10

1.19 Investigate the consistency of the Hazen-Williams formula from hydraulics:

What are the dimensions of the constant “61.9”? Can this equation be used with confidence
for a variety of liquids and gases?

Solution: Write out the dimensions of each side of the equation:

The constant 61.9 has fractional dimensions: {61.9} = {L1.45T0.08M–0.54} Ans.

Clearly, the formula is extremely inconsistent and cannot be used with confidence for
any given fluid or condition or units. Actually, the Hazen-Williams formula, still in
common use in the watersupply industry, is valid only for water flow in smooth pipes
larger than 2-in. diameter and turbulent velocities less than 10 ft/s and (certain) English
units. This formula should be held at arm’s length and given a vote of “No Confidence.”

*1.20 (“*” means “difficult”—not just a plug-and-chug, that is) For small particles at low
velocities, the first (linear) term in Stokes’ drag law, Prob. 1.11, is dominant, hence
F = KV, where K is a constant.

Suppose a particle of mass m is constrained to move horizontally from the initial position x =
0 with initial velocity V = Vo. Show (a) that its velocity will decrease exponentially with
time; and (b) that it will stop after travelling a distance x = mVo/K.

Solution: Set up and solve the differential equation for forces in the x-direction:

Thus, as asked, V drops off exponentially with time, and, as t → ∞, x = mVo / K.


 11

P1.21 In his study of the circular hydraulic jump formed by a faucet flowing into a
sink, Watson [53] proposes a parameter combining volume flow rate Q, density ρ and
viscosity µ of the fluid, and depth h of the water in the sink. He claims that the grouping is
dimensionless, with Q in the numerator. Can you verify this?

Solution: Check the dimensions of these four variables, from Table 1.2:

{Q} = {L3 / T} ; {ρ} = {M / L3} ; {µ} ={M / LT} ; {h} = {L}

Can we make this dimensionless? First eliminate mass {M} by dividing density by viscosity,
that is, ρ/µ has units {T/L2}. (I am pretending that kinematic viscosity is unfamiliar to the
students in this introductory chapter.) Then combine ρ/µ and Q to eliminate time: (ρ/µ)Q
has units {L}. Finally, divide that by a single depth h to form a dimensionless group:

ρQ {M / L3}{L3 / T}
{ }= = {1} = dimensionless Ans. Watson is correct.
µh {M / LT}{L}

P1.22 Books on porous media and atomization claim that the viscosity µ and surface
tension of a fluid can be combined with a characteristic velocity U to form an important
dimensionless parameter. (a) Verify that this is so. (b) Evaluate this parameter for water at
20°C and a velocity of 3.5 cm/s. NOTE: Extra credit if you know the name of this parameter.

Solution: We know from Table 1.2 that {µ}= {ML-1T-1}, {U} = {LT-1}, and { }= {FL-1} =
{MT-2}. To eliminate mass {M}, we must divide µ by , giving {µ/ } = {TL-1}. Multiplying
by the velocity will thus cancel all dimensions:
µU ϒ
is dimensionless, as is its inverse, Ans.(a)
ϒ µU
The grouping is called the Capillary Number. (b) For water at 20°C and a velocity of 3.5
cm/s, use Table A.3 to find µ = 0.001 kg/m-s and = 0.0728 N/m. Evaluate
µU (0.001kg / m − s)(0.035m / s) ϒ
= = 0.00048 , = 2080 Ans.(b)
ϒ (0.0728 kg / s2 ) µU
_______________________________________________________________________

1.23 The rise in height of a plume of polluted gas emitting from a smokestack can be
evaluated by the formula

H = 1.6Fb1/3x 2/3 /w

where Fb is the buoyancy flux, x is the distance downstream from the smokestack, and w is
the wind speed. (a) What are the dimensions of Fb? It is proposed that

Fb  g a d bV c (ΔT / T )

where g is the acceleration due to gravity, d is the diameter of the stack, V is the stack gas
velocity, T is the gas temperature, and ΔT is the temperature difference between the gas and
the ambient air. (b) Determine a, b, and c if they can only be positive integers.
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Solution: Plume rise

H = 1.6Fb1/3 x 2/3 / w
Dimensional consistency,
[L] = [Fb ]1/3[L]2 /3 / [LT –1 ]
⇒ [Fb ] = [L4T –3 ]

If Fb  g a d bV c (ΔT / T )
[L4T –3 ] = [LT –2 ]a [L]b [LT –1 ]c
⇒ a+b+c = 4
−2a − c = −3
The only possible positive integers satisfying these equations:
a = 1, b = 2, c=1

Hence, Fb  gd 2V (ΔT / T )

P1.24 In 1908, Prandtl’s student Heinrich Blasius proposed the following formula for the wall
shear stress τw at a position x in viscous flow at velocity V past a flat surface:

τ w = 0.332 ρ1/2 µ1/2 V 3/2 x −1/2

Determine the dimensions of the constant 0.332.
Solution: From Table 1.2 we find the dimensions of each term in the equation:
{τ w }={ML−1T −2 } ; {ρ}={ML−3 } ; {µ}={ML−1T −1} ; {V}={LT −1} ; {x} = {L}

Use these dimensions in the equation to determine {0.332}:

M M M L
{ 2
} = {0.332} { 3 }1/2 { }1/2 { } 3/2 {L}−1/2
LT L LT T
M M
Clean up: { 2 } = {0.332} { 2 } , or: {0.332} = {1} Ans.
LT LT
The constant 0.332 is dimensionless. Blasius was one of the first workers to deduce dimensionally
consistent viscous-flow formulas without empirical constants.

