RPDM Chapter3 PDF

Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Manual Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design
Fundamentals
December 2005
i
Manual Contents
Chapter 1
Chapter 12
Framework of the Road Planning and
Vertical Alignment
Design Manual
Chapter 2 Chapter 13
3 Design Philosophy
Chapter 3
Intersections at Grade
Chapter 14
Roundabouts
Fundamentals
Chapter 4
Chapter 15
Application of Design Principles and
Auxiliary Lanes
Guidelines
Chapter 5
Chapter 16
Traffic Parameters and Human
Interchanges
Factors
Speed Parameters Lighting
Cross Section Traffic signals
Chapter 8
Chapter 19
Safety Barriers and Roadside
Intelligent Transport Systems
Furniture
Sight Distance Roadside Amenities
Chapter 21
Chapter 10
Railway and Cane Railway Level
Alignment Design
Crossings
Horizontal Alignment Bridges, Retaining Walls and Tunnels
December 2005
ii
Table of Contents
3.1 Objectives 3-1
3.2 Overarching issues 3-2
3.2.1 Community engagement 3-2
3.2.2 Local Government involvement 3-7
3.2.3 Whole of Government approach 3-7
3.2.4 Major structures 3-8 3
3.2.5 Other design issues 3-9
3.3 Safer roads 3-12
3.3.1 General principles 3-12
3.3.2 Designing for road safety 3-12
3.3.3 Worksite safety 3-18
3.3.4 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) 3-20
3.4 Transport efficiency and effectiveness 3-24
3.4.1 Land use and transport planning 3-24
3.4.2 Travel demand and demand management 3-29
3.4.3 Traffic forecasting 3-31
3.4.4 Public transport facilitation 3-31
3.4.5 Staged construction 3-39
3.4.6 Life cycle costs 3-41
3.4.7 Design vehicles 3-44
3.5 Fair access and amenity 3-45
3.5.1 General principles 3-45
3.5.2 Fair access 3-45
3.5.3 Cultural heritage 3-45
3.5.4 Community amenity 3-46
3.5.5 On-road amenity – development and retention of views 3-49
3.5.6 Pedestrians and cyclists 3-50
3.5.7 Roadside amenities 3-53
3.5.8 Special works 3-53
3.5.9 Stock routes 3-54
December 2005
iii
3.5.10 Development assessment 3-54

3.6 Environmental management 3-54
3.6.1 Main Roads’ commitment 3-54
3.6.2 Scope 3-55
3.6.3 Environmental assessment 3-56
3.6.4 Greenhouse strategy 3-58
3 3.6.5
3.6.6
Engineering design
Fauna
3-59
3-65
References 3-66
Relationship to other Chapters 3-73
Appendix 3A Trip generation rates 3-74
Appendix 3B Ecologically sustainable development assessment 3-81
Appendix 3C Transit lane capacity 3-87
December 2005
iv
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Evaluation criteria for transit lanes (based on PPK et al, 2000) 3-35
Table 3.2 Guidelines for selecting batter slope based on soil types 3-61
Table 3.3 Traffic generation data – child care centres 3-75
Table 3.4 Traffic generation data – commercial premises 3-75
Table 3.5 Traffic generation rates – residential dwellings
Table 3.6 Traffic generation rates – fast food outlets
3-76
3-77
3
Table 3.7 Traffic generation data – industrial uses 3-77
Table 3.8 Traffic generation rates - service stations 3-78
Table 3.9 Traffic generation data – other land uses 3-79
Table 3.10 ESD tools and applicability to network/corridors and phases (Austroads,
2000) 3-81
Table 3.11 Summary of SEA 3-82
Table 3.12 Summary of qualitative ESD assessment 3-83
Table 3.13 Summary of risk assessment. 3-84
Table 3.14 Summary of CIA 3-86
December 2005
v
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Consultation - the Road System Manager perspective (Main Roads, 2005)
3-4
Figure 3.2 Community engagement across the Road System Manager phases (Main
Roads, 2005) 3-5
Figure 3.3 The overall community engagement process (Main Roads, 2005) 3-5
3 Figure 3.4 This alignment captures views and orientates the driver 3-49
Figure 3.5 Advertising signage can adversely affect views 3-50
Figure 3.6 HOV lane capacity for a signalised urban street with a capacity of
650v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000) 3-87
Figure 3.7 HOV lane capacity for a signalised suburban arterial with a capacity of
800v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000) 3-88
Figure 3.8 HOV lane capacity for a high standard suburban arterial with a capacity of
900v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000) 3-89
December 2005
vi
Chapter 3 Amendments – December

2005
Revision Register
Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date
Rev Section by
No.
1 - First Issue Steering Oct
3
Committee 2000
2 Section Modified. New section added.
3.4.2 Steering Aug
New References. Committee 2001
New Relationship to Other Chapters.
3 All New Chapter. Steering Aug
Committee 2004
4 All Some headings, figures and tables
renumbered. References in text amended to
reflect the renumbering.
Various Term “standard” changed to design criteria,
sections design parameter or design value where
appropriate.
Term “desired speed” introduced for the term
“speed environment” (the two are largely
analogous). Steering Dec
Terms “Normal Design Domain” and Committee 2005
“Extended Design Domain” (EDD) introduced
where appropriate.
Some minor amendments to various sections.
Section “Community consultation” removed and
3.2.1 replaced with “community engagement”. Text,
related figures and references corrected to
reflect new Main Roads community
engagement publications.
December 2005
vii
Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date

Rev Section by
No.
4 Sections New section “Other design issues” included.
3.2.5, Text relating to design factors previously
3.2.5.1, dispersed in other sections moved into this
3.2.5.2, Section. This includes “Road geometry”
3.2.5.3, (Section 3.2.5.1), “Pavements” (Section
3.2.5.4, 3.2.5.2), “Intersections and interchanges”
3 3.2.5.5 and
3.2.5.6
(Section 3.2.5.3), “Roadside furniture” (Section
3.2.5.4), “Public Utility plant (PUP) (Section
(new) 3.2.5.5)” and “Drainage” (Section 3.2.5.6).
Section Sections deleted and content moved to new
3.3.2.2, Section 3.2.5 (see above). Steering Dec
3.3.2.3, Committee 2005
3.3.2.4,
3.3.2.5,
3.3.2.6 and
3.3.2.7
(old)
Section New content/new section titled “Design for
3.3.2 (new) road safety”.
Section Dot points amended to include additional
3.4.1.3 references.
References Additional references added and others
corrected.
December 2005
viii
Chapter 3
Fundamentals
3.1 Objectives • fair access and amenity; and 3

• environmental management.
The objective of this chapter is to provide
This Chapter also provides general
planners and designers with sufficient
information on some of the principles to be
information on the fundamentals
adopted in each of the areas, and then
underpinning the planning and design of
provides guidance on the application of
roads to allow them to understand the
these principles. (It is not a comprehensive
context of their projects and the bases for
reference on many of the areas covered but
decisions taken. It brings together the
serves to highlight to designers and
issues to be considered and discusses, in a
planners the breadth of the aspects that
general sense, environmental
must be considered in planning and design.
considerations, transport planning
Designers and planners should consult the
principles, engineering considerations,
references given in this Chapter as well as
public consultation, whole of life issues and
other relevant references for detailed or
crime prevention. It does not deal with the
specific information not covered in this
details of the planning and design process,
Chapter.)
which is described in the Pre-construction
Processes Manual (Main Roads, 2005). Some elements of the planning and design
process do not fit neatly into Main Roads’
The structure of this Chapter is framed
RCQ outputs and a separate section on
around the outcomes required by Roads
overarching issues is included to cover
Connecting Queenslanders (RCQ - Main
these matters (Section 3.2). These
Roads, 2002), namely:
overarching issues tend to be ones that
• safer communities; apply to more than one of the outputs or are
• industry competitiveness and growth; relevant to a wide spectrum of the planning
and design considerations.
• liveable communities; and
While the chapter discusses issues
• environmental conservation. separately by necessity, the total process is
These outcomes required are addressed in an integrated one in which each of the
terms of the requisite outputs of Main issues can impinge on the others with
Roads which are: varying degrees of impact. The planning
and design process must recognise this
• safer roads;
interaction between the issues and approach
• efficient and effective transport; the project in a holistic way, considering all
December 2005
3-1
of the issues together (i.e. produce a context o purpose of the road;

sensitive design, refer to Chapter 2).
o function of the road
Roads are a facilitator of human, social and
o type of road; and
economic activity. The planning and
design process must deliver a product that o the outcomes expected from the
is suitable for its intended use with an project.
acceptable environmental impact. It must
also accommodate the appropriate needs of 3.2 Overarching issues
3 all users within the boundaries of the

transport corridor. Further, providing road
infrastructure can achieve other societal
3.2.1 Community engagement
The management and administration, which

objectives, as prescribed by Government includes planning and design, of the road
from time to time, and the planning and system is a community driven one and an
design process should also consider these important element at every stage of the
objectives. process is community engagement and
When undertaking a particular project, the consultation with stakeholders.
requirements of the investment strategies, “Stakeholders are those individuals, groups
link strategies and the Strategic Framework and organisations who are likely to be
for Road System Asset Management (Main affected by and/or have an interest in Main
Roads, 2003) must be incorporated. These Roads’ decisions and actions. These
will be determined in the early phases of the include communities, industry, businesses
project and must be carried through in the and government.” (Main Roads, 2005)
detailed design to ensure the integrity of the
project. Stakeholders therefore include, but are not
limited to, affected and adjoining
Planners and designers should: landowners, relevant statutory authorities
• consult widely to determine the (e.g. Local Government, other Government
aspirations of stakeholders and Departments, Public Utility Plant [PUP]
potential issues; Authorities), industry bodies and users of
the facility. The identification and
• adopt a holistic approach to the
involvement of stakeholders throughout all
planning and design arriving at an
phases will help to ensure that all issues and
appropriate balance between all of the
needs are identified and considered and will
competing factors (refer to Chapter 2);
lead to outcomes with a high degree of
• visit the project site before completing support and ownership (Figure 3.1).
the planning and the design processes
Community engagement and consultation,
to ensure that all of the proposed design
including public consultation, are therefore
elements are practical for the site.
an essential part of all planning and design
• visit the project site after construction activities. To get the best results, it is
to gain feedback on the success or necessary to start with a “clean sheet” and
otherwise of the adopted design; and develop the project as the input from the
• ensure that the adopted values for all consultation process unfolds (Figure 3.2).
design elements are appropriate for the: If this is not done, the consultation process
December 2005
3-2
will suffer from a perception that Main • Community engagement policy,

Roads has made up its mind and is in the principles, standards and guidelines –
process of selling the proposal (rather than this publication contains Main Roads’
listening and consulting). Figure 3.2 also policy statement, standards and
shows that the ability to make changes (e.g. guidelines linked to the Queensland
through community engagement) reduces as Government’s principles for
a project progresses through each phase; community engagement.
early engagement of the community is
• Community engagement planner - this
therefore important. Figure 3.3 outlines the
community engagement process.
The “clean sheet” approach is particularly
publication contains a practical step-by-
step planner to be used when engaging
communities.
3
applicable to route location proposals and
• Community engagement toolbox - this
“green field” sites. Some modification to
publication contains tools that can be
the process could be justified when the
used when informing, consulting and
proposal is to upgrade an existing facility
actively engaging communities.
(e.g. a restoration project). The initial
community engagement and consultation • Community engagement resource guide
will require information on the need for the - this publication contains practical
upgrade and the general concept behind it. “how to” information such as
This will allow the stakeholders to community profiling, managing
understand the intent of the project and to expectations, risk, engaging target
provide more informed input. However, it groups, holding a meeting,
is desirable that alternative proposals for the questionnaires and evaluation.
project be generated after the initial input so For detailed information regarding
that they can be developed in the community engagement, planners and
knowledge of the range of community designers should refer to the above
concerns. The second part of community publications. Some useful definitions are
engagement and consultation will then have included below.
more specific proposals to consider and this
Further guidance for specific communities
can result in additional issues arising. This
is provided by the following publications
approach retains the essential elements of
(Department of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
the “clean sheet” approach and avoids
Islander Policy and Development, 1998):
settling on preferred alternatives too early
in the process. • Protocols for Consultation and
Negotiation with Aboriginal People;
3.2.1.1 Further information and
To support policy implementation and • Mina Mir Lo Ailan Mun: Proper
community engagement practice, Communication with Torres Strait
community engagement programs should Islander Peoples.
be undertaken in accordance with the
following documents (Main Roads, 2005):
December 2005
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Figure 3.1 Consultation - the Road System Manager perspective (Main Roads, 2005)
December 2005
3-4
Figure 3.2 Community engagement across the Road System Manager phases (Main
Roads, 2005)
Figure 3.3 The overall community engagement process (Main Roads, 2005)
December 2005
3-5
Community engagement is: range of avenues such as the telephone,

publications and websites and active
“…one of the many ways that communities
measures by government, to disseminate
and individuals connect and interact with
information to individuals through
government in developing and
education and awareness activities. While
implementing policies, programs and
this is not public involvement, information
services. It involves a wide range of
and communication technologies enable
government-community interactions,
government to move beyond one-way
ranging from information to consultation
information sharing to an information
3 and active participation. Engagement can
be formal or informal, direct or indirect”
(Main Roads, 2005).
exchange with individuals” (Main Roads,
2005).
Active participation is:
Consultation is:
“Active participation recognises and
“… a two-way relationship where the views
acknowledges a role for individuals and
of individuals and communities are sought
communities in shaping policy dialogue and
on policies, programs, services and projects
proposing policy, program, service and
that affect them directly or in which they
project options” (Main Roads, 2005).
may have a significant interest” (Main
Roads, 2005). Further:
Further: “It is achieved through a range of
deliberative processes, including steering
“Consultation can occur at various points
committees, search conferences, policy
and can be used to help frame an issue,
roundtables, citizen juries and formal and
identify or assess options and evaluate
informal partnerships. Active participation
existing policies, programs, services or
processes enable individuals and
projects. Issues can be specific or quite
communities to raise their own issues with
general. Consultation includes face-to-face
government and can also encourage or
meetings, advisory committees, focus
enable participants to take responsibility
groups, online consultation, public
for their contribution to solutions.
meetings, petitions, polls and surveys.
Active participation actively involves and
Consultation can be used to work with
empowers people in Main Roads decision
communities on road projects and road
process. It can be used as part of
operations, to discuss the impacts of
community visioning of transport plans and
existing policies and programs and to seek
future road-system planning. However,
solutions to community issues.
some decisions cannot be changed (such as
Consultation alerts staff to community political decisions, legal and legislative
issues such as the impacts of project timing conditions or the location and extent of a
on small businesses” (Main Roads, 2005). road project). In these instances, active
Information is: participation should not be used as
expectations may be raised that cannot be
“…a one-way relationship in which
met” (Main Roads, 2005).
information is disseminated to communities
and individuals. It covers both passive
access to information by individuals via a
December 2005
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3.2.2 Local Government in advance of the commencement of

