Duct Designing

Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes:

Fluid Flow is streamlined and thus laminar at low velocities but turns turbulent as velocity
increases beyond a critical value.

 For flow in circular tubes the Reynolds number is defined as

V avg D ρV avg D
Re= ѵ = µ
And;
Vol
AVavg= t
Vol ṁ 4ṁ
Vavg= t A = ρ π D 2/ 4 = ρ π D 2
4ṁ
Vavg= µ π D
 For flow through non circular tubes, The Reynolds number as well as Nussle number and
Friction factor are based on the hydraulic diameter “ Dh ” defined as
4 Ac
Dh= P
 Where ‘Ac’ is the cross sectional area of tube and ‘p’ is its wetted perimeter.

The Entrance Region

The region from the duct inlet to the point at which velocity profile is fully developed is
called hydrodynamic entrance region and the length of this region is called the
hydrodynamic length ‘Lh’.Flow in the entrance region is called hydro dynamically
developing flow.
The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile is fully developed
and remains unchanged is called hydro dynamically fully developed region.
The velocity profile in fully developed region is parabolic in laminar flow and somewhat
flatter or fuller in turbulent flow due to eddy motion and more vigorous mixing in radial
direction.
Now consider a fluid at uniform temperature entering a circular tube or duct whose
surface is
Maintained at a different temperature .This time, the fluid particles in the layer in
contact with the surface of tube assume the surface temperature. This initiates the
convection heat transfer in the duct and developing of thermal boundary layer in the
duct. The thickness of boundary layer also increases in the flow direction until the
boundary reaches the tube center and thus fills the entire tube.

The region of flow over which the thermal boundary layer develops and reaches the
tube center is called the “Thermal entrance Region” and the length of this region is
called “Thermal Entry Length Lt “.Flow in the thermal entrance region is called thermally
developing flow this is the region where temperature profile developsal

Calculations:
ρe=0.486 kg/m3
K=0.050 W/m0C
Ѵ= 68.34 x 10-6 m2/s
Cp=1160 J/Kg0C
Pr=0.7354

Vol
=AV
t
Or
V
=AcV ……….(1)
t
Ac¿ π r 2
Ac= π (0.88/2)2
Ac=0.6082m2
m
ρ= V
Or
ṁ
ρ= V /t
V/t=1.576/0.486
V/t=3.24 m3/s
From (1)
3.24= (0.6082)Vm
Vm=5.229 m/s
Reynolds’s number:
VmD
Re = ѵ
= 5.229x0.880/68.34x10-6
Re=67332.74
As Re>10,000 so flow is Turbulent.
The entry length is much shorter in turbulent flow as expected and its dependence on
Reynolds number is weaker in many tube flow of particle interest, the entrance effects
become insignificant beyond a tube length of 10 diameters and the hydrodynamic and
thermal entry lengths are approximately taken to be
Lh=Lt=10D
So, Lh=10(0.880)
Entry Length
Lr=Lt=8.80m
Nussllte number
 hD
Nu= K =0.023Re0.8Pr0.3
For smooth tubes, the friction factor in turbulent flow can be determined from the
explicit first petukhov equation given as;
Smooth tubes;
f= (0.790lnRe-1.64)-2
As 3000<Re<5x100
The Nusslet number in turbulent flow is related to the friction factor through the
Chilton-Colburn analogy expressed as;
Nu=0.125RePr1/3
Once the friction factor is available this equation can be used conveniently to evaluate
the nussellt number for both smooth and rough tubes. For fully developed turbulent
flow in smooth tubes, a simple relation for Nussellt number can be obtained by
substituting. The simple power law relation f=0.184Re-0.2
For the friction factor into equation (ii) it gives;
Nu=0.023Re0.8Pr03 (0.7<Pr<160 and Re>10,000)
This is known as Colburn Equation
So;
hD
Nu= K =0.023Re0.8Pr03=0.023(67332.74)0.8(0.7354)0.3
Nu=152.85
Heat –Transfer Co-efficient:
KNu
h= D = 8.68W/m2 0C
Surface area of round duct;
As=2 π rl=24.32m2
In the absence of any work interactions (such as electric-resistance heating).The
conservation of energy equation for the steady flow of a fluid in a tube can expressed
as;
Q
=ṁCp(Te-Ti)
t
Where “Ti” and “Te”are the mean fluid temperature at the inlet and exit of the tube
respectively and Q is the rate of heat transfer to or from the fluid.
From Energy Balance;

