, and the constants C1 and m are listed in Table below. The need to evaluate fluid
properties at the arithmetic mean of the inlet and outlet temperatures is dictated by the fact that
the fluid temperature will decrease or increase, respectively, due to heat transfer to or from the
tubes. If the change of the mean fluid temperature, │Ti -To│, is large, significant error could result
from the evaluation of the properties at the inlet temperature.

Figure 3. Flow conditions for a) aligned and b) staggered tubes.

Table 2. Constants of Equation for tube bank.

Table 3. Constants C1 and m for 10 and more row numbers in tube bank.
 ST/D
1.25 1.5 2 3
SL/D C1 m C1 m C1 m C1 m
Regular
1.25 0.348 0.592 0.275 0.608 0.1 0.704 0.0633 0.752
1.5 0.367 0.586 0.25 0.62 0.101 0.702 0.0678 0.744
2 0.418 0.57 0.299 0.602 0.229 0.632 0.198 0.648
3 0.29 0.601 0.357 0.584 0.374 0.581 0.286 0.608
Staggered
0.6 - - - - - - 0.213 0.636
0.9 - - - - 0.446 0.571 0.401 0.581
1 - - 0.497 0.558 - - - -
1.125 - - - - 0.478 0.565 0.518 0.56
1.25 0.518 0.556 0.505 0.554 0.519 0.556 0.522 0.562
1.5 0.451 0.568 0.46 0.562 0.452 0.568 0.488 0.568
2 0.404 0.572 0.416 0.568 0.482 0.556 0.449 0.57
3 0.31 0.592 0.356 0.58 0.44 0.562 0.428 0.574

If there are 20 or fewer rows of tubes, NL ≤20, the average heat transfer coefficient is typically
reduced, and a correction factor may be applied such that

where C2 is given in Table.

Table 4. Correction factor C2 for NL ≤20, ReD,max ≥103.

The Reynolds number ReD,max for the foregoing correlation is based on the maximum fluid velocity
occurring within the tube bank,

𝜌𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜇

For the aligned arrangement, Vmax occurs at the transverse plane A1, and from the mass
conservation requirement for an incompressible fluid,

𝑆𝑇
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉
𝑆𝑇 − 𝐷

For the staggered configuration, the maximum velocity may occur at either the transverse plane
A1 or the diagonal plane A2. It will occur at A2 if the rows are spaced such that
 2(𝑆𝐷 − 𝐷) < (𝑆𝑇 − 𝐷)

The factor of 2 results from the bifurcation experienced by the fluid moving from the A1 to the A2
planes. Hence Vmax occurs at A2 if

𝑆𝑇 2 𝑆𝑇 + 𝐷
𝑆𝐷 = [𝑆𝐿 2 + ( ) ]<
2 2
in which case it is given by

𝑆𝑇
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉
2(𝑆𝐷 − 𝐷)

If Vmax occurs at A1 for the staggered configuration, it may again be computed from the method
given for aligned arrangement.

Since the fluid may experience a large change in temperature as it moves through the tube bank,
the heat transfer rate could be significantly overpredicted by using ΔT= Ts- T∞ as the temperature
difference in Newton's law of cooling. As the fluid moves through the bank, its temperature
approaches Ts and │ΔT│ decreases. The appropriate form of ΔT is shown to be a log-mean
temperature difference,

where Ti and To are temperatures of the fluid as it enters and leaves the bank, respectively. The
outlet temperature, which is needed to determine ΔTlm, may be estimated from

where N is the total number of tubes in the bank and NT is the number of tubes in each row. Once
ΔTlm is known, the heat transfer rate per unit length of the tubes may be computed from

We close by recognizing that there is generally as much interest in the pressure drop associated
with flow across a tube bank as in the overall heat transfer rate. The power required to move the
fluid across the bank is often a major operating expense and is directly proportional to the pressure
drop, which may be expressed as,
The friction factor f and the correction factor  are plotted in figures below pertains to a square,
in-line tube arrangement for which the dimensionless longitudinal and transverse pitches,
PL≡SL/D and PT≡ ST /D, respectively, are equal. The correction factor , plotted in the inset, is
used to apply the results to other in-line arrangements. Note that =1 for both square and
equilateral triangle arrangements. Similarly, figures apply to a staggered arrangement of tubes in
the form of an equilateral triangle (ST=SD), and the correction factor enables extension of the
results to other staggered arrangements. Note that the Reynolds number appearing in the figures
below based on the maximum fluid velocity Vmax.