involvement construction. Where adequate time can not
be provided, an alternative arrangement for
All proposals will impact on the payment might need to be negotiated.
responsibilities of Local Government in
some way. Consultation with the relevant 3.2.3 Whole of Government
Local Government/s at all stages of the approach
process is therefore essential. Agreement
must be reached on the details of the project Main Roads is committed to working across
and in particular, any requirements for
changes to Local Government infrastructure
the whole of government to deliver
integrated outcomes to Queenslanders. In 3
or for Local Government input into the many cases it will mean that the objectives
project. and policies of other departments will have
to be considered in the planning decisions
Development of proposals will have to
taken. Consultation with those departments
consider the implications of the alliance
is essential to ensure that planners and
between the Department and Local
designers consider all factors in the
Government (Main Roads, 2000) respecting
planning process.
the protocols of that alliance, and taking the
needs of the whole road system into In particular, the various State Planning
account when deciding on the best options. Policies (SPPs – Queensland Government,
Integration with the land use planning 1992 to 2005), and their associated
undertaken by Local Government is an guidelines, could have an impact on
essential part of the planning process (viz. decisions for projects and must be
the Integrated Transport Planning implemented where applicable. These
Framework for Queensland: A Guide for include:
Transport Planning, Queensland • SPP 1/92 “Development and
Government, 2003). (Refer also to the conservation of agricultural land.”
Integrated Development Assessment
o Guideline 1 for SPP 1/92: “The
System Manual, Main Roads).
identification of good quality
It is also necessary to reach agreement on agricultural land.”
the cost sharing arrangements if applicable.
o Guideline 2 for SPP 1/92:
The “Agreement between the Local
“Separating agricultural land and
Government Association of Queensland
residential land uses.”
Inc. and Department of Main Roads for
Cost Sharing based on Responsibilities • SPP 1/02 “Development in the vicinity
within State Controlled Roads” (Main of certain airports and aviation
Roads, 2000) sets out this agreement. It facilities.”
must be applied in discussions with the
o Guideline for SPP 1/02:
relevant Local Government/s on these
“Development in the vicinity of
matters. Project Managers should ensure
certain airports and aviation
that adequate warning is given to Local
facilities.”
Governments to fund their share of the
works. Local Governments normally need
costs confirmed at least one financial year
December 2005
3-7
• SPP 2/02 “Planning and managing • whether screening is required (refer to

development involving acid sulphate the “Reduction of Risk from Objects
soils.” Thrown From Overpass Structures onto
Roads” Policy - Main Roads, 2004);
o Guideline for SPP 2/02: “Planning
and managing development • the required flood immunity for bridges
involving acid sulphate soils.” (defined in the Road Drainage Design
Manual [RDDM - Main Roads, 2001]);
• SPP 1/03 “Mitigating the adverse
impacts of flood, bushfire and • the type of structure required (e.g.
3 o
landslide.”
Guideline for SPP1/03: “Mitigating
bridge or tunnel) and their form (refer
to Chapter 22);
the adverse impacts of flood, • cross section requirements (discussed in
bushfire and landslide.” Chapter 7, supplemented by Chapter
22);
(Note: At the time of publication a “Draft
SPP Protection of Extractive Resources” • the bridges required for interchanges
also existed.) (discussed in Chapters 16 and 22);
At the time of publication copies of State • provision for enforcement (e.g. speed
Planning Polices policies could be found cameras on overhead bridges); and
under the Integrated Planning Act area of
• requirements for PUP noting that:
the Department of Local Government and
Planning website (refer to References o requirements should be determined
section). early in the planning process;
In addition the State Coastal Management o PUP inside closed cells of bridges or
Plan (Queensland Environmental Protection tunnels can pose a serious hazard,
Agency, 2002), and relevant regional for example:
coastal management plans, may affect - water and sewer lines can leak so
projects. At the time of publication details proper drainage is required; and
of these plans could be found on the
- gas mains should not be placed
Environmental Protection Agency website
inside closed cells because of the
(refer to References section).
risk of explosion;
3.2.4 Major structures o high-pressure gas mains present a
serious explosive hazard if ruptured
Chapter 22 discusses the requirements of
and should not be placed on or near
major structures (i.e. bridges, retaining
bridges or in tunnels without
walls and tunnels) and their impact on road
incorporating and taking special
and project development. It provides
precautions;
guidance on the potential structures to be
used and how the choice of the type of o high voltage electrical cables may
structure can affect the cost of the project. have a significant heat output and
may require ventilation;
Factors to be considered in the design of
structures include:
December 2005
3-8
o PUP Authorities may have • aquaplaning which should be

restrictions on the location of their minimised in planning and design to
PUP with respect to other PUP; reduce the effect of the combination of
superelevation and grade on depth of
o electrical cable ducting for street
water (refer to the RDDM [Main
lighting is to be provided on bridges
Roads, 2001]);
where required for present or future
lighting; and • areas of fog which require good
delineation;
o PUP may be provided for:
- in the footway/bikeway;
• runaway vehicle facilities (refer to
Chapter 15); and
3
- via suspension from the side of
• roadside hazards, in particular the
prestressed units; or
presence of potential hazards (refer to
- under the deck in girder bridges Chapter 8).
as permitted by the PUP
Roadside hazards should be removed where
Authority.
possible or protected with a safety barrier
3.2.5 Other design issues where warranted (refer to Chapter 8.)
The following sections discuss some of the 3.2.5.2 Pavements

issues planners and designers should Pavements can be the most expensive part
consider in the planning and design process. of a project and considerable attention to
Technical details of these issues are covered the design of the pavement is required at the
in other parts of this Manual or in other options analysis, business case and
manuals and publications (refer to preliminary design phases (i.e. Program
References section in each chapter). These Development Phases and Program
are identified where appropriate. Delivery) to obtain a reasonable estimate of
the cost of the works. The type of
3.2.5.1 Road geometry
pavement affects the cross section and both
The road geometry has to be designed in need to be designed in conjunction with
accordance with the requirements set out in each other.
this Manual for the design criteria set by the
Groundwater water can adversely affect the
Investment and Link Strategies. Additional
useful life, and maintenance requirements,
considerations include:
of pavements. Groundwater water can also
• school zones which have their own be critical to adjacent rural properties and
speed limits (refer to the Manual of care is required that the road construction
Uniform Traffic Control Devices does not cut off this supply. Appropriate
[MUTCD] – Main Roads, 2003); treatments and subsurface drainage
requirements must be determined and
• high rainfall areas where special
incorporated into the design, even in dry
attention to pavement surfacing is
areas.
required, particularly where alignments
are winding, steep or heavily trafficked; Details of the approach to pavement design
can be found in the Pavement Design
Manual (Main Roads, 2004). For special
December 2005
3-9
pavements (e.g. heavy-duty motorway • Lighting, including route and

pavements), specialist advice should be intersection lighting (refer to Chapters 8
obtained. Similarly, details of the approach and 17);
to pavement rehabilitation design can be
• Traffic signals (refer to Chapters 8 and
found in the Pavement Rehabilitation
18);
Manual (Queensland Transport, 1992). For
special treatments (e.g. foamed bitumen • Noise barriers (refer to Chapter 8 and
stabilisation) specialist advice should be the Road Traffic Noise Management:
obtained. Code of Practice [Main Roads, 2000]);
3 Further discussion on pavements

contained in Section 3.4.6.2.
is • Road edge guide posts (refer to Chapter
8);
• Help telephones (refer to Chapter 8 and
3.2.5.3 Intersections and
the TRUM Manual [Main Roads,
interchanges
2003]);
Details of intersection and roundabout
• Safety barriers (refer to Chapter 8);
requirements are included in Chapters 13
and 14, respectively. Chapter 16 deals with • Fencing (refer to Chapter 8);
interchanges and motorways. • Crime Prevention through
Environmental Design (CPTED)
3.2.5.4 Roadside furniture
principles (refer to Section 3.3.4); and
Elements of roadside furniture to be
• Other roadside furniture (refer to
considered and dealt with include:
Chapter 8).
• Signs (refer to the Manual of Uniform
The Standard Drawings Manual (Main
Traffic Control Devices [MUTCD -
Roads, 2004) also contains information on
Main Roads, 2003] the Traffic and
many items of road furniture.
Road Use Management [TRUM]
Manual [Main Roads, 2003] and the Design considerations relevant to noise
Traffic Control Sign Design Manual barriers are provided in the Road Traffic
[Main Roads, 2000]); Noise Management: Code of Practice (Main
Roads, 2000 - also refer to Section 3.5.4.3).
• Existing advertising signage including
that associated with Service Centres Some further discussion on roadside
(refer to the Guide to the Management furniture is contained in Section 3.4.6.2.
of Roadside Advertising [Main Roads,
3.2.5.5 Public Utility Plant (PUP)
2002] and the contract with the Service
Centre Operator); Alterations and/or relocations of PUP, also
known by the term “services”, can be one
• Pavement markings (refer to the
of the most expensive components of a road
MUTCD [Main Roads, 2003] the
construction project. The location and size
TRUM Manual [Main Roads, 2003]
of all PUP must be determined early in the
and the Guide to Pavement Markings
process to allow appropriate adjustments in
[Main Roads, 2000]);
the proposals to minimise the costs
involved. The relevant PUP authorities
must be consulted to obtain accurate
December 2005
3-10
information in addition to what can be • Oil pipelines.

ascertained from ground survey. Future
PUP also includes associated ancillaries
proposals for the upgrading of any PUP
(e.g. pits, manholes, valves, etc).
installations should also be determined.
PUP includes, but is not limited to: A detailed assessment of PUP relocation
requirements must be undertaken at
• Telecommunications:
business case stage; it should also be
o telephone exchanges; considered, perhaps in less detail, at the
options analysis stage. It is necessary to
o high bandwidth communication
conduits – fibre optic cables, co-
axial cables;
determine the extent of the work and to
assess whether early relocation might be
3
advantageous to facilitate the construction
o low bandwidth communications - process. The various PUP authorities
local connections; should be advised early in the business case
o cables; stage of the proposals so that any affected
PUP can be identified.
o satellite communication facilities;
and Where possible, relocation of PUP should
be minimised by judicious adjustment to
o high bandwidth communication
the design. Minor changes to the design
towers.
can often be made without compromising
• Water: the standard of the design and major
savings can consequently be achieved.
o large reticulation systems;
If stage construction is involved, PUP
o pressure mains;
should be placed in its final location, clear
o water towers, storage tanks; and of the final works, if possible.
o pump stations. Chapter 7 provides guidance on the
• Wastewater and sewerage: clearances required for (overhead and
underground) PUP as well as desired
o pump stations;
locations for PUP in the road reserve.
o large mains; and
The presence, relocation or protection of
o pressure mains. PUP must also be considered and taken into
account for temporary works constructed or
• Electricity:
used to facilitate construction (e.g.
o towers; construction of a temporary side track, use
o high voltage overhead lines; of a detour by high vehicles, etc).
o substations; Further discussion on PUP is contained in

Section 3.4.6.5.
o power pole mounted transformers;
and 3.2.5.6 Drainage
o underground cables. Drainage of pavement surfaces has a
• Gas: significant impact on safety. In particular,
aquaplaning or partial aquaplaning can
o gas mains.
December 2005
3-11
occur when the conditions are conducive to indicators), and good visibility to it, is
it and the design of the geometry of the essential.
road must take this into account. The
For more detail on these issues, refer to
phenomenon of aquaplaning is discussed in
Chapter 12, and the RDDM (Main Roads,
detail in the RDDM (Main Roads, 2001).
2001).
Care is required in the combination of
Further discussion on drainage is contained
geometric elements that can lead to
in Section 3.6.5.3.
increasing the depth of water on the
3 pavement surface. Specifically, the

combination of vertical grade, horizontal
3.3 Safer roads
curvature and superelevation can create 3.3.1 General principles
situations where the water falling on the
surface stays on the surface, gaining depth Safer roads are to support safer
as it flows across the pavement from side to communities, which means investing in a
side. safer road network by setting design
criteria, design values and interventions that
Water flowing across the surface can be a
achieve the best impact for the whole road
hazard (e.g. aquaplaning may result) if:
system, through:
• it deposits material on the road surface
• improving road network safety using a
(e.g. gravel, sand);
risk management approach;
• a driver enters the flowing water at too
• designing for safer travel for all road
high a speed; and/or
users;
• the water is too deep for safe navigation
• providing safer access to the road
by vehicles (e.g. from overland flow
system for cyclists and pedestrians;
onto the road).
• ensuring worksite safety; and
Material deposited on the road by water
flowing across it can be a hazard, • co-ordinating with other government
particularly where the side friction demand agencies in partnership.
is high. It will also be particularly Network considerations are discussed in
hazardous to vulnerable road users, such as Chapter 1 and the basis for selecting design
motorcyclists. criteria, design values and interventions is
Where possible overland flows should be discussed in Chapters 2 and 4.
controlled (e.g. through the use of catch
banks/drains and culverts) to avoid 3.3.2 Designing for road safety
potential problems and to minimise hazards
3.3.2.1 Introduction
to users.
There is an implicit contract of trust
Care is required to ensure that the surface of
between the travelling public and the
the water over a floodway is visible for
agency providing and managing the road
sufficient distance before a floodway,
network on which they travel. By
allowing a driver sufficient time to stop or
extension, this trust is also between the road
slow down before entering the water.
user and the road designer. The essence of
Appropriate signing (e.g. flood depth
the trust is that road users may rightly
December 2005
3-12
expect the agency and its employees to use • a contrivance or device to prevent
the best available knowledge in order to injury or avert danger; and
decide how much safety to build into the
• the action of keeping safe.
roads they produce. Not using such
knowledge amounts to a breach of trust There is no entirely safe road since crashes
(Hauer, 1999). will occur. We only derive some meaning
for “safety” by measuring the number of
The aim of those developing policies (e.g.
crashes, deaths and/or injuries, and
policy makers, strategic planners), link
comparing the rate of their occurrence on
strategies and investment strategies, as well
as all road designers, must therefore be to
provide the safest road possible within the
the roads in question in the system
(however the rate is measured – refer to
3
Section 3.3.2.3) with what is acceptable and
constraints of cost, operating efficiency and
achievable and with performance on similar
environmental impact, etc. All road design
roads in other jurisdictions (e.g.
is therefore a compromise between a range
international experience).
of factors (refer to Chapter 2).
Hauer (1999) notes that the safety of a road
To be able to produce the best result, there
is measured by the frequency and severity
must be a clear understanding of what is
of crashes occurring on it, and that road
meant by road safety and how the decisions
safety is therefore a matter of degree. He
of the policy maker and the designer affect
also notes that since crashes occur on all
the safety of the road in question.
roads in use, it is inappropriate to say of
This section of the Manual addresses the any road that it is safe. However, it is
question of safety, what it means and how correct to say that roads can be built to a
policy makers, strategic planners, designers, nominal level of safety.
etc need to act to achieve the appropriate
Safety concepts
level of safety in their designs.
Road safety is therefore a relative term
In this Chapter, the term used will be
referring to the difference in performance
“crashes” rather than “accidents” to accord
between roads when the crash rate (refer to
with the standard terminology used in the
Section 3.3.2.3) is measured. Thus a safer
recording and analysis of road trauma in
road will have a relatively lower crash rate
Australia.
than a less safe road. This does not mean
that the number of crashes or deaths will be
3.3.2.2 Road safety – what is it?
less on this “safer” road than on other “less
Definitions safe” roads when the “safer” road is a very
A dictionary definition of safety includes highly trafficked road such as a motorway.
the statements (The Macquarie Library Pty While well designed motorways are built to
Ltd, 1997): a high design standard (refer to definition of
standard in Chapter 2) and can be
• the state of being safe;
considered among the safest roads built, the
• freedom from injury or danger; very high traffic volumes mean that the
number of crashes and deaths will probably
• the quality of insuring against hurt,
be larger than a rural road carrying a
injury, danger, or risk;
December 2005
3-13
relatively small volume of traffic, even if Ideally, there should be sufficient