Q
= ṁCp (Ti-Te)
t

From Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of heat transfer to or from the fluid flowing in a
tube can be expressed as;
Q
=hAs∆Tavg=hAs (Ts-Ta) avg ……….. (2)
t
The energy balance on a differential control volume shown in fig below

mCpdTm=h (Ts-Tm) dAs……………… (iii)

dAs=pdx ( where p is the perimeter of tube)
and
dTm=-d(Ts-Tm) ; Ts=constant
So,
d (T s−T m) −hpdx
=
(T s−T m) ṁC p
Integrating from x=0 (Tube inlet where Ti=Tm) to x=L(Tube exit where Tm=Te)
Gives,c
T s−T e −hA s
ln =
T s−T i ṁC p
−hAs
ṁCp= ln T s−T e l
T s−T i
substituting this into equation (1)
Q
=hiAs∆Tln…………………(3)
t
Where,
(T e−T i)
∆Tln= ln T s−T e
T s−T i
T e−427
∆Tln= ln T s−T e
T s−427
Put in (3)
T e−427 ¿ ¿
Q T s−T e ……………………(3’)
t
=hiAs ln
T s−427
From equation (2)
Q
=h0As(Ts-T0)=20(24.32)(Ts-30)…………….(2’)
t
From equation (1)
Q
=ṁCp(Ti-Te)
t
Q
=1.576x1160(427-Te)…………………………(1’)
t
Q 1
=427-Te………………………….(4’)
t 1.576 x 1160
Put equation (4’) into (3’)
T e−427 ¿ ¿
Q T s−T e
t
=8.68(24.32) ln
T s−427
 Q 1
.( )
Q t 1828.16
t
=211.09 x T s−T e
ln
T s−427
−0.1154
1= ln T s−T e
T s−427
e−¿0.115= [Ts-Te/Ts-427]
Ts=9.17Te-3490.43 ………..(a)
From equation(1’)
Q
=1828.16(427-Te)…………………………..(b)
t
Put equation (a) in (2’)
Q
=486.4(9.17xTe-3520.43)………………………(c)
t
Comparing (b) and (c)
Te=396.430C
From equation (a)
Ts=144.880C
In order to find out total heat loss within duct we use equation 3’
396.43−427 ¿ ¿
Q 144.88−396.43
t
=8.68 ×24.32 × ln
144.88−427

Q
=55KW
t

Pressure Drop in Ducts:

The fundamental equation for computing the pressure drop of a fluid flowing through a
straight duct of circular cross section is
fLV 2 ρ
∆p= 2 D ……………………….(1)
∆p=Pressure Drop
f=friction factor,dimensionless
L=Length,m
D=Inside dimeter(ID) of duct,m
V=Velocity,m/s
 ρ=Density of fluid,Kg/m3
The friction factor ‘f’ is a function of the Reynolds number and the relative Roughness of
the duct surface …….. Where E is the absolute roughness in meters.
Both graphical and equation representation of the friction factor are available. Below
equation derives from the work of Colebrook.
1
{
f= 1.14+2 log D −2 log ¿ ¿ 2…………………………(c)
( )
ε
This equation is implicit in “f” so a trial value of “f” can be substituted on the right side
and an improved value computed from the equation.
The graphical source of the value of “f” is the traditional Moody chart.

Calculations of pressure drop:

fLV 2 ρ
∆p= ……………….(1)
2D
The absolute Roughness for Galvanized steel (G.S) is 0.0005 ft=0.1524mm. So relative
Roughness is;
ε
=0.1524mm/880mm=0.00017318
D
Since; Re=67332
From Moody Chart the value of f=0.022

Put f=0.022 in equation (c) in order to obtain improved value of friction factor
1
{
f= 880 2
1.14+2 log (
0.1524 )
−2 log¿ ¿

After simplification we get,

f=0.0201

Darcy Friction Factor For Turbulent Flow can be calculated from

ε 68 1/4
f=0.11 ( + )
d Re

0.1524 68 1/4
f=0.11 ( + )
880 67332

f=0.0204
Now from Equation (2)

0.0201× 8.8 ×5.22962 ×0.486

∆p=
2(0.88)

∆p=1.335Pa

Head Loss
Head loss through duct can be determined from the following expression

fL V 2
hf= 2 gd
2
hf= 0.0201× 8.80 ×5.229
2× 9.8 ×0.880

hf=0.28m

Pressure Loss in Elbow

The most common elbow used in duct system is 90° turns either circular or
rectangular in cross section.