Figure 4. Friction factor ƒ and correction factor  for in-line (aligned) tube bundle.
 Figure 5. Friction factor ƒ and correction factor  for Equation for staggered tube arrangement.

The power required to move a fluid through a tube bank is proportional to the pressure drop,
and when the pressure drop is available, the pumping power required can be determined from

Example:

Pressurized water is often available at elevated

temperatures and may be used for space heating or
industrial process applications. In such cases it is customary
to use a tube bundle in which the water is passed through
the tubes, while air is passed in cross flow over the tubes.
Consider a staggered arrangement for which the tube
outside diameter is 16.4 mm and the longitudinal and
transverse pitches are longitudinal and transverse pitches
are SL= 34.3 mm and ST=31.3 mm. There are seven rows of
tubes in the airflow direction and eight tubes per row. Under
typical operating conditions the cylinder surface
temperature is at 70°C, while the air upstream temperature
and velocity are 15°C and 6 m/s, respectively. Determine the
air-side convection coefficient and the rate of heat transfer
for the tube bundle. What is the air-side pressure drop?
Solution 1:

Assumptions
- Steady-state, incompressible flow conditions.
-Negligible radiation effects.
-Negligible effect of change in air temperature across tube bank on air properties.
Solution 2 for convection:

Table 5. C2 correction factors for NL<10

𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝐶2 𝐶1 1.13𝑅𝑒𝐷,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3
 0.558
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.97𝑥0.468𝑥1.13𝑅𝑒𝐷,𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.711/3
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 92.05
𝑊
𝑁𝑢𝐷 𝑘 92.05𝑥0.0253 𝑚𝐾 𝑊
ℎ= = = 142 2
𝐷 0.0164𝑚 𝑚 𝐾

2. Internal Flow

When dealing with internal flows, it is important to be cognizant of the extent of the entry region,
which depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. The Reynolds number for flow in a
circular tube is defined as

where um is the mean fluid velocity over the tube cross section and D is the tube diameter. In a
fully developed flow, the critical Reynolds number corresponding to the onset of turbulence is,

although much larger Reynolds numbers (ReD≈10,000) are needed to achieve fully turbulent
conditions. The transition to turbulence is likely to begin in the developing boundary layer of the
entrance region.

2.1. The Mean Velocity

Because the velocity varies over the cross section and there is no well-defined free stream, it is
necessary to work with a mean velocity um when dealing with internal flows. This velocity is
defined such that, when multiplied by the fluid density and the cross-sectional area of the tube Ac,
it provides the rate of mass flow through the tube. Hence

For steady, incompressible flow in a tube of uniform cross-sectional area, and um are constants
independent of x. For flow in a circular tube in 𝐴𝑐 = 𝜋𝐷 2 /4, the Reynolds number reduces to

It certainly is desirable to have precise values of Reynolds numbers for laminar, transitional, and
turbulent flows, but this is not the case in practice. This is because the transition from laminar to
turbulent flow also depends on the degree of disturbance of the flow by surface roughness, pipe
vibrations, and the fluctuations in the flow. Under most practical conditions, the flow in a tube is
laminar for Re<2300, turbulent for Re>10,000, and transitional in between. That is,
 Figure 6. Flow transitions between laminar and turbulent flow.

In transitional flow, the flow switches between laminar and turbulent randomly. It should be kept
in mind that laminar flow can be maintained at much higher Reynolds numbers in very smooth
pipes by avoiding flow disturbances and tube vibrations. In such carefully controlled experiments,
laminar flow has been maintained at Reynolds numbers of up to 100,000.