that rural road has a much higher crash rate. information on the effect of changes in
design elements on the level of safety to
What constitutes “safety” must be more
allow an objective assessment of
closely examined. How does an agency or
“substantive” safety. In this ideal case it
a designer determine whether one road is
would be unnecessary to consider
“safer” than another? Traditionally, design
“nominal" safety. This level of information
has relied on developing elements of the
is not currently available for many design
road by an objective analysis of the
criteria but the following four aspects of
3 particular situation using the laws of
physics and measures of the factors being
input into those laws (e.g. eye height, object
nominal safety still have value (Hauer,
1999):
height, deceleration rate) applied using an • Designs must enable road users to
objective assessment of human behaviour in behave legally. This can be attained by
that situation (refer to the discussion nominal safety.
pertaining to design criteria based on
• Designs should not create situations
objective safety in Chapter 2).
with which a significant minority of
But do design criteria determined in this road users has difficulties. This too can
way provide an assurance of safety? To be secured by making roads nominally
assess this, a useful approach is suggested safe.
by Hauer (1999) who proposes a clear
• Nominal safety is useful protection
distinction between two kinds of safety to
against claims of professional and legal
analyse situations, namely:
liability.
• substantive safety is the measured or
• Resorting to nominal safety may be a
expected crash frequency and severity;
temporary necessity when crash
• nominal safety is produced by a design frequency and severity consequences
that complies with design criteria, are unknown. In such cases, a
warrants and guidelines, and sanctioned statement about the absence of crash-
design procedures. based information is needed.
Substantive safety is a matter of degree. A It is the case that the nominal safety models
road in use cannot be safe, only safer or less are based on logical analysis and are
so. What level of substantive safety is intuitively sound. They have in general
appropriate is therefore governed by stood the test of time with modifications
considering what level of safety is implemented when actual crash rates have
attainable with the resources available. In indicated that change was necessary. They
contrast, a road can be nominally safe, also provide a framework on which
meaning that it conforms to design criteria, substantive safety analysis can be based.
warrants and guidelines, and sanctioned Most researchers have found difficulty in
design procedures. Whether a road that is obtaining robust relationships between road
nominally safe is always (or even usually) geometry and crash rates.
substantively safer than a road that is not
The crash history of a road should be
nominally safe cannot be said definitively
observed and regularly assessed over time
(from Hauer 1999).
December 2005
3-14
as part of the assessment of the safety of a other purposes but do not usually provide
road. the type of information required to judge
the appropriateness or otherwise of design
3.3.2.3 Measuring road safety elements.
Information on road crashes, deaths and Researchers have studied road crashes with
injuries is collected world wide in a range a view to determining the relationship
of formats including: between the crash rate and the features of
• total number of crashes; the road including the various geometric
•
•
total number of deaths;
motor vehicle crashes per 100 million
elements. This research has not always
been conclusive but some useful
relationships for some geometric elements
3
kilometres; have been found such as for roundabouts
(Arndt, 1994), intersections (Arndt, 2004),
• motor vehicle deaths per 100 million
shoulder widths (Armour and McLean,
kilometres;
1983) and cross section elements (McLean,
• fatality rates per 10,000 licensed motor 1996). However, there are many elements
vehicles; of design where there has been no
• fatality rates per 100,000 population; successful development of a specific
relationship between changes in the element
• road accident costs (e.g. total cost,
and the crash rate although some general
percentage of Gross National Product)
trends have been demonstrated (refer to
and;
Chapter 2.)
• costs per crash type (e.g. fatal, major
injury, minor injury, property damage 3.3.2.4 Road crashes
only). Crashes occur when some part or parts of
Further analysis of crashes includes the road system fail. The road system is a
determination of: complex, dynamic and fundamentally
unstable system, the use of which has
• crash rate by gender;
devastating consequences for many (Fuller
• proportion of children under 15; et al, 2002). The road system is made up of
three components – the human, the vehicle
• proportion of pedestrians among
and the environment (including the road
fatalities; and
itself) in which they operate.
• crash rate by type of road facility.
PIARC (2003) states that an accident (sic)
For the purposes of determining the effect is a disruption of the balance among the
of road design elements on the crash rate, it three components of the human-
is necessary to include the exposure of environment-vehicle system leading to the
drivers to potential crashes. That is, the following principles:
measure must relate to the overall usage of
• each accident is the result of a
the road; the rate of crashes per 100 million
succession of events occurring under
vehicle kilometres of travel (vkt) is the
precise circumstances;
most commonly used measure. The other
measures described above have uses for
December 2005
3-15
• each event can be related to one or Consistency in design (of a road link) aims
more of the components of the road to produce consistent expectations in
safety system; drivers’ and so provide them with
confidence that what they see ahead gives
• an adverse conjunction of events is the
an appropriate message so they can
explanatory cause of the malfunction;
anticipate and act with a high degree of
and
confidence. It therefore allows the driver to
• each event is largely determined by develop virtually automatic responses to
preceding events and their various situations, reducing the driver
3 circumstances.
A crash can therefore occur when sufficient
workload (i.e. freeing up the mental
processes that would be consumed in
factors are in alignment and create the deciding the actions required for an
conditions for it. For example, a driver’s inconsistent feature for other important
inattention combined with an unexpected decisions).
change in direction on a narrow formation An alternative approach, with similar intent
leading to his/her vehicle being on the is the “inherently safer road system”
wrong side of the road at the same time as a reported by Jagtman (2004) based on the
vehicle is coming in the other direction are following objectives:
all the ingredients for an inevitable serious
• prevent crashes from happening in the
crash. Removing the unexpected change in
first place as far as possible; and
direction on a narrow formation may avert
the crash. • minimise the severity of the limited
crashes that remain.
3.3.2.5 Role of the designer
These objectives are underpinned by safety
Designers must recognise the complexity of principles such as:
the system of which the road is one element
• functional use of the road network by
and account for the human requirements as
preventing unintended use of the roads;
far as is reasonable. Consideration of the
human user is paramount and the impact of • homogenous use by preventing large
human capability and behaviour must differences in vehicle speed, mass and
always be accounted for in any design. direction;
Road users can only adapt so far to the • predictable use thus preventing
system, therefore the system should be uncertainties amongst road users, by
designed to be user friendly (Dewar et al, enhancing the predictability of route
2002). Making the road easy to “read” is an choices and the behaviour of road
important part of this consideration and users; and
acceptance of this leads to the “self-
• the forgiving roadside environment
explaining” road concept. If this concept is
concept (refer to Chapter 8).
followed for an entire road link it will have
that characteristic so important to Designers must recognise that drivers are
improving the level of safety – consistency not perfect and will make mistakes.
(refer to Chapter 2). Designers must therefore use error
prevention and mitigation strategies to
account for this. For example, drivers will
December 2005
3-16
occasionally leave the road and the designer • intersections (refer to Chapter 13 and
must therefore try to warn the driver (e.g. Arndt, 2004)
audible line marking), keep the car
Although definitive relationships are not
occupants safe (e.g. provide a forgiving
available some guidance is available on:
roadside environment with flat batters that
are free of hazards), protect hazards (safety • cross sections (McLean, 1996); and
barrier), locate hazards outside clear zones • shoulders (Armour and McLean, 1983).
if possible or mitigate the effect of leaving
Designers should never forget that the
the road (install breakaway poles, install
crash cushions, provide hazard free clear
zones). In addition, the roadside must be
design is for the user, not the gratification
of the designer. Users are complex beings 3
and are an integral element of the system.
made as safe as possible, the overall result
All of the designs must recognise the frailty
being a forgiving roadside. (Refer to
of the human being and, as far as possible,
Chapter 8 for a description of the forgiving
provide for this frailty. Eliminating
roadside concept.)
uncertainty is one large step towards this
Designers must: objective.
• understand the road system and the A holistic approach involves taking an
interaction between the parts of the overall perspective and realising that road
system; design is a compromise between the ideal
• understand the relation between design and what is reasonable in terms of cost,
elements and crash rate; safety and environmental impacts; the aim
should be to produce a context sensitive
• ensure that the combination of elements
design (refer to Chapter 2).
is appropriate to the circumstances;
• design with the user in mind (including 3.3.2.6 Guidance for designers
the needs of both the older and younger The application of safety design principles
population of drivers, motorcyclists is an integral part of the development of the
pedestrians and cyclists); design criteria set out in the various
• reduce or eliminate uncertainty or the chapters of this Manual. Assumptions
unexpected for drivers; and made, and the principles adopted, are set
out in the individual chapters and all
• take a holistic approach to design (i.e.
designers should be familiar with those
produce a context sensitive design –
details.
refer to Chapter 2).
The design philosophy to be used is
Since the only way of judging the level of
described in detail in Chapter 2 and should
safety is by the crash rate, it is necessary to
be read in conjunction with this section.
know what the effect of changing a design
element will be. This information is not Details of human factors are discussed in
available for all of the design elements but Chapter 5 and the principles set out in that
there is information available for: chapter are an essential input into designing
for safer operation.
• roundabouts (refer to Chapter 14 and
Arndt, 1994); and Chapter 5 also deals with design vehicles
and designers should be familiar with the
December 2005
3-17
requirements of the appropriate design experience should be based on objective

vehicles, another essential component of the assessment of the potential crash rate,
road system. Providing the appropriate particularly compared with other sections of
dimensions for the vehicles using the the road link being designed.
system is integral to a safer design solution.
Proper combination of design criteria can
Further insights into the safety aspects of be used to mitigate a potentially less safe
design are included in virtually all Chapters situation. For example, it might be
of this Manual. necessary to compensate for adopting a
3 3.3.2.7 Application of standards

lower bound value of one element by being
more generous with an associated element.
This is illustrated by the requirement for a
How design criteria are applied is one of the
most important aspects to design. The wider carriageway when the radius of a
design philosophy set out in Chapter 2 vertical crest curve is less than desirable
makes clear that design cannot be merely (refer to Chapters 4, 9 and 12). (This extra
the application of numbers from a set of width allows drivers to manoeuvre.)
prescribed design criteria. To do so implies Other examples of appropriate combination
that an adequate level of safety will be of design criteria are included in the various
achieved if all of the elements meet at least chapters. A major issue for the
the minimum criteria/values given in design combination of design criteria is that of
publications. combination of vertical and horizontal
This is clearly not the case. Consistent alignment, the subject of Chapter 10.
adherence to lower bound criteria/values Designers should carefully consider the
only is not desirable and it may be more safety aspects of design as enunciated in
cost effective to adopt higher or lower this Manual when using the design criteria
design criteria/values. It also may not allow set out in this Manual.
for future development of the road as more
and different usage occurs. 3.3.2.8 Other sources of information
When applied to a combination of features, The references listed at the end of this
lower bound design criteria may create Chapter provide much more detail than it is
operational and safety problems. possible to cover in this section. The
complexities of the human factors to be
“The challenge to the designer is to achieve
considered are detailed well in the two
the highest level of safety within the
major publications cited (i.e. Fuller et al,
physical and financial constraints of a
2002 and Dewar et al, 2002).
project. The challenge requires the
designer to go beyond the minimum levels AASHTO’s (1997) Highway Safety Design
of design to find the desirable level for each and Operations Guide provides useful
project” (AASHTO, 1997). advice on all aspects of design elements.
The crucial element is the appropriate
3.3.3 Worksite safety
combination of design criteria for each road
element, which requires judgement and Worksite safety falls into two categories:
experience to be applied by the designer.
Wherever possible, this judgement and
December 2005
3-18
• safety of the workforce undertaking the from the construction activity and from
construction; and the passing traffic.
• safety of road users (e.g. the general For projects delivered using the more
public, pedestrians, cyclists and traditional scheme delivery process (i.e.
motorists). design, then tender and then construct) the
scheme documents are not required to
3.3.3.1 Safety of workers specify the sequencing of the construction
Designs should ensure that the site is process; that responsibility falls to the
readily accessible by construction personnel
and equipment, and that this can occur
construction contractor. However, the
scheme documents must specify the
parameters or limits within which the
3
safely in the presence of other traffic. The
worksite should be separated from the construction contractor must operate.
general traffic as far as possible and the Issues to be addressed include the
workers protected from the passing traffic following:
with appropriate delineation (and barriers if
• Maintenance of access to property and
warranted). Details of temporary and
business – this does not only include
permanent barriers are included in Chapter
direct access to adjacent property but
8. Signage and reduced speed limits for
must consider the wider effect on
road works may also be necessary;
customer access to established
reference should be made to the MUTCD
businesses.
(Main Roads, 2003).
• Pedestrian and cyclist movements –
While the protection of workers is the
special pathways and protective devices
responsibility of the construction
could be required to ensure adequate
contractor, it is necessary to ensure that the
and safe pedestrian and cyclist
design adopted will allow appropriate
movement through the site. All
protective measures to be used. It should
pedestrian treatments must consider the
also ensure that safe access arrangements
needs of people with disabilities.
are feasible and economical.
• Traffic movements – considerable
3.3.3.2 Safety of road users attention must be given to the safety of
Proper allowance for the safe movement of traffic movement and the management
traffic, pedestrians and cyclists through of traffic through the project. This
both the worksite and the completed project might include:
must be designed into the project. The o reduced speed limits;
sequencing of the works during
o lane closure/s;
construction should allow for the:
o traffic diversion (via another route,
• efficient and safe traffic movement
i.e. detours); and
through the worksite at all stages of the
construction; and o construction of side tracks, paved
and/or sealed, or other temporary
• easy and safe pedestrian and cycle
roadways.
movement through and/or around the
site providing protection for these users
December 2005
3-19
• Requirement for safety barrier and • natural access control;

barrier terminals when required or as is
• natural surveillance; and
appropriate.
• territorial reinforcement.
• Bus routes – maintenance of bus stops
and service to the public is essential. Every design will encompass a mixture of
all three of the concepts in a way
Important data for these considerations
appropriate to the particular requirements of
includes pedestrian and cycle movements,
the site in question. The essential
traffic volume, level of service, percentage
3 of heavy vehicles, traffic speeds, and

intersection capacity and delay. This data
component of the design should be an
emphasis on naturalness - designing and
constructing the things that must be
will allow a proper analysis of the operation
included better. Some examples of actions
of the traffic through the site. Signage and
that have been used are:
reduced speed limits for road works may
also be necessary; reference should be made • provision of a clear border definition of
to the MUTCD (Main Roads, 2003). controlled space;
Designs of temporary sidetracks, etc and • provision of a clearly marked
analyses should take reduced speeds, if they transitional zones that indicate
will be used, into account. Chapter 4 movement from public to semi-public
discusses criteria for temporary roads. to private space;
3.3.4 Crime Prevention Through • a relocation of gathering areas to