Weishbach proposed that: “The pressure loss in an elbow is due to the sudden
expansion from the contracted region in plane 1’ as shown in figure below.”

To full cross section area of duct in plane 2 presuure losses in rectangular elbow
determined by Medison and Parker are shown.
These data also shown that a flat 90° elbow with a large value of W/H suffess less
pressure that a deep 90° elbow, suggesting that the subdivision of an elbow into
multiple elbow of large W/H by installing. Turning vanes will reduce the pressure
drop. Turning vanes as shown in figure below have the effect of increasing W/H
and are frequently used.

V2 ƥ
P loss =
2 (geometry factor) …………………………………………… (iv)
 Table: Geometry factor in Equation for
pressure loss in circular 90° elbows

Geometry factor
Radius of curvature
Ratio= diameter
0.90
0.5
0.73 0.45
1.0 0.33
1.5 0.24
2.0 0.19

From (iv) using of ratio of radius of curvature to diameter as ‘1’, geometry

factor=0.33

(5.2292 )(0.486)(0.33)
P loss =
2

=2.19 Pa

Using ratio of 2.0, Geometry factor =0.19

Ploss = 1.26 Pa

Pressure loss in sudden enlargement

There is change in area in sudden enlargements duct because of losses that

prevail the Bernoulli’s Equation no larger applies it can be amended to the revised
Bernoulli’s Equation.

P ₁ V ₁2 P ₂ V ₂2 Ploss
+ = + + …………………………………….. 1
ƥ 2 ƥ ƥ ƥ

The other principle to be combined with Equation ‘1’ to develop an expression for
the pressure loss is the momentum Equation.
P₁A₁ - P₂A₂ = V₂ (V₂ A₂ƥ) – (V₁A₁ƥ)……………………………….. 2

Which states that the difference in force on the opposite sides of control volume
shown by the dashed lines in figure ‘1’ equals the rate of change in momentum
due to separation of flow from the surface at the abrupt enlargement the low
pressure P₁ prevails immediately after the expansion and acts over the entire area
A₂. This is the separation that causes the pressure loss in the sudden enlargement
substituting (P₁ - P₂) from equation ‘2’ in equation ‘1’ yields the expression for
Pressure Loss.

V2 ƥ A₁
P loss =
2 (1 - A₂
¿ . Pa………………………………….. 3

V2 ƥ
This pattern in equation ‘3’ is now familiar in that the loss is the product of
2
group and a term representing the geometry, Equation ‘3’ is called The Borda-
Carnot Equation.

Velocity of flue gases = V₁ = 5.229 m/s

Density of flue gases = ƥ = 0.486 kg/m3

So by using Equation ‘3’

(5.2292 )(0.486)
P loss =
2
¿

Ploss = 1.66 Pa.

Substituting “Pressure Loss” into the revised Bernoulli’s Equation permits
computation of the Pressure rise,

(V 12−V 22) ƥ
P₂ - P₁ =
2
−¿ Ploss
( 5.2292−2.61452 ) 486
P₂ - P₁ = −1.66
2

P₂ - P₁ = 3.323 Pa

{V2=V1/2 as ;A₂ =2A₁ }

Instead of pressure rising of 4.983 Pa, as The Bernoulli’s Equation Would indicate
for a Process with no losses, the actual Pressure rise is 3.323 Pa.

Fan Efficiency
 Static pressure: The absolute pressure at a point minus the reference
atmospheric pressure.
 Dynamics pressure : The rise in static pressure which occurs when air
moving with specified velocity at a point is bought to rest W/O loss of
mechanical energy .it is also known as velocity pressure.
 Total pressure: The sum of static and dynamic pressure at a point
 Fan shaft Power: The mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft.