P1.25 The Ekman number, Ek, arises in geophysical fluid dynamics. It is a dimensionless
parameter combining seawater density ρ, a characteristic length L, seawater viscosity µ, and the
Coriolis frequency Ω sinφ , where Ω is the rotation rate of the earth and φ is the latitude angle.
Determine the correct form of Ek if the viscosity is in the numerator.

Solution : First list the dimensions of the various quantities:

{ρ} = {ML-3} ; {L} = {L} ; {µ} = {ML-1T-1} ; {Ωsin φ} = {T-1}


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Note that sinφ is itself dimensionless, so the Coriolis frequency has the dimensions of
Ω. Only ρ and µ contain mass {M}, so if µ is in the numerator, ρ must be in the
denominator. That combination µ/ρ we know to be the kinematic viscosity, with units
{L2T-1}. Of the two remaining variables, only Ω sinφ contains time {T-1}, so it must
be in the denominator. So far, we have the grouping µ/(ρ Ω sinφ), which has the
dimensions {L2}. So we put the length-squared into the denominator and we are
finished:
µ
Dimensionless Ekman number: Ek = Ans.
2
ρ L Ωsin φ
________________________________________________________________________

P1.26 During World War II, Sir Geoffrey Taylor, a British fluid dynamicist, used
dimensional analysis to estimate the energy released by an atomic bomb explosion. He
assumed that the energy released, E, was a function of blast wave radius R, air density ρ,
and time t. Arrange these variables into a single dimensionless group, which we may
term the blast wave number.
Solution: These variables have the dimensions {E} = {ML2/T2}, {R} = {L}, {ρ} =
{M/L3}, and {t} = {T}. Multiplying E by t2 eliminates time, then dividing by ρ
eliminates mass, leaving {L5} in the numerator. It becomes dimensionless when we
divide by R5. Thus
E t2
Blast wave number =
ρ R5
____________________________________________________________________________

P1.27 Air, assumed to be an ideal gas with k = 1.40, flows isentropically through a nozzle.
At section 1, conditions are sea level standard (see Table A.6). At section 2, the temperature is
–50°C. Estimate (a) the pressure, and (b) the density of the air at section 2.
Solution: From Table A.6, p1 = 101350 Pa, T1 = 288.16 K, and ρ1 = 1.2255 kg/m3. Convert to
absolute temperature, T2 = -50°C = 223.26 K. Then, for a perfect gas with constant k,
p2 T 223.16 1.4/(1.4−1)
= ( 2 )k /(k −1) = ( ) = (0.7744)3.5 = 0.4087
p1 T1 288.16
Thus p2 = (0.4087)(101350 Pa) = 41, 400 Pa Ans.(a)
ρ2 T 223.16 1/(1.4−1)
= ( 2 )1/(k −1) = ( ) = (0.7744)2.5 = 0.5278
ρ1 T1 288.16
Thus ρ 2 = (0.5278)(1.2255kg / m3 ) = 0.647 kg / m3 Ans.(b)
Alternately, once p2 was known, we could have simply computed ρ2 from the ideal-gas law.
ρ2 = p2/RT2 = (41400)/[287(223.16)] = 0.647 kg/m3

P1.28 Show that the perfect-gas law given in Eq. (1.10) can alternatively be written as
pV = nΛT
where p is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles, Λ is the universal gas constant,
and T is the absolute temperature
14

Solution: Perfect gas law

Λ
p = ρ RT, R=
M.W.
mass # of moles × M.W.
density ρ = =
volume volume
∴ p = ρ RT
n × M.W. Λ
= T
V M.W.
⇒ pV = nΛT, which is the perfect gas law in terms of the universal gas constant.

1.29 A tank contains 0.9 m3 of helium at 200 kPa and 20°C. Estimate the total mass of this
gas, in kg, (a) on earth; and (b) on the moon. Also, (c) how much heat transfer, in MJ, is
required to expand this gas at constant temperature to a new volume of 1.5 m3?

Solution: First find the density of helium for this condition, given R = 2077 m2/(s2⋅K) from
Table A-4. Change 20°C to 293 K:

Now mass is mass, no matter where you are. Therefore, on the moon or wherever,

For part (c), we expand a constant mass isothermally from 0.9 to 1.5 m3. The first law of
thermodynamics gives

Then the heat added equals the work of expansion. Estimate the work done:

1.30 Estimate the number of moles of methane (CH4) contained in a tank of 1 cubic meter
under an absolute pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 20°C. What is the methane
concentration in mol/m3, and in kg/m3? What is the pressure if the temperature is increased to
60°C?
Solution:
Recall pV = nΛT
p = 200 kPa
V = 1 m3
T = 20 + 273 = 293 K
Λ = 8.314 J/(mol ⋅ k)
200 × 10 3 × 1
∴ n= ≈ 82 moles
8.314 × 293