Environmental Design locations of natural surveillance and
(CPTED) access control;
• re-designation of the use of space to
Crime Prevention through Environmental
provide natural barriers to conflicting
Design (CPTED) is an important
activities;
consideration in reducing the incidence of
crime near or adjacent to roads. Detailed • improved scheduling of space to allow
discussion with Police and Community for effective use and appropriate
groups is required to ensure that appropriate “critical intensity”;
measures are taken. • a re-design or re-vamp of space to
The basic premise of CPTED is that proper increase the perception and reality of
design and effective use of the built natural surveillance;
environment can produce behavioural • improving communications to
effects that will lead to a reduction in the overcome distance and isolation;
incidence and fear of crime, and lead to an
• avoidance of creating areas of potential
increase in the quality of life. These
entrapment - areas should have several
behavioural effects can be accomplished by
clearly marked entrances/exits that are
reducing the propensity of the physical
clearly lit; and
environment to support criminal behaviour
(Crowe, 2000). • careful selection, location and design of
road furniture, including noise barriers
There are three overlapping strategies used
and fences.
in CPTED. They are:
December 2005
3-20
3.3.4.1 Natural access control • using “see-through” fencing or walls (if

fencing or a wall is required at all) to
Natural access control is a concept directed
ensure external visibility of the area;
at decreasing crime opportunity. This can
be achieved through organised means such • ensuring that plants and foliage are
as guards, or by natural means. Natural trimmed and maintained to prevent
access control can be enhanced by: obstruction of visibility;
• using clear delineation between public • ensuring that entrances are located so
and private areas (e.g. kerbs, that they are easily observed;
•
landscaping);
providing a hierarchy of elements to
• providing the ability to see into a space
before entering it;
3
define public and private space;
• providing mixed use activities to
• defining walkways clearly; encourage regular use of the
surrounding space; and
• ensuring that pathways are well lit with
a clear view of the destination; • provide appropriate lighting to the areas
of concern.
• using landscaping as a natural barrier
(but designed so that it is not at the
3.3.4.3 Territorial reinforcement
expense of natural surveillance);
This strategy relies on the concept of
• creating common areas used by a range
“ownership” of the areas involved. The
of people; and
natural access control and surveillance
• ensuring that plants and other objects strategies tend to reinforce this concept and
do not obscure views of any of the create a sense of “territoriality”. This tends
areas of concern. to promote responsiveness by users in
protecting their “territory” (more
3.3.4.2 Natural surveillance awareness, reporting and reacting) and at
Natural surveillance comes from ensuring the same time, promote a perception of
that all publicly accessible areas are under greater risk for offenders (Crowe, 2000).
observation by the adjacent residents and Some strategies to achieve this are to:
businesses. This is intended to keep
• make the space clearly belong to
intruders under observation, thereby
someone or group;
creating a perception of risk for potential
offenders. Surveillance can be organised- • define the intended use clearly;
direct (e.g. police patrol), mechanical (e.g.
• ensure that the physical design matches
lighting, surveillance cameras) or natural
the intended use; and
(e.g. windows, glass walls). Some actions
that are available to assist in natural • provide the means for normal users to
surveillance are: naturally control activities, control
access and provide surveillance.
• ensuring that all publicly accessible
areas can be observed and that it is Territorial Reinforcement can be regarded
clear that the area can be observed; as an “umbrella” strategy encompassing all
three of the elements of CPTED, even
December 2005
3-21
though each has distinct operational o designing to provide more fixtures

differences. with lower wattage to obtain better
uniformity (and the lighting level
3.3.4.4 Specific cases should enable a person with normal
Parking areas vision to identify a face from a
distance of 15m).
CPTED measures for parking areas that
may be considered include: Pedestrian underpasses
• avoiding obstructions to sight lines and CPTED measures for pedestrian
3 avoiding potential entrapment spots by;

o eliminating dense bushes, solid
underpasses that may be
include:
considered
fences or advertisements that • maximising sight lines and avoiding

obscure the view; entrapment spots:
o eliminating unnecessary buildings or o locating entrances/exits where they

sheds (i.e. hiding places); can be viewed by the maximum
number of people;
o maximising sight lines from the
entrances/exits to the various parts o designing routes to and from the
of the area; and underpasses so they are free of sharp
turns;
o using low fences and low growing
shrubs as the boundaries of the area. o designing underpasses so the full
length of the is visible from each
• enhancing natural surveillance by:
end with no changes in level or
o locating the area to take advantage direction;
of buildings with windows
o designing entrances/exits so they are
overlooking the area;
at the same level as the streets being
o taking advantage of adjacent or served; and
nearby business premises or houses
o designing landscaping near
so that the occupants can see the
entrances/exits such that hiding
area;
places and/or the creation of
o maintaining landscaping to prevent shadows is avoided.
it obscuring the view of the area;
• providing lighting by:
and
o ensuring all approaches and the
o using “see-through” fences rather
length of the underpass are well lit
than solid walls as boundaries.
(i.e. the lighting level sufficient to
• providing lighting such as: identify a face at a distance of 15m)
and maximising its effectiveness and
o providing lighting such that a person
performance by:
can see into the back seat of a
vehicle before entering it; - using fittings that are vandal
proof (to protect against
o ensuring that lighting is uniform to
breakage);
avoid deep shadows; and
December 2005
3-22
- designing the fittings such as to o if the bikeway coincides with a

manipulation is prevented; and walkway, lighting should be
provided unless it leads into an unlit
- using a wall colour that increases
park or recreational area; and
the efficiency of the lighting (e.g.
white or other light colour). o providing lighting in a recreational
area may give a false sense of
• enhancing natural surveillance by:
security to potential users and a false
o incorporating, if possible, street impression that the path is well used
level activities
entrances/exits;
with the
Walkways
at night time.
3
o encouraging surveillance
CPTED measures for walkways that may be
opportunities from adjacent streets
considered include:
and nearby buildings; and
• maximising sight lines and avoiding
o avoiding any hidden spaces or
potential entrapment spots by:
potential hiding places.
o avoiding elements such as sharp
Cycling routes
corners, inset areas along buildings
CPTED measures for cycling routes that or walls, tall fences, earth berms or
may be considered include: overgrown shrubbery (as these may
• for isolated routes: restrict visibility and provide
potential for entrapment); and
o designing to have frequent, clearly
marked exits to areas of high o modifying elements to ensure there
pedestrian and car traffic if possible; are good pedestrian sight lines and
surveillance from adjacent
o ensuring sight lines provide
properties.
visibility along and adjacent to the
route; and • consider providing lighting, and in so
doing note that:
o avoiding the creation of entrapment
areas. o on street walkways should be lit by
the normal street lighting;
• consider providing lighting and in so
doing note that: o on well-travelled walkways, lighting
at the pedestrian level should be
o lighting isolated sections of a
provided;
bikeway in an urban area is
desirable; o lighting of a consistent level should
be provided (to allow for a
o where the bikeway is through a
pedestrian to be able to identify a
recreational area not otherwise lit, it
person 15m away);
may be impracticable to provide
lighting and in these cases signs o fittings should be vandal resistant;
should be provided at the entrances and
to inform cyclists that no lighting is o providing lighting in a recreational
provided; area may give a false sense of
December 2005
3-23
security to potential users and a false social or safety problems (or the
impression that the path is well used perception of them).
at night time.
Bridge overpasses
Bus shelters
The “Reduction of Risk from Objects
CPTED measures for bus shelters that may Thrown From Overpass Structures onto
be considered include: Roads” Policy (Main Roads, 2004), details
a practical risk assessment methodology to
• maximising surveillance:
address the issue of objects being thrown
3 o design of nearby land uses should

provide natural surveillance,
from pedestrian overpass structures onto
roads and the resulting serious potential
especially at night and at weekends; danger to motorists. During the planning
o the bus stop should be located so as and design phases this element of CPTED
to be highly visible for potential should be built into the project.
passengers and the casual observer;
and 3.4 Transport efficiency
and effectiveness
o plantings should not interrupt the
visibility of the site or provide 3.4.1 Land use and transport
hiding places (e.g. use high planning
branching trees - no branches less
than 2.4m above the pedestrian 3.4.1.1 General principles
surface and/or low growing plants Land use and transport demand are
below knee height; maintain/trim inextricably linked; one will always
vegetation). influence the other. Therefore, they must
• Considering the provision of lighting not be considered separately and an
and if included: integrated planning approach is necessary.
o provide high standards of lighting at A major premise of transport and land use
the stop as well as on the approach planning is that an appropriate balance
routes; and between the various modes of transport be
achieved. A system that relies too heavily
o restrict landscaping to the type
on the use of the private car for trips will
described above.
not serve the long term needs of the urban
• avoiding entrapment areas by: community.
o providing multiple entrance/exit Land use planning has a key role in
routes that enable passengers to providing for an integrated transport
bypass potentially unsafe situations; strategy. Forward planning of the location,
o limited walls/fencing immediately scale, density, design and mix of land uses
adjacent to the stop to a height of can help reduce the need to travel, reduce
1.2m; and the length of journeys and make it safer and
easier for people to walk, cycle or use
o locating the stop to avoid areas of public transport. Decreases in forms of
inappropriate land uses that create urban pollution can be achieved through
better land use development and better
December 2005
3-24
design of transport systems. (The transport • business activity centres.

sector is one of the largest sources of
This document lists “best practice”
greenhouse gas emissions in Australia and
initiatives in each section, illustrated by a
private transport is the largest urban land
series of hypothetical case studies. There is
use related source of emissions - refer to
an emphasis on safety (e.g. use of knee-
Section 3.6.4.)
height landscaping, provision of multiple
The “Integrated Transport Planning routes so pedestrians can by-pass unsafe
Framework for Queensland – A Guide for areas) and passive surveillance (refer to
Transport Planning” (Queensland
Government, 2003) sets out the desired
outcomes, directions, principles and
Section 3.3.4) as well as discussion of
issues including density, gradients,
connectivity, traffic calming, footpaths and
3
planning steps to provide hands-on advice cycle paths. Public transport stops are
for integrated transport planning across discussed, with emphasis placed on the
urban, rural and remote locations in importance of complementary facilities
Queensland. It also provides an overview (e.g. telephones, drinking fountains, post
of existing legislation, plans and policies as boxes), while the importance of minimising
well as a checklist of planning steps. All transfer distances and avoiding level
planners should apply the requirements of changes at interchanges between modes is
this publication when undertaking their also emphasised.
projects. Designers should also be aware of
The Australian Model Code Of Residential
these requirements.
Development (AMCORD, Commonwealth
Some of the specific elements that should Department of Housing and Regional
be considered in the transport planning Development, 1995) is a National manual
process are described in the references that for residential design in Australia. It
follow. features comprehensive design guidelines
on:
“Shaping Up: A guide to the better practice
and integration of transport, land use and • neighbourhood design;
urban design techniques” (Queensland
• integrated movement networks
Transport, 1999) is an outstanding guide to
including pedestrian and cycling
developing urban areas to reduce car
facilities; and
dependence, principally through “shaping”
(i.e. moulding, designing) places to better • the location and design of;
support public transport, cycling and o bus stops;
walking. It includes clearly illustrated
o street lighting;
guidelines for:
o landscaping; and
• public transport stops;
o roadside furniture.
• cycling;
Access, safety/security and attractiveness
• walking;
are consistent themes in AMCORD. It is
• interchanges between transport modes; supplemented with Planning Practice Notes
• residential areas; on:
• transport corridors; and • neighbourhood design;
December 2005
3-25
• responsive urban design (that is safe, This can be achieved through a number of
stimulating and sustainable); mechanisms including:
• transport, accessibility and the local • the Integrated Development
environment; Assessment System (IDAS), which
improves the speed and quality of
• streetscape and neighbourhood
development assessment by creating a
character; and
single integrated development
• guidelines for crime prevention assessment system for State and Local
3 including bus shelters, pedestrian and

cycling routes (also refer to Section
3.3.4).
•
Government approval processes;
integrated planning to provide a basis
for the co-ordination of local, regional
Planning SA (South Australian and state planning objectives and
Government, 2000) touches on most of the criteria into Local Government
detailed elements of the urban fabric that planning schemes;
can influence people in making real choices
• infrastructure provision to ensure State
in selecting their travel mode. It sets out
and Local Government capital works
general urban design principles and then
spending and infrastructure provision
looks in turn at the specific needs of the
are co-ordinated with land use planning
pedestrian (refer Section 3.5.6) and the
decisions and reflected in the planning
cyclist (refer Section 3.5.6) as well as the
scheme;
facilitation of public transport (refer Section
3.4.4). The issues addressed in Planning • clear principles for funding essential
SA provide a convenient checklist of the infrastructure in new communities; and
issues to be considered.
• recognition of regional planning forums
and regional planning outcomes
3.4.1.2 Legislative framework
through a statutory framework.
The Integrated Planning Act (IPA - refer to
The role of state agencies in both forward
Chapter 1) includes the need to co-ordinate,
planning and development assessment is
integrate and streamline development
expanding. As the Act puts greater
assessment processes, and to provide for an
emphasis on the formulation of planning
improved whole of government approach to
schemes, state agencies will express their
land use and infrastructure planning.
objectives and criteria for future programs,
The objective of the Act is to seek to strategies, funding etc as they are relevant
achieve ecological sustainability through: to the local areas.
• coordinated and integrated planning at It is necessary for Main Roads to determine
the local, regional and State levels; a program of projects, policies, financial
• managing the process by which provisions and performance measures for
development occurs; and road infrastructure under its own
legislation. Under the integrated planning
• managing the effects of development on
system this information may be transposed
the environment (including managing
into Local Government planning schemes
the use of premises).
to ensure effective service delivery and to
December 2005
3-26
minimise potential conflicts between land When key State or Federal legislation is
use and transport planning objectives at the involved, authority may be vested in the
earliest opportunity. responsible State or Federal agency or
minister.
In addition to the involvement of state
agencies at the concept phase, input into the Reflecting the needs and criteria in planning
development assessment process is also be for and maintaining State controlled road
required under the integrated planning corridors in the planning scheme is,
system. however, good practice.
Identifying the current and future land use
in an area is an essential prerequisite for the
The IPA also includes “designated land for
community infrastructure” as another
3
assessment of the travel patterns and traffic means of integrating land use policy and
demand on any future or current facility. infrastructure provision. “Community
The source of this information is the Local infrastructure” is defined in a Schedule of
Government for the area, together with any the IPA and this includes State controlled
Regional Plans prepared by Government roads. State controlled roads can be
and/or Regional Organisations of Councils identified on Local Government planning
(ROCs). schemes as an overlay to the scheme. The
purpose of this community infrastructure
Local Government planning schemes
designation is to:
contain provisions that provide the strategic
vision and goals to guide development for • achieve integration of infrastructure
at least a 10 to 15 year period. It is planning and land use planning;
expected that they will be reviewed at least
• provide infrastructure more efficiently
once within this time.
and cost effectively; and
The planning scheme preparation or review
• give governments and other
process provides state agencies with the
stakeholders greater clarity and
ideal opportunity to input into the process
certainty about intended future
in a proactive rather than reactive manner.
directions for development and land
This will help to ensure that the needs of
use.
State-controlled road corridors can be
safeguarded and protected. 3.4.1.3 Demography
The process also provides the opportunity The future demography of the area will be
to identify future or changing land use intimately bound up with the land uses of
patterns that are an important determinant that area. Estimates of future population
of the need for particular infrastructure and its distribution depend on the
within an area. assumptions made regarding land uses.
Planning schemes reflect community The primary source of demographic
planning policy and land use management. predictions is the Queensland Department
They are the key instruments against which of Local Government and Planning,
the assessment of the majority of Planning Information and Forecasting Unit.
development applications is made. They provide a high, medium and low
series of population forecasts for each shire
together with age composition and other
December 2005
3-27
data. This takes into account many issues o Gulf Savannah Integrated Regional
including land supply, IPA schemes, Transport Plan (Queensland
committed infrastructure and proposed Transport, 2000);
industrial development. Their initial source
o Townsville Port Access Impact
of information includes the census.
Assessment Study (Maunsell, 2000);
Shire prediction should normally be in
o Townsville Thuringowa Integrated
accord with these forecasts. When doing
Regional Transport Plan (TTIRTP –
assessments the three rates (high, medium
Queensland Transport, Main Roads,
3 and low) should be considered or evaluated