Calculations:
Fan efficiency can be calculated by using following relation;

%ήfan ¿
Q ( m3s ) × dP( pascals) × 100 ………………….. (1)
( P ) shaft (watts)

Where;

ήfan = fan efficiency (values between 0 - 1)

dp = total pressure (Pa)

q = air volume delivered by the fan (m3/s)

P = power used by the fan (W)

Also;

Pinput to motor =√ 3 VICos ∅

= √ 3(220)(5.0)(0.9)

Pinput to motor = 1.71KW

By using the performance characteristics of a forward curved blade centrifugal fan whose wheel
diameter and width both are 270mm ,Total pressure from curve obtained is 400 Pa.

Pinput to shaft = Pinput to motor × Motor efficiency × Transmission efficiency ………………..(2)

By taking motor efficiency as 92% and transmission efficiency as 100%( as motor is directly
coupled)

So,

Pinput to shaft = 1.71×1000×0.92×1.0

Pinput to shaft = 1573.2 W
By using equation (1);

%ήfan = 82.37%

OPTIMIZATION OF DUCT SYSTEM.

The principle contributes to the running cost of a duct system are the cost of the
duct installation, installation sound attenuation, energy to derive the fan and
space requirements. The objective of an optimization procedure is to minimize
the total owning cost.

A simple example of optimization procedure would be to select the duct diameter

that minimizes the initial plus operating cost of duct system consisting of a fan
and a length of straight duct.

The total cost of system is the sum of the first cost and the operating cost.

Total cost = C = Initial cost + operating cost

The initial cost could be representing by;

Initial cost = (thickness) ( πDl 2 ¿ (L) (density of metal) (installed cost/kg)………. 1

Where;
Dh = Hydraulic dia of rectangular duct

L = Length of duct

Initial cost = (thickness* π∗¿ L*density of metal*installed cost/kg) Dh*L

Initial cost = C₁ DhL………………………… 2

And,

Operating cost = C₂H∆ PQ.

Where,
H = Number of hours of operating during amortization period. (The time for
economics recovery of the net investment in the project)

C₂ = Constant including motor & fan efficiency and cost of electric energy.

Since, pressure drop is given by,

L V2 L Q2 ƥ
f ƥ=f
∆P = D 2 D π 2 D 4 …………………….. 3
16 ( 2 )
Assuming that the friction factor and density are constant equation ‘3’ can be
substituted in Equation ‘1’ and constants regrouped into C₃.

Q3
Operating cost = C₃LH D5 ………………… 4

C ₃ HLQ 3
Total cost = C = C₁ DhL + D 5 ………………… 5
h

When equation ‘4’ is differentiated and equated to zero, the minimum diameter is
found to be

Dmin = ¿ ……………………… 6
Calculations:

L = 8.80 m

Q = V̊ = 3.24 m3 /s

Installed cost/m2 = 245 $

Initial cost = ( πD¿ (L) (Installed cost/m2)……………… 1

Initial cost = C₁DL …………………………. 2

Where,

C₁= ( π ¿ (Installed cost/m2)

C₁= ( π ¿(245)
 C₁= 769.3

Now,

Operating cost = C₂H∆ PQ …………….. 3

Where,
$ (0.1836)/ KWh 1 KWh 0.1836 ×1
C₂ = × =>
ῃn × ῃf 1000 W 0.94 ×0.8237 × 1000

C₂= 2.37x10−4

L Q2 ƥ
f
∆ P = D π 2 D 4 ………………. 4
16 ( 2 )
Q3
Operating cost = C₃LH
D5

Put ‘4’ in ‘3’

L Q2 ƥ
f
Operating cost = C₂H D π 2 D 4 .Q
(
16 )2

3
2 Q
Operating cost ={ C fƥ LH 5
¿¿ D

Where,
C ₂ fƥ 2.37 ×10−4 × 0.0201× 0.486
C₃= ¿¿ => ¿¿

C₃= 6.015x10−6
5 C3 H Q 3 1 /6
Dmin={ }
C1
−6
Dmin= { 5 ×6.015 x 10 × 10,000× 3.243 }1/ 6
769.3
Dmin= 0.486 m