2.2. Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes

We mentioned earlier that flow in tubes is laminar for Re<2300, and that the flow is fully
developed if the tube is sufficiently long (relative to the entry length) so that the entrance effects
are negligible. In this section we consider the steady laminar flow of an incompressible fluid with
constant properties in the fully developed region of a straight circular tube.
2.2.1. Friction Factor for Laminar Flow

The engineer is frequently interested in the pressure drop needed to sustain an internal flow
because this parameter determines pump or fan power requirements. for fully developed laminar
flow,

For fully developed turbulent flow, the analysis is much more complicated, and we must ultimately
rely on experimental results. In addition to depending on the Reynolds number, the friction factor
is a function of the tube surface condition and increases with surface roughness e. Measured
friction factors covering a wide range of conditions have been correlated by Colebrook and are
described by the transcendental expression,

A correlation for the smooth surface condition that encompasses a large Reynolds number
range has been developed by Petukhov and is of the form.
Another correlation giving excellent results on smooth surfaces is provided as below.

𝑓 = 0.316𝑅𝑒𝐷 −1/4 ; 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≤ 2. 104

𝑓 = 0.184𝑅𝑒𝐷 −1/5 ; 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≥ 2. 104

2.2.2. Entry Length
The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the distance from the tube entrance where
the friction coefficient reaches within about 2 percent of the fully developed value. In laminar
flow, the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths are given approximately as

In practice, it is generally agreed that the entrance effects are confined within a tube length of 10
diameters, and the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths are approximately taken to be

In practice, it is found convenient to express the pressure drop one of the most general relations
in fluid mechanics, and it is valid for laminar or turbulent flows, circular or noncircular
pipes, and smooth or rough surfaces;
2
𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑚
∆𝑃 = 𝑓
𝐷 2

Or using the distance between the length of tube as 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 instead of L;

2
𝜌𝑢𝑚
∆𝑃 = 𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑥 )
2𝐷 2 1

Figure 7. Pressure drops in circular tubes.

Once the pressure drop is available, the required pumping power is determined from;

where V is the volume flow rate of flow, which is expressed as

Note from this equation that for a specified flow rate, the pressure drop and thus the required
pumping power is proportional to the length of the tube and the viscosity of the fluid, but it is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of the radius (or diameter) of the tube. Therefore, the
pumping power requirement for a piping system can be reduced by a factor of 16 by doubling the
tube diameter. Of course, the benefits of the reduction in the energy costs must be weighed against
the increased cost of construction due to using a larger diameter tube.

Figure 8. The pumping power requirement for a laminar flow piping system can be reduced by a
factor of 16 by doubling the pipe diameter.

For fully developed laminar flow in a circular tube subjected to constant surface heat flux, the
Nusselt number is a constant. There is no dependence on the Reynolds or the Prandtl numbers.
Therefore,

2.3. Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes

One correlation for Nusselt number under turbulent flow in circular tubes, valid for smooth tubes
over a large Reynolds number range including the transition region, is provided by Gnielinski,

The correlation is valid for 0.5≤Pr≤2000 and 3000≤ReD≤5x106. In using this equation, which
applies for both uniform surface heat flux and temperature, properties should be evaluated at
mean temperature Tm.
For turbulent flow in rough tubes, the heat transfer coefficient increases with wall roughness, and,
as a first approximation, it may be computed by using the equation above with friction factors
obtained from the previous approaches given for friction factor or the Moody diagram, given in
the figure below.

Figure 9. Friction factor for fully developed flow in a circular tube.

Example: Water at 27°C is flowing through a 30 mm diameter and 10m long horizontal pipes
steadily at an average velocity of 1 m/s and volume flow rate of 0.028 m3/s. Determine the pressure
drop and power requirement to overcome this pressure droop. (Density of water ρ= 1000 kg/m 3,
dynamic viscosity µ=855.10-6 Ns/m2).
Solution:
2
𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑚
∆𝑃 = 𝑓
𝐷 2
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 −2
𝜌𝑢𝑚 𝐷 1000 𝑚3 𝑥1 𝑠 3. 10 𝑚
𝑅𝑒 = = = 35087.7
𝜇 −6 𝑁𝑠
855. 10
𝑚2
𝑅𝑒 > 2300 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑓 = 0.184𝑅𝑒𝐷 −1/5 ; 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≥ 2. 104

 𝑓 = 0.184𝑥35087.7−1/5 = 0.0226
𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
10𝑚 1000 𝑚3 𝑥1 𝑠 2
∆𝑃 = 0.0226 = 3781𝑃𝑎 = 3.78 𝑘𝑃𝑎
3. 10−2 𝑚 2
𝑚3
𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑉̇ ∆𝑃 = 0.028 𝑥3.84𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.105 𝑘𝑊
𝑠