to manage the risk of over investing.
Townsville City Council and
Thuringowa City Council, 2001);
In the absence of more formal demographic
o Townsville Thuringowa strategy
predictions, data obtainable from Local
plan: framework for managing
Government sources to assist predictions of
growth and development
rate of growth of population may include:
(Queensland Department of
• historical growth rate data (including Communication and Information,
building approval figures); Local Government, Planning and
Sport, Thuringowa City Council and
• planning investigations such as:
Townsville City Council, 2000);
o South East Queensland Regional
o Capricornia Integrated Regional
Plan 2005-2026 (Queensland Office
Transport Plan 2004-2030
of Urban Management and
(Queensland Transport, 2004);
Queensland Department of Local
Government, Planning, Sport and o Gladstone Integrated Regional
Recreation, 2005); Transport Plan 2001-2030
o The South East Queensland
Infrastructure Program and Plan o Mackay Area Integrated Transport
(SEQIPP - Queensland Office of Plan 2002-2025 (Queensland
Urban Management and Queensland Transport, 2002);
Department of Local Government,
o Border Integrated Transport Plan –
Planning, Sport and Recreation,
Draft for Consultation 2004
2005);
o Far North Queensland Regional Plan
o Eastern Downs Integrated Transport
(Queensland Department of
Plan (Queensland Transport, 2003);
Communication and Information,
Local Government, Planning and o Gowrie to Grandchester Rail
Sport, 2000); Corridor Study (Queensland
Transport, 2005);
o Cairns Integrated Transport Study –
Draft Technical Report (Queensland o Wide Bay Integrated Transport Plan
Transport and Eppell Olsen and 2002-2020 (Queensland Transport,
Partners, 2003); 2002);
o South East Queensland
Infrastructure Plan and Program
December 2005
3-28
2005-2026 (SEQIPP – Office of Development, Trade and Innovation and the

Urban Management, 2005); Australian Bureau of Statistics. The
Applied Population Research Unit based at
o South East Queensland Regional
the University of Queensland is also an
Plan 2005-2026 (Office of Urban
authority in this field.
Management and Department of
Local Government, Planning, Sport
3.4.2 Travel demand and
and Recreation, 2005);
demand management
o Integrated Regional Transport Plan
for South East Queensland
(Queensland Government, 1997);
Traffic demand and management may be
influenced by public transportation 3
facilitation (Section 3.4.4).
o South-East Queensland travel
survey (Queensland Transport, 3.4.2.1 Travel demand
2005);
Future travel demand is a function of land
o Petrie to Kippa-Ring Transport use, demography and available choices of
Corridor Study (GHD, 2003); travel mode. Determining this includes
o The Gold Coast Light Rail estimating both the scale of demand for
Feasibility Study (APD et al, 2004 each travel mode and their associated
APD partnership, Parsons patterns that will lead to identifying the
Brinckerhoff, Steer Davies Gleave, future design flows (e.g. private vehicle,
KPMG, Queensland Transport and cyclists, public transport) in a particular
Gold Coast City Council); corridor.
o Robina to Tugun Rail Impact Identifying the future travel demand is

Assessment Study (Parsons important for:
Brinckerhoff, 2005); • planning the location of the future road
o Caboolture to Landsborough Rail system;
Upgrade Study (Arup, 2005); and • identifying the width and design criteria
o Caboolture to Maroochydore of any particular corridor;
Corridor Study (Arup, 2001). • establishing the intended function/s that
• the dynamics of land supply in a corridor fulfils; and
surrounding areas (i.e. an assessment of • determining future estimates of travel in
housing competition); a particular road corridor which will
• information on the land development depend upon the:
industry; and o growth and type of development in
• input from community consultation. the catchment of the corridor;
Other sources of information for o growth in traffic including through

demographic study may include the traffic; and
Queensland Department of Tourism, Fair o future trends in travel mode
Trading and Wine Industry Development, selection.
Queensland Department of State
December 2005
3-29
For rural areas, the issue of freight approaches to providing transport

movements is particularly significant in infrastructure;
terms of the level of demand and the
• providing appropriate road and traffic
physical and design attributes the corridor
management, local area traffic
will require.
management and street closures; and
Increased use of public transport, walking
• providing for freight and the
and cycling is an objective expressed in all
requirements of commercial vehicles.
of the ITRPs’ targets which are aimed at
3 increasing the usage of sustainable

transport, and is encouraged in Shaping Up
(Queensland Transport, 1999). Objectives
(In identifying the future demand for travel
in a particular corridor, special
consideration may have to be given to
include: different classes of traffic such as High
Occupancy Vehicles [HOVs], B-doubles
• higher use of sustainable transport by
and road trains and public transport
increasing the proportion of trips made
vehicles. The proportion of Heavy Goods
by public transport, walking and
Vehicles [HGVs] may also be important.)
cycling, and share rides;
In support of integrated planning and the
• restraining the growth of peak period
sustainable transport objectives of the
travel demand by reducing the
strategies emerging from IRTPs, and
predominance of single occupant
similar plans, corridors will have to make
vehicle travel, eliminating unnecessary
provision for the range of travel modes
trips and distributing the traffic patterns
required and the infrastructure required to
on the network to reflect the
support each of them.
appropriate function and achieve
efficiency across the existing transport 3.4.2.2 Travel demand management
system;
Several of the objectives of the IRTPs
• providing sufficient road capacity by involve the management of travel demand
planning to meet moderated traffic by encouraging the use of modes of
demand and accommodate the growth transport other than single occupant use of
of the regions’ urban areas; private cars (e.g. walking, cycling and
• co-ordinating transport and land use public transport).
planning by supporting more compact, One strategy seeks to address the problem
better designed urban development that of congested road space by reducing the
supports public transport and allows number of vehicles (e.g. single occupant
people to walk and cycle more; private cars) required to accomplish the
• ensuring social justice by a more transport task, thereby improving the level
integrated transport system that shares of service to all road users and obtaining the
the costs and benefits of transport best use of the existing infrastructure (refer
equitably across the region; Section 3.6.4). Part of this strategy is to
encourage greater occupancy of private cars
• maintaining environmental quality by
(and trucks), use of other types of vehicles
better traffic planning and improved
(e.g. motorcycles and bicycles) and greater
use of public transport. Collectively,
December 2005
3-30
private vehicles with multiple passengers Pavement Rehabilitation Manual

and road bound public transport vehicles [Queensland Transport, 1992] for a detailed
are referred to as HOVs. Providing special discussion related to pavement design,
facilities to give HOVs (and other eligible including pavement design traffic).
vehicles which may include motorcycles
The accurate forecasting of a traffic volume
and bicycles, refer Section 3.4.4.1) a level
in 20 years, or other specified times in the
of priority higher than single occupant cars
future, might require specialist skills and
and trucks is one way to achieve the desired
special studies to be undertaken. Some of
outcome (by encouraging the desired
behaviour). If sufficient time savings can
be obtained, then it will be attractive for
the contributing factors have been discussed
in other sections. Another approach is to
extrapolate historical traffic data and
3
people to use HOVs.
modify these figures for the traffic
Planning activities must take account of the generated by specific developments
potential for HOV facilities and use them (factored for growth over the planning
appropriately to cater for the traffic demand period).
and to determine the type and size of
Traffic generated by specific developments
roadway required. Requirements for these
can be estimated from industry norms
facilities are discussed in Section 3.4.4.1.
determined from experience. Appendix 3A
It is beyond the scope of this Manual to provides summary information on trip
address the range of other measures that can generation rates for a range of land uses
be taken to manage travel demand (e.g. the (and cites references to which planners and
use of a parking policy). designers should turn for detailed
information).
3.4.3 Traffic forecasting
Predicted traffic volumes on (i.e. along and
The planning and design of a new road in a across) the road in question is the basis for
corridor depends on having accurate many aspects of the design and can
forecasts of the traffic expected to use it influence the overall impact of the road on
throughout its design life. It is also all of the factors being considered. This
important that an accurate estimate of the applies to the environmental impact as well
traffic generating characteristics of a new as the effect on the range of engineering
development is known so that its impact parameters adopted for the design. The
can be gauged and the development traffic parameters to be used are discussed
properly assessed. In general, planning is in Chapter 5.
based on the traffic expected in 20 years
3.4.4 Public transport
from the opening of the facility but it might
facilitation
be necessary to obtain predictions for a
series of years to determine the potential for
3.4.4.1 Transit lanes
staging of the required works. Heavy-duty
pavements are often designed using a In Queensland, special lanes to
design life of 40 years meaning an estimate accommodate HOVs, and other eligible
of the traffic use over that period is vehicles, are known as “transit lanes”. This
required. (Refer to the Pavement Design section sets out the objectives of transit
Manual [Main Roads, 2004] and the lanes and the factors to be considered in
December 2005
3-31
their planning and implementation. For a converting a busy general-purpose lane to

comprehensive treatment of this subject, an under-used transit lane, for instance,
refer to the “Brisbane HOV Arterial Roads might result in a total person-hour time
Study Report” (PPK et al, 2000) and increase. Another example is where a
publications by the Transportation Research proposed HOV facility might meet
Board (1998) and Fuhs (1990). Although technical warrants yet be unacceptable to
the PPK study focuses on Brisbane, it the adjacent community. Further, the
provides basic principles that apply conversion of a parking lane to a HOV lane
throughout Queensland. may make it difficult or unsafe for cyclists
3 Objectives of transit lanes
using it.
There will be quantitative and qualitative
In addition to the basic requirements such
aspects to assess both the benefits and
as designing for personal safety, cost-
detrimental aspects of transit lane
effectiveness, and design criteria (including
implementation. The acceptability of some
provisions for cycling), which are part of
proposals will obviously be case-specific or
any roadway or transit project, the
community-specific. There will be
following objectives are appropriate for
situations where the needs of through
transit lanes:
freight movement are very significant in
• Increase the attractiveness of HOVs and which case a HOV may not be appropriate
other eligible vehicle types by (as freight vehicles are not HOVs and so
improving their operational efficiency permitted in transit lanes) and other
and reliability. locations where the views of the
• Induce a behavioural shift towards surrounding community are strongly for or
HOVs, and other eligible vehicle types, against HOV priority and still other cases
by providing travel time savings and where a balance between all the road users’
more reliable trip times for these needs can be readily achieved. There are
vehicles. environmental impacts and policy issues to
be considered as well. For instance, it
• Increase the person movement capacity
might be feasible to widen a transit lane to
of road links by increasing the average
cater for cyclists on a key cycling route,
number of persons carried per vehicle.
thus improving the potential for increasing
• Implement HOV priority measures such cycling.
that community-wide net benefits
All of these benefits and disadvantages
outweigh any net disadvantages.
need to be considered over time, and there
The key issue in setting out transit lane will be situations where short-term impacts
objectives is the relationship between the may need to be endured in order to
transit lane objectives and those of the rest influence long-term trend lines.
of the transport system. To arbitrarily apply
Despite the best planning intentions, the
measures which meet the above transit lane
reality is that no HOV project should be
objectives could disadvantage non-transit
implemented if it causes unacceptable
lane users in some cases to such a degree
disruption to the rest of the system. Such a
that the net impact on person movement
project could irreparably harm the overall
would be negative. For example,
ability to implement other projects that
December 2005
3-32
together would contribute to achieving • HOV lane implementation - when is

overall transport objectives. lane conversion rather than lane
addition the right answer?
HOV spot treatments such as by queue
jumps at ramp metering and other traffic • Cycling and buses - can cyclists and
signals can provide large benefits for low buses co-exist in shared HOV lane? If
cost. These spot improvements may be part so, how?
of a wider HOV system or may be isolated
Each project will have to consider these
in specific locations where such a facility
issues and provide a facility that best suits
will provide significant benefits. Planners
and designers of individual projects should
be alert to the possibility of including such
the environment (physical and political)
that prevails in the area under
3
consideration.
spot treatment to achieve these benefits at
little additional cost. Vehicle eligibility by type
Key planning issues General-purpose lanes are generally open to

any type of vehicle at any time. However
Based on Brisbane and international
large commercial vehicles that do not have
experience, the most significant issues
as of right access (e.g. B-doubles, type 2
likely to be faced by a HOV network or its
road trains) can only use general-purpose
individual components are:
lanes under permit. A priority facility
• Vehicle eligibility by type - what type requires limiting or restricting usage to only
of vehicle constitutes an eligible HOV? a specific type or types of (i.e. eligible)
That is, will the HOV facility be a bus vehicle(s).
lane or a transit lane?
The current Traffic Regulations (as per the
• Vehicle eligibility by occupancy (for Transport Operations [Road Use
transit lanes only) - how many Management] Act) allow:
occupants are required in/on each
• the following vehicles in bus lanes:
eligible vehicle?
o buses;
• Hours of operation – peak period, all
day or 24-hour? o taxis/limousines;
• Usage criteria and warrants - when is a o emergency vehicles;

priority lane justified, under-used, or o bicycles;
congested?
o any vehicles turning within 100m of
• Network consistency and integration - an intersection; and
under what conditions should adjoining
o vehicles accessing adjacent
transit lanes use the same rules or does
properties.
it make a difference?
• the following vehicles in transit lanes:
• Compliance monitoring and
enforcement - what level of violation is o motor vehicles with a specified
tolerable and what can be done to keep minimum number of occupants;
it that way?
o buses (omnibuses);
o taxis/limousines;
December 2005
3-33
o motorcycles; combined bus/car-pool volumes in transit

lanes for three types of roads:
o emergency vehicles;
• a signalised urban street with a capacity
o bicycles;
of 650v/h/lane;
o any vehicles turning within 100m of
• a signalised suburban arterial with a
an intersection; and
capacity of 800v/h/lane; and
o vehicles accessing adjacent
• a high standard suburban arterial with a
properties.
3 Buses, taxis, motorcycles, bicycles and

emergency vehicles are allowed in a transit
capacity of 900v/h/lane.
Furthermore, there must be public
acceptance that the usage of the lane is
lane regardless of occupancy.
sufficient. If the public perceives that the
Transit lane warrants lane is underused, then it will be difficult to
For planning purposes, guidelines are maintain the integrity of the lane and
needed to establish the minimum and violations of the usage of the lane by
maximum vehicle volumes for an effective ineligible vehicles will be significant.
transit lane: PPK et al (2000) set out these conditions in
• The minimum criteria should reflect the some detail; planners and designers should
tenet that the transit lanes should carry refer to this reference for guidance.
at least as many people as the adjacent Evaluation
general-purpose lane. Note that this
Evaluation of any proposals for transit lanes
person volume can be carried by any
should be based on agreed criteria using
combination of buses and carpools,
suitable weighting of the factors selected
with car-pool figures varying
for the evaluation criteria (PPK et al, 2000).
depending on whether the lane is a T2
Table 3.1 sets out appropriate evaluation
(i.e. two person occupancy) or T3 (i.e.
criteria with some guidance on the
three person occupancy) facility.
measures to be used and the weighting to be
• The maximum criteria are based on the applied.
premise that the lane should, at all
Support programs
times, operate without congestion.
Basic lane capacity depends on the road Support programs are the group of
type, the proportion of green time measures that can be taken outside the road
available and whether buses stop in the right-of-way to encourage, promote and
lane (and the duration of the stop) or market HOV use. These programs are part
use bus bays. Capacity can be of the travel demand strategy and are
calculated using the procedures of the focused on changing the habits of the
Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, person making the trip.
2000).
These factors have been combined in Figure
3.6, Figure 3.7 and Figure 3.8 (Appendix
3C) as ready references. These figures
illustrate the target envelope for the
December 2005
3-34
Table 3.1 Evaluation criteria for transit lanes (based on PPK et al, 2000)
Criteria Measures *Weighting

(%)
HOV Travel Time • Annual person-hours of travel time savings (net, i.e. benefits to HOVs
15
Savings less disadvantages to vehicle other than HOVs).
Person Throughput • Anticipated persons carried under conditions of existing/predicted
demand, with and without priority treatment.
• Impact of treatment on generating modal shift. 5
• Person carrying capacity of HOV lane relative to that of the adjacent
general-purpose lane.
3
Bus Operations • Suitability of bus operating pattern (express/all-stop/turns).
• Ability to provide bus stops/bays to allow unimpeded through 10
movement.
Cost- effectiveness • Total capital cost.
• Annual operating cost.
15
• Net value of travel time savings (net of time disadvantages to vehicles
other than HOVs) calculated over a ten year life.
Traffic Operations • Intersection level of service with and without priority treatment, for
HOV and general traffic. 10
• Ability to accommodate HOV turn demand.
Safety and Bicycles • Existing accident figures for route/site.
• Impact of treatment on accident potential.
10
• Compatibility with bicycle operation.
• Pedestrian safety.
Network Impact • Consistency with adjacent HOV facilities.
• Continuity of treatment in corridor.
5
• Relationship with trunk bus routes.
• Linkage with support facilities (e.g. park and ride, bus interchanges).
Enforceability • Ability to detect violation.
• Ability to intercept/penalise violators. 10
• Minimum threshold volumes to avoid the empty lane syndrome.
Context • Positive and negative impacts on adjacent business.
• On-street parking.
• Impact on adjacent residential areas (cut through traffic). 15
• Co-ordination with other projects.
• Physical feasibility.
HOV Travel Time • The degree to which variations in traffic conditions affect the
Reliability operation of the treatment. 10
• Off-peak operating conditions.
*The weightings shown in this table are a guide and may be varied to suit a particular project. Refer to PPK et al (2000)
for a detailed discussion.
December 2005
3-35
These measures will fall under one of the pedestrian, the cyclist and the transit
following three functional groupings: passenger (refer also to Section 3.5.6).
• Group 1 - Convenience/ encouragement In any community, there is a demand for
which includes: “public” transport to and between work,
shopping, education and leisure activities,
o employer incentives;
and in residential areas.
o ride-match program;
The level and nature of demand for these
o vanpool program; transport services are determined by such
3 o
o
guaranteed ride home;
marketing; and
factors as density of development, spatial
distribution of activities and the socio-
economic characteristics of an area as well
o information. as the demographics of the area’s
population. The extent to which public
• Group 2 – Parking which includes:
transport can meet the potential demand is
o park and ride car park; influenced not only by these factors, but
o carpool car park; also by the road layout, hierarchy and
geometry in the service area and the quality
o preferential parking spaces; and
of the amenities provided.
o preferential parking rates;
Local and international research indicates
• Group 3 – Policies and social issues. that passengers desire the following
amenities in order of priority (South
It is beyond the scope of this Manual to
Australian Government, 2000):
deal with these measures in detail. PPK et
al (2000) contains a detailed discussion of • shelter;
these issues.
• seating;
Specific treatments
• information;
Details of specific HOV treatments are
• an attractive and clean environment;
given in Chapter 7.
• security;
3.4.4.2 Passenger transport modes
• accessibility;
The information on bus routes given in this
• directional signage;
section is based on Shaping Up
(Queensland Transport, 1999). Refer to • convenient transfer between modes;
Shaping Up for any additional information • direct pedestrian access to their
required above what is given in this section. destination; and
Planning SA (South Australian
• reassurance.
Government, 2000) touches on most of the
detailed elements of the urban fabric that The role that public transport should
can influence people in making real choices perform on various classes of road is as
in selecting their travel mode. It sets out discussed below.
general urban design principles and then
looks in turn at the specific needs of the
December 2005
3-36
Safety frequency and timing of services.

Reassurance for passengers involves
Safety for transit passengers centres mainly
providing route and travel information at
on the ability to wait in a public place
stops, stations and interchanges between
without fear of assault or harassment. This
modes of transport, working towards
is most acute at night and is exacerbated by
providing “real time” information about
isolation. In addition to personal safety,
routes and travel, providing a clock in
passengers who access public transport by
waiting areas, and providing clear
car or bicycle require a secure place to park
directional signage to, from and within
their vehicle.
enhanced by:
Personal safety can be
stations, stops and interchanges.
Convenience also covers providing direct
3
• providing good lighting at stops,
and comfortable access for passengers
stations and interchanges;
transferring between different modes or
• encouraging activity at and around vehicles, providing access for elderly
stops, stations and interchanges to people and those with disabilities or those
improve passive surveillance; pushing prams, providing for bicycle
• locating interchanges between modes of carriage on buses and trains and providing
transport within centres to improve storage for bicycles at stations.
security and convenience for transit Pleasure
passengers;
Pleasure for transit passengers can include
• providing shelters that allow direct time for reading and conversation and
views to and from the street; freedom from the stress that sometimes
• providing video surveillance, help accompanies driving.
phones and distress alarms at stops, Comfort
stations and interchanges between
Comfort includes weather protection,
modes of transport, and on vehicles to
comfortable seating while waiting,
contribute to a more secure
directional signage to toilets and other
environment and one that feels secure;
facilities, a clean and attractive waiting
• providing taxi ranks at key stops, environment free of graffiti, phones,
stations and interchanges; rubbish bins, and other services like a news
• providing well-lit commuter parks and stand and a café.
well-lit pedestrian walkways that are Public art
used to access public transport;
Public art can enhance the experience while
• avoiding the provision of underpasses; waiting for a bus or train. Experience
and indicates that public art may also reduce the
• CPTED (refer to Section 3.3.4). incidence of graffiti
Convenience Trains
Convenience for transit passengers is In major urban areas, trains often provide a
largely related to information and certainty major public transport service. It is
about obvious and direct paths, and about important that good quality access to
railway stations for all modes (walking,
December 2005
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cycling, buses, motorcycles and private car) all bus stop locations while also being
is provided where required. Facilities could accessible for people with disabilities;
include:
• locating lesser activity centres (e.g.
• pedestrian and cyclist underpasses or smaller schools, local shops,
overpasses; commercial centres, post offices and
public buildings) on, or very close to,
• on-road and/or off-road pedestrian and
the routes between the major activity
cycle facilities;
centres;
•
3 •
bus priority measures;
“kiss and ride” facilities;
• placing residential centres such that
residents have a choice of major
• motorcycle parking; activity centres, in either direction on
the bus route/s;
• bike storage facilities; and
• implementing progressive co-ordinated
• bus stops.
development of land parcels which
Buses enable new or extension bus service to
be implemented efficiently, or which
In rural areas well removed from urban
“fill-in” gaps in existing route
communities, the major public transport
catchments; and
requirement is for school buses. Providing
access to the road system for this service is • ensuring opportunities for inter-modal
usually the dominant public transport issue. trips by providing safe and convenient
However, some long distance services cycling access to bus interchanges.
require some level of access and these must
Bus routing and road planning options
also be considered (refer to Chapter 20 for
details of some bus stop requirements). Ease of bus movements between the various
road types must be considered in the design
Land use planning and bus routing
of the road layout, intersection layout and
The general philosophy of land use intersection control.
planning for efficient bus transport is that
In particular, buses should not be expected
which best combines:
to cross, or make uncontrolled right turns
• providing direct routes between major onto, highly trafficked arterial roads
activity centres (such as retail centres, through a “Stop” or “Give Way” control.
industrial estates, commercial centres, Channelisation, roundabout or traffic signal
large schools, and significant leisure control should be introduced on bus routes
centres) and the patronage source (i.e. to assist bus access to the arterial system.
the residential areas); Alternatively bus priority measures should
be implemented. Wherever possible in
• providing appropriate density of
such circumstances, T-junctions rather than
residential developments along such
four way intersections should be used as
routes which should be within a
these significantly improve safety and
“convenient” walking distance to bus
accessibility.
stops;
At any location where significant bus
• providing appropriate and convenient
delays are expected, introducing some form
pedestrian facilities that give access to
December 2005
3-38
of bus priority should be considered (refer be carefully assessed. Particular factors to

to Section 3.4.4.1). be considered include the following:
High volume arterial roads (typically • Bus access/egress and stop facilities
found in the high population urban should not be intermixed with normal
areas) car parking or affected by private
vehicle queues.
Arterial roads are very suitable for trunk
express or limited-stop bus services. As • Bus route diversions off the sub-arterial
volumes of traffic and congestion increase or collector roads through the centre
on high volume arterial roads, provision of
HOV lanes may be appropriate to support
should be as short as possible, in both
distance and time.
3
public transport objectives and maintain
• Bus stop facilities should be as close as
reliability for bus operations. Wherever bus
possible to the pedestrian access
stops occur, passengers should be isolated
facilities for the centre.
as far as practicable from the arterial road
traffic by providing stopping areas clear of • Colleges and hospitals should be
the main carriageway (preferably on service located convenient to major transport
roads) and pedestrian access facilities routes (but not adjacent to arterial
segregated from the arterial road vehicles roads) and have good pedestrian access
(via grade separation desirably, or between the public transport stops and
pedestrian signals as a minimum). the facility. A shelter and even covered
walkways (for very high volume routes)
Lower volume arterial roads (typically
are desirable. Note that these facilities
found in lower population urban areas,
can be significant generators of traffic
small cities and rural towns), sub-
with different requirements from the
arterial and collector roads
through traffic on arterial roads. Noise
Principal pedestrian access to, facilities for, is an issue for these facilities if they are
and routes of, major bus services are best located too close to an arterial road.
suited to sub-arterial and collector roads.
• Intermodal transport: People can walk,
At bus stops, passengers should be isolated
cycle or use other vehicles (e.g. car,
as far as practicable from the road traffic by
motorcycle to get to public transport.
providing a bus pull off area clear of the
Appropriate facilities are required for
main carriageway.
all modes and user types to support
Local roads intermodal trips.
Local roads should be restricted to Consultation with Local Government and
residential traffic only and are not suitable other stakeholders regarding the above
for use as bus routes. points is essential.
Major developments and bus access
3.4.5 Staged construction
Where a large commercial development,
such as a shopping centre, office park, 3.4.5.1 Principles
college or hospital is planned for an area The potential for developing a project in
away from the central city area, the needs stages has to be determined in the Concept
of, and demands on, public transport should Phase. Appropriate staging will require a
December 2005
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detailed analysis of the traffic impacts of Other examples include:

the staging and the likely life of the stages
• providing space for piers for a future
proposed.
overpass;
Proper attention must be given to the design
• designing for a future overpass rather
to ensure that future construction of the
than an underpass;
next stages can be achieved without undue
disruption to the road users and the adjacent • allowing space for future widening into
property owners. This can affect various the median;
3 aspects of the design and can have a

significant effect on the detail of the design
adopted. Some features affected include
• allowing for duplication of a single
carriageway in the same right of way;
• providing a longer bridge for a future
the:
loop or additional lanes under the
• width of medians; structure (e.g. duplication, widening);
• location of carriageway in the road • building bridge abutments and piers
reserve; (i.e. substructures) wide enough for
• length of overpass bridges; future deck widening ( which might be
particularly relevant in some
• grading of the carriageway to facilitate
environmentally sensitive areas);
future grade separation;
• providing for spoil to be placed on the
• location and spacing of intersections
alignment of a future carriageway;
and interchanges;
• providing space for PUP clear of the
• location of property accesses;
current and future carriageways;
• provision for pedestrians and cyclists;
• locating new PUP and relocating
• provision of transit lanes; existing PUP so that it does not have to
be relocated for future stages of the
• thickness, configuration and type of the
road development;
pavement;
• minimising the temporary works
• clearance to overpass structures; and
required for future stages; and
• extent of works to facilitate temporary
• allocating corridor space to future on-
connections and their removal.
road or off-road cycling facilities.
Whole of life considerations would indicate
Methods of achieving these results are
that current works should provide for the
discussed in other parts of this Manual.
future stages to be implemented with
minimal effect on the current works. In
3.4.5.2 Construction sequencing
addition, they should make for ease of
and traffic diversion during
construction of the future works. Hence, a
construction
pavement could be extended to provide a
clean joining point for a future extension to Sequencing of the construction process is
the carriageway clear of the traffic using the different from the staging of a project and
first stage. requires a different approach. Construction
sequencing is the set of activities required
December 2005
3-40
to ensure that the project can be constructed to their methods provided all of the
economically while minimising disruption. requirements are met.
In contrast, staging of a project defines the
Closely allied to sequencing is the number
works to be carried out over an extended
of construction contracts required to
time frame to achieve some “ultimate” goal
implement each stage of the project. To
for the standard of the road.
manage risk, traffic or cash flow, it might
During planning and design (i.e. concept be advantageous to have separate contracts
and development phases) planners and for specific aspects of the project.
designers must:
• Ensure that the project can be
Preloading (to encourage early settlement),
over-bridges, interchanges, specialist or
proprietary works, some environmental
3
constructed in an economical manner
management devices, PUP alterations and
and that residents, business, traffic and
landscaping are some of the aspects where
pedestrians are not unduly disrupted in
it may be appropriate to have separate
the process. This might require
contracts. Refer to Volume 1 of the Main
changes to the planning and design, and
Roads Project Delivery System (MRPDS -
some additional works to ensure that a
Main Roads, 2005) for further details on
satisfactory and safe outcome is
selecting the appropriate delivery method.
achieved (refer to Section 3.3.3).
• Examine the sequencing of the works to 3.4.6 Life cycle costs
determine the feasibility of the project
and to determine the temporary works 3.4.6.1 General
required to manage the construction When developing options and deciding
process. Depending on the between them, both the initial capital cost
circumstances it might be appropriate to of the facility and the ongoing cost of
document the construction sequence. operations and maintenance must be
There is support for both including and not considered. Decisions on the form of the
including construction sequencing and design, the materials used and the staging of
temporary works in contract documents the works can have an impact on the whole
(e.g. on plans). Each project should be of life costs of a project. Adopting a cheap
treated on its own merits. When there are solution for the initial construction will not
many ways to sequence a project, the necessarily produce the minimum whole of
“rules” for managing traffic and other life cost.
impacts are usually more appropriate than
3.4.6.2 Materials
expending design time documenting a
sequence. Conversely safety, ministerial Selection of the materials to use for
commitment, the outcome of public pavements, bridges, safety barriers and
consultation, or other essential constraints, noise barriers can have a marked effect on
might require a particular construction both the initial cost and the long-term costs
sequence that is not the most economical if (i.e. whole of life cost) of a project.
those requirements were not there. In any
Pavements
case, the documents should allow
contractors to devise a sequence appropriate The choice of pavement materials and type
of pavement/s is one that generally requires
December 2005
3-41
a choice between a low initial cost with replacement and ongoing maintenance is a
high recurring costs of maintenance and consideration. Concrete safety barriers
rehabilitation, or a high initial cost with low have the highest capital cost but also the
ongoing costs. The whole of life costs of lowest ongoing costs since they are not
such choices can be estimated and a usually damaged in a collision and there is
decision can be made based on economic little other maintenance required. They
grounds. In some cases, the volume of may also remain fully functional
traffic will be a determining factor (e.g. immediately after impact.
type of surfacing) but availability of
3 material is often a crucial issue and may
dictate the pavement design.
The type of surface under a barrier can also
influence maintenance costs. Semi-rigid
safety barrier placed above/through a sealed
(Note: Section 3.2.5.2 also contains a pavement requires negligible vegetation
general discussion about pavements.) clearance maintenance work around the
posts compared to a safety barrier placed on
Bridges
embankment or unsealed pavement.
Concrete (e.g. reinforced, pre-tensioned,
Safety barriers may also require end
post-tensioned) is the current material of
treatments (where warranted). End
choice for long-term low maintenance costs
treatments are normally expensive to repair
(assuming that the concrete is manufactured
and experience has shown that they may
and constructed correctly with durable
become obsolete as the vehicle fleet
materials). Steel structures require ongoing
changes, or due to future research and
maintenance (e.g. painting) that may negate
development.
any initial cost advantage they may have.
In arid western areas, maintenance needs It should be noted that safety barriers are
are significantly less and galvanized steel not the only solution; they should be
girders may represent an economical “engineered out” where possible. For
solution because the savings in example, a flatter batter may deliver lower
transportation costs of girders to site may cost whole of life outcomes than a safety
more than adequately offset any barrier and can also deliver greater safety
maintenance costs. Further considerations benefits. (Refer to Chapter 8 for discussion
are the availability of suitable maintenance about the forgiving roadside concept.)
personnel and specialised maintenance
Noise barriers
equipment, and the accessibility of the
structure (both getting to the structure as The lowest capital cost noise barriers are
well as accessing elements of the structure usually made of treated timber or
itself). earthworks. However, timber noise barriers
are susceptible to damage by fire – a risk
Safety barriers
that should be assessed. Other materials are
The choice of the type of safety barrier also available and other constraints or
involves considerations other than the conditions may require their use (e.g. the
material type since the circumstances provisions of transparent barriers or
prevailing might not allow all types to be textured concrete barriers for aesthetic
used (refer to Chapter 8). However, if reasons). Whatever the case, the whole of
different types are suitable, the cost of
December 2005
3-42
life costs of each option can be calculated to • debris removal from drainage inlets and
help an appropriate decision to be reached. outlets (which affects size and type of
opening, use of grates, hydraulic
Where space is available, an earth mound
design);
can provide distinct advantages as generally
they have a higher aesthetic value to • surface drainage features (such as use
adjacent property owners and the travelling of natural materials, concrete lining,
public. In addition, they can offer safety channel shapes, use of bicycle safe
benefits, are low maintenance, fire proof, grates);
can be landscaped and obviate the graffiti
problem. Earth mounds are particularly
suitable in rural areas as they are more in
•
•
bridges (refer to Section 3.4.6.2);
noise barriers (refer to Section 3.4.6.2);
3
character with rural settings than wall type • materials requiring painting (note that
structures. galvanized products remain unpainted);
3.4.6.3 Maintenance needs • safety barriers (refer to Section 3.4.6.2);
The ongoing maintenance costs of the • landscaping elements (refer to Section

various features of a design must be 3.4.6.4); and
considered in the decision making process. • safe access for maintenance personnel
In addition the design must provide and vehicles.
adequate access for maintenance activities.
The maintenance requirements of the 3.4.6.4 Landscaping
following are some aspects that must be
The whole of life costs of landscaping is
considered when planning or designing a
heavily dependent on the type of treatments
road:
adopted and the standard of appearance
• pavements (refer to Sections 3.2.5.2 desired. Refer to the Road Landscape
and 3.4.6.2); Manual (Main Roads, 2004) for further
information.
o pavement edges (e.g. seal shoulders
to reduce maintenance Issues to be considered include:
requirements);
• the growth habit of trees and shrubs
o outer wheel path pavement (e.g. know the expected size of trees
deformation (e.g. sealing shoulders and shrubs at maturity) and the location
reduces deformation and hence of these with respect to the clear zone;
maintenance requirements if the
• the impact of root growth (as they may
thickness of pavement is adequate);
intrude into drainage lines, cause
o flush seal pavements – require reseal heaving of pavements and footpaths);
every seven years on average;
• watering costs; and
• batter slopes (e.g. steeper slopes require
• maintenance costs (e.g. costs of
expensive boom mowing while flatter
mowing, pruning and weed control).
slopes can be slashed);
The “Roadside Landscaping Policy” (Main
• line marking (as different materials
Roads, 1994) should also be referenced.
have different durability);
December 2005
3-43
3.4.6.5 Public Utility Plant (PUP) cost analyses account for these costs, which
are affected by:
The objective should be to reduce the need
for future road openings for PUP to zero. • road roughness;
This is an unlikely possibility but the fewer
• grades;
road openings, the lower the long term
costs for the road. To minimise the number • length of travel;
of road openings, careful attention to the • accident rates; and
location of the PUP in the first instance is
• delay.
3 essential. In addition, providing sufficient
space in the area allocated to the individual
services, and installing enough ducts to
In addition to the immediate impact of
particular features of the design, planners
provide for future expansion will reduce the and designers have to take account of the
need for future openings (refer to Sections rate of change in that feature with time and
3.2.5.5 and 3.4.5.1). usage. In particular, road roughness
increases with time and usage, the rate of
3.4.6.6 Rehabilitation increase depending on the type of
Various components of the road require pavement, its durability and the
periodic rehabilitation to maximise the characteristics of the traffic.
service life of the component. In particular, Delay also may change with time as traffic
road pavements and surfacings other than volumes and congestion increase. Potential
concrete require rehabilitation at (regular) flooding delay remains constant for the road
intervals; the length of these intervals as long as the road levels remain constant.
depend on the type of pavement and
surfacing. The design should recognise this 3.4.7 Design vehicles
and make provision so that these processes
can be carried out with as little disruption as Appropriate design vehicles must be used
possible. for the planning and design of all roads.
Chapter 5 sets out the approach to deciding
Increased clearances to overhead structures
on the vehicle to be used, and provides
should be provided to allow (future)
guidance on how to accommodate the
overlays to be done without breaching (i.e.
occasional larger vehicle. When selecting
reducing clearance below minimum value)
the design vehicle and check vehicle
the requirements for that structure. (Refer
consideration must be given to the likely
also to Chapter 7.) In addition, where
vehicles that may use the road in the future
allowance is made for future overlays, the
(e.g. due to changes in permitted vehicles).
width of the carriageway and formation
must also be adjusted so that this can be On many of the roads in the State, the
accommodated (i.e. provide extra width appropriate vehicle will be a Freight
now so adequate width remains after a Efficient Vehicle (FEV) or other Multi-
future overlay). Combination Vehicle (MCV), the form of
which depends on the location and the link
3.4.6.7 Road user costs strategy. For example, road trains would be
appropriate for many of the inland roads; B-
Road user costs represent a significant part
Doubles should be accommodated on
of the whole of life costs of a road. Benefit
December 2005
3-44
nearly all parts of the state declared road 3.5.2 Fair access
system.
The hierarchy of roads adopted by Main
In some cases, the appropriate vehicle
Roads for administering the road system
should be a FEV, regardless of the current
provides the means by which fair access is
vehicles permitted on the road in question.
achieved in Queensland (refer to Chapter
This will allow the appropriate geometry
1). This hierarchy allocates a reasonable
for future use to be accommodated with
share of the use of the road to traffic
very little, if any, expense in the first
travelling long distances and “local”
instance. Retrofitting the road for the larger
vehicles in the future could be expensive.
property access traffic depending on the
demand in an area. Research has proven
3
that the accident rate increases as the
3.5 Fair access and
number of property access points increases.
amenity
This means it is appropriate to restrict
3.5.1 General principles property access in some cases in favour of
the through traffic to provide safe
RCQ (Main Roads, 2002) sets out the movement of the major demand.
principles of fair access and amenity. It It is also necessary to provide fair access to
means investing in roads for community pedestrians and cyclists to provide safe and
quality of life, including access, convenient movement for this part of the
employment, cultural heritage and amenity road user population (refer Section 3.5.6).
through:
• providing fair access across 3.5.3 Cultural heritage
Queensland;
Cultural heritage (both Indigenous and
• undertaking roads programs that European) issues must be identified and
contribute to employment objectives; their impact must be considered in the
• respecting culture and conserving planning and design process. For guidance
cultural heritage; on all matters related to indigenous cultural
heritage reference must be made to the
• integrating roads into the community; Indigenous Cultural Heritage Policy and
and Guidelines Manual (Main Roads, 2004).
• considering the aims of other Guidance for all other cultural heritage
government agencies in partnership matters is provided in the Cultural Heritage
with them. Manual (Main Roads, 1998). (The parts of
the Cultural Heritage Manual that deal with
The planning and design process must
indigenous cultural heritage have been
recognise these principles and apply them
superseded by the Indigenous Cultural
to all projects. The principles relevant to
Heritage Policy and Guidelines Manual,
the planning and design process are
however the remaining parts are still
captured in the following sections. Since
current.)
consultation is a feature of many aspects of
the planning and design process, that aspect All native title issues must be identified and
is discussed in Section 3.2. appropriate actions taken in planning of a
project. The required notifications should
December 2005
3-45
be prepared and submitted at the same time Department of Families, Youth and
as land resumption requests are made to Community Care 1997a, 1997b).
minimise delays in obtaining right-of-way.
• Heritage listings – advice from the
Queensland Environmental Protection
3.5.3.1 Aboriginal Cultural Heritage
Agency must be sought where there is
Act 2003 and the Torres
any possibility of an impact on a
Strait Islander Cultural
heritage listed site.
Heritage Act 2003
• Vegetation protection orders (by-laws)
3 Indigenous Cultural Heritage Policy and

Guidelines Manual (Main Roads, 2004)
includes policy, guidelines and procedures
and Green Areas – Local Governments
could have tree preservation orders
and/or rare tree listings and these could
which enable Main Roads to meet its
have a significant effect on the planning
statutory “duty of care” not to harm
and design of the project.
indigenous cultural heritage. These acts:
• Acquisition costs – the Property
• are administered by the Queensland
Services Branch of Main Roads can
Department of Natural Resources,
provide the appropriate advice
Mines and Energy;
(injurious affection can be a significant
• obligate all persons to fulfil a duty of cost).
care when undertaking actions that may
• Types of property – communities have
impact on indigenous cultural heritage
concerns for the residents of low cost
values; and
housing being able to relocate, and for
• defines the cultural heritage “duty of local producers being able to re-
care” as: “A person who carries out an establish.
activity must take all reasonable and
• Impact on property – loss of bore water
practicable measures to ensure the
supply, impact on dams, impact on
activity does not harm indigenous
income producing properties that can be
cultural heritage”.
critical to marginal operations.
3.5.4 Community amenity • Number of people affected – this might
be more important than the number of
3.5.4.1 Property impacts
properties.
A range of issues concerned with impact on
• Property values – there are often
property and land acquisition can affect the
concerns that the value of property will
planning and design of a road project
be adversely affected by the project
including:
because of:
• Native title – this is a significant
o increased traffic volumes and noise;
consideration and should be dealt with
early in the process. Consultation with o restricted or controlled property
the appropriate indigenous communities access;
is an essential component of the o reduced personal privacy due to loss
approach to be taken (Queensland of entertainment and recreation area;
December 2005
3-46
o reduced flexibility in building The extent of land required should be

modifications (e.g. future dwelling determined from the clearance requirements
extensions prevented); and defined in Chapter 7. Such land might be
required for such things as noise mounds,
o reduced amenity (e.g. loss of
sedimentation ponds, gross filter traps and
neighbourhood parks).
buffer zones as well as space for
• Severance of farming properties – this maintenance activities. Where future
might require accommodation works to development of the road will require
provide for: property in addition to that required for the
o animal and machinery access (e.g.
cattle creeps);
current project (e.g. staging), it is desirable
to determine these future requirements in
3
the first stage so it can be acquired at the
o relocation of farm infrastructure;
same time, and so that multiple resumptions
o maintenance of access to irrigation, on the same property are avoided (i.e.
dams, bores, streams, etc; resume once but in so doing allow for
future requirements). This will avoid undue
o restoration of fencing (including
disruption to property owners in the future
dingo and rabbit fences where
and provide a secure basis for future
applicable); and
planning by Main Roads. It also minimises
o construction or relocation of grids. the risk of unnecessary relocation of PUP
• Mining leases – consultation with the (refer to Sections 3.2.5.5, 3.4.5.1 and
Queensland Department of Natural 3.4.6.5).
Resources and Mines is required.
3.5.4.2 Effect on adjacent
• Quarry leases – consultation with the landholders
relevant Local Government/s is
Planning must address the potential impact
required.
on adjacent landholders in addition to the
• Town plans – respect for the town plan effects on that property actually required for
and its objective is essential. the project. Issues that must be considered
Consultation with the relevant Local include:
Government/s can assist in locating a
• Property values – properties not
new road to reinforce the objectives of
required for acquisition can be affected
the plan rather than be in conflict with
by the options in different ways and this
it (refer to Section 3.4.1).
might be an issue in deciding between
Land required for the project should be alternatives. Costs of amelioration
considered during the concept and works could also be a consideration.
development phases. Any land for
• Community severance – might require
environmental amelioration must also be
special consideration of pedestrian and
identified at this stage. Final requirements
cyclist facilities, together with
should be determined at the preliminary
provisions for local traffic movements.
design stage and resumption plans prepared
in accordance with the Drafting and Design • Local Government and State owned
Presentation Standards (Main Roads, 2002). land – the future use of adjacent land
owned by government authorities might
December 2005
3-47
have a significant effect on the required to obviate this effect (refer to

development of the road proposal. Chapter 17).
Considerations could include:
• Airport (aerodrome) extensions –
o access requirements (might need to projects adjacent to airports require
incorporate additional lanes, consultation with the airport
channelisation or traffic signals); (aerodrome) authorities with respect to
future airport (aerodrome)
o service roads;
developments (e.g. future runway
3 o contributions by others
infrastructure; and
to the
•
extensions).
Ports (clearance heights and shipping
o special needs for education, police, manoeuvre clearances).
hospitals, day care centres, libraries,
• Other Institutions such as the following
etc.
should also be considered:
• Emergency Services – the project might
o war memorials;
adversely affect the level of service that
can be provided by the various o hospitals;
emergency services (e.g. ambulance,
o retirement villages; and
fire brigade and police) and access
requirements should be considered. For o vibration sensitive facilities or
example, traffic signals might be industries.
required to allow rapid access from a
3.5.4.3 Noise and noise barriers
station to the road for the fire brigade.
Properties subjected to an increase in noise
• Educational institutions – the
level beyond the defined limits (refer to the
requirements for pedestrians, cyclists,
Road Traffic Noise Management Code of
drop off zones, parking and public
Practice - Main Roads, 2000) could require
transport must be considered.
protection by some form of noise
• Airport (aerodrome) clearances – amelioration device. This is generally
projects in the vicinity of airports must accomplished with noise barriers.
comply with the State Planning Policy
The Road Traffic Noise Management Code
SPP 1/02 Development in the Vicinity
of Practice (Main Roads, 2000) provides
of Certain Airports and Aviation
guidance on the design considerations
Facilities and its guideline. They also
relevant to noise barriers. Key points
must consider the effect of structures
follow:
and poles on the obstacle limitation
surfaces around the airport • Ensure that the design and location of
(aerodrome). (Refer to the Civil noise barriers takes account of sight
Aviation Safety Authority’s website lines.
[www.casa.gov.au] for further details.)
• Provide sufficient access for
Further, road lighting in the vicinity of
maintenance crews behind noise
the airport (Aerodrome) might be
barriers when the barriers are not
confusing or distracting for pilots at
located on the property boundary, or
night and special provisions may be
December 2005
3-48
when located near other road furniture benefit if an area’s natural beauty is readily
(e.g. safety barriers). visible. Points of interest include areas of
high scenic value and include natural and
• Set back noise barriers a sufficient
man-made features.
distance to allow the designed
deflection of a safety barrier to occur Natural features include:
without impacting the noise barrier.
• hinterlands;
required to allow for deflection (refer to
Chapters 7 and 8 for the lateral • mountain ranges;
clearances required). In some cases, a
noise barrier may be incorporated as an
integral part of the design of a rigid
•
•
the ocean; and
other bodies of water (e.g. lakes or
3
rivers).
safety barrier. Designs must be
consistent with the requirements of Manmade features include:
Chapter 8.
• city skyline profiles; and
• Ensure that the noise barriers do not
• landmarks.
hinder drainage.
Where possible, the alignment should
• Provide materials that are suitable for
capture attractive scenic views and use
the location (e.g. consider the risk of
appropriate features as “aiming points” on
fire to a timber noise barrier in a rural
the route, as shown in Figure 3.4. The
environment).
alignment should provide a varying
• Ensure that the length noise barriers perspective of such features to provide
overlap is double the distance between variety for the driver (and so reduce
the two noise barriers. monotony) and to provide an awareness of
progress at a reasonable speed (which
• Ensure that noise barriers comply with
avoids “velocitisation” of the driver - refer
CPTED principles (e.g. do not prevent
to Chapter 10).
natural surveillance from occurring,
refer to Section 3.3.4).
• Earth mounds could be a more suitable
solution, particularly in more rural
areas.
3.5.5 On-road amenity –

development and
retention of views
Figure 3.4 This alignment captures
It is desirable that any point of interest near
views and orientates the driver
the road be able to be viewed by users of
the road. This has positive effects on the Ideally, the view of the feature should
aesthetics of the road from the driver’s change at a rate that provides the driver
perspective, but it also has beneficial effects with an appreciation of the speed of travel.
in maintaining driver interest and in At the least, the rate of change must provide
reducing driver fatigue. Tourism can also the driver with confirmation that adequate
December 2005
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progress is being achieved in a reasonable value of distant and close views. The
time. benchmark to determine the impact of a
structure on a view is that the structure
To achieve this, the road has to be aligned
should not dominate, distract or diminish
such that the point of interest falls within
the ability to appreciate the view. The
the driver’s field of vision when looking
Road Landscape Manual (Main Roads,
straight ahead. The feature must then
2004) addresses some of the issues
remain within this field (including
regarding aesthetics for roads.
peripheral vision) while changing position
3 within it to provide the appreciation of

movement and progress. If the view falls
outside the driver’s normal field of vision,
he/she will be encouraged to look away
from the road and be distracted from the
driving task (i.e. their eyes will follow the
point of interest rather than the road).
Further, features located remote from the
field of vision will not provide the sense of
Figure 3.5 Advertising signage can
movement and progress desired. During
adversely affect views
the design of the vertical alignment, the
planner or designer should, as far as is It is particularly important that views on
practicable, ensure that views are not existing roads be maintained. At locations
largely obscured by the presence of cuttings where a panoramic view ahead is framed by
and their batters, noise barriers or other the sides of a cutting, it is important that the
roadside furniture. presence of roadside furniture does not
obscure this view.
When positioning road, rail or pedestrian
overpasses, any adverse effects on views On high volume roads through urban and
should be avoided if possible. The same rural residential areas, residents might like
applies with respect to the location of dense roadside vegetation to eliminate
landscape planting and roadside furniture. headlight glare and reduce the visual
Roadside furniture that potentially affects impact. In these situations, the desires of
views includes: the local residents must be balanced against
the need to provide views from the road and
• signs with multiple supports; a forgiving roadside environment.
• gantry signs;
3.5.6 Pedestrians and cyclists
• noise barriers;
• safety barriers (particularly concrete Transportation corridors provide a medium
barriers); for all modes of transport. In urban
environments, cyclists and pedestrians form
• headlight anti-glare screens; and a growing proportion of transport corridor
• advertising signage (Figure 3.5). users. The IRTPs and many Local
Governments are actively encouraging
Excluding noise barriers, these items of
increased walking and cycling. Therefore,
roadside furniture can normally be built into
high quality, convenient, connected, safe
the road landscape without diminishing the
December 2005
3-50
and attractive routes for cycling and CPTED (refer Section 3.5) also influences
walking need to be incorporated into road the design of facilities for pedestrians and
designs at the concept phase to encourage cyclists.
use of these modes and to ensure the safety
Mixing cyclists and pedestrians is
of these ‘at-risk road users’.
increasingly common and raises safety
Pedestrian issues (South Australian issues. Hybrids (e.g. skateboards and roller
Government, 2000) include: blades) are also common in some areas and
introduce additional considerations of
• safety - avoiding conflicts with cars and
•
providing safe crossings;
convenience – obvious or direct paths,
paving, kerb edges and street furniture.
Planning SA notes in passing: 3
“bike racks and lockers, though convenient
continuity and permeability;
… are not benign in the urban landscape
• pleasure - vibrant and varied and should be designed and positioned with
surroundings; the same care as other street furniture”
• protection from the weather; (South Australian Government, 2000).
• comfort - wider footpaths, good paving, The needs of pedestrians and cyclists must
places to wait and sit, opportunities for be incorporated into the concept phase and
people-watching; included in the relevant elements of the
road design. Chapter 5 describes the basic
• security - good lighting, active
parameters for assessing these
frontages, pedestrian routes not
requirements. Special features will often be
separated from roads; and
required to accommodate their needs.
• interest - building frontages (for
In some cases, an overall strategy is in
window shopping), landmarks,
place to provide a network of cycle ways
attention to detail in the paving surface
and pathways and these strategies form the
and texture, art in public places,
basis of the decisions required for the
unfolding views.
facilities to be included. Planners and
The needs of cyclists (South Australian designers should ascertain the strategies in
Government, 2000) include: place for the area in question and
incorporate the necessary features into the
• safety - safety is again about avoiding
project. Main Roads has developed a
conflict with cars through clearly
“Cycling on State controlled Roads” policy
marked lanes, lowering/calming the
(Main Roads, 2004) - designers and
speed of adjacent traffic, providing high
planners must comply with it.
kerbs to prohibit cars from parking on
the footpath, safe crossings; and Providing for pedestrians and cyclists is a
major function of Local Government. It is
• convenience - speed maintenance,
therefore necessary to ensure that Main
connectivity, clearance, smooth
Roads proposals are compatible with the
surfaces, appropriate vegetation, secure
Local Government’s responsibilities, and
storage at the end of the trip and
vice versa. This could involve sharing
changing/shower facilities.
costs between the Local Government and
Main Roads, both for construction and for
December 2005
3-51
maintenance. The responsibilities and cost When providing a cycling facility, consider
sharing arrangements are set out in the whether an on-road or off-road facility is
“Agreement between the Local Government required. Off-road facilities provide the
Association of Queensland Inc. and highest separation from motorised traffic
Department of Main Roads for Cost for this at-risk road user group, but could
Sharing based on Responsibilities within increase land resumption requirements and
State Controlled Roads (Main Roads, also increase the cost; these issues must be
2000)”. taken into account. In rural areas it might
be more feasible to provide for the highest
3 The following issues should be addressed in
the concept phase.
degree of separation via off-road paths
because the cost of the construction may be
Cyclists less than the cost of widening the road
Cycling facilities or cycle friendly designs pavement (as extra land would rarely be
(e.g. provision of wider road shoulders) required in these cases). The most
must be considered on State Controlled appropriate type of cycling facility will
Roads in accordance with the “Cycling on depend on speed and volume of traffic,
Sate Controlled Roads” policy (Main surrounding land uses and the types of user
Roads, 2004). Provision for cycling expected on the facility.
increases the safety of all road users and Potential bicycle/motor-vehicle conflict
avoids the impedance created by having points may require special treatment.
cycling in the general use traffic lanes. Special intersection treatments such as
Planners and designers need to consult with advanced stop lines, storage bays, bike
the Local Government to ensure that lanes or bike crossing signals, might be
installation of the cycling facility conforms required and the cost included in the project
to the regional and local authority cycle costing. The planning and design process
network plans. If no such plans are in should pay particular attention to cycle trip
place, consultation with the local authority generators (e.g. schools and shopping
staff, local representative user groups (e.g. centres) and “pinch points” (e.g.
Bicycle User Groups [BUGs]) and local channelised intersections). Any need for
cyclists will be necessary. Refer to Chapter the use of grade-separated structures (e.g. at
5, the Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice interchanges) should be identified in the
(GTEP) Part 14 (Austroads, 1999) and the concept phase.
MUTCD (Main Roads, 2003) for guidance
Pedestrians
on provision of cycling facilities.
Queensland Transport has also published a Provision for pedestrians will be required
number of cycle notes that may be useful on all Sate Controlled Roads in built up
(Queensland Transport, 2005). However, areas except those such as motorways
for State Controlled Roads the order or where separate provision will need to be
precedence is: built into the project. Note however that
the cost of providing a footpath is normally
1. Chapter 5 and the MUTCD (Main
borne by the relevant local government.
Roads, 2003).
The concept phase should include
2. The GTEP Part 14 (Austroads, 1999). consultation with the Local Government
3. The Queensland Transport Cycle Notes. and community groups to confirm the
December 2005
3-52
requirements for pedestrians (refer also to should also be consulted and adhered to
Chapter 5). (Main Roads, 1997, 1998 and 2002).
If a footpath is required its width must be
3.5.7.2 Rest areas
determined; Chapters 5 and 7 provide
guidance. The width necessary for the Rest areas are established, located and
installation of PUP must be taken into designed in accordance with Main Roads’
account. Footpath width will affect the land “Provision of Roadside Amenities” policy
acquisition requirements. (Main Roads, 2003). They are off road
Potential pedestrian/motor-vehicle conflict

points may require treatment. Special
stopping places providing at least safe
parking, shade, picnic tables, benches and
rubbish bins. Toilets, water and barbecue
3
intersection treatments could be needed and
facilities with fuel and lighting may be
the costs to the project of providing the
provided in accordance with the “Provision
necessary facilities must be taken into
of Roadside Amenities” policy (Main
account (refer to the GTEP Part 13 -
Roads, 2003). Access to the rest area must
Austroads, 1995).
be properly designed with attention to the
Note that all pedestrian facilities provided required acceleration and deceleration lanes
must be in accordance with design criteria and turning facilities (refer to Chapters 13
for people with disabilities. and 20).
Combined pedestrian and cycling (i.e.
3.5.8 Special works
shared) facilities
It is important to note that Chapter 5 and Special works include:
the GTEP Part 14 (Austroads, 1999) outline • Cattle creeps which might be required
design requirements for shared where a new road severs a rural
pedestrian/cycling facilities, which are also property. They are usually placed
designed using design criteria that are where the vertical alignment affords the
suitable for people with disabilities. Shared opportunity but it could be necessary to
facilities are often a safe, cost effective adjust the design to accommodate the
solution in outer urban and rural residential crossing to make it convenient for the
areas. property owner to use.
3.5.7 Roadside amenities • Fauna crossings, which are discussed in

Section 3.6.6.
3.5.7.1 Service centres
• Grids which are installed to control
Service Centres are major facilities cattle, sheep, etc. If the AADT exceed
provided by private enterprise on major 700s, grids are not suitable and the road
roads with full access control. Acquisition should be fenced to ensure adequate
of land and provision of infrastructure for safety for the traffic.
Service Centres is the responsibility of the
• Open level rail crossings (refer to
private developer. The requirements for
Chapter 21).
Service Centres are described in Chapter
20. Main Roads’ Service Centre policies
December 2005
3-53
3.5.9 Stock routes Main Roads is a referral agency for IDAS,

which requires that developments be
Stock Routes are managed by the referred to Main Roads for assessment
Queensland Department of Natural when certain conditions are met. The
Resources and Mines from a central office referral triggers and thresholds are
in Brisbane. Where Limited Access described in the Integrated Development
declarations could impact on a Stock Route, Assessment System Manual (Main Roads).
the Queensland Department of Natural
Applications are referred to Main Roads to
Resources and Mines must be consulted
3 before finalising the plans.

Proposals are to be forwarded to the central
ensure that sufficient road and transport
infrastructure is provided in relation to the
development thereby maintaining a
office for stock management in the satisfactory level of safety and service to all
Queensland Department of Natural road users. Main Roads has published the
Resources, Mines and Energy in the first Guidelines for Assessment of Road Impacts
instance and the central office will of Development Proposals (Main Roads,
coordinate with the local officers. 1999) to assist developers provide the
Main Roads has also published polices required information and to provide
related to “stock-on-hoof” (Main Roads, guidance to Main Roads Officers in
1998 and 2005) assessing proposals.
To assist in determining the traffic impact
3.5.10 Development assessment
of these developments, possible generation
rates are included in Appendix 3A of this
With respect to development assessment,
Chapter. Planners (and designers) should
applications will be referred to Main Roads
use actual generation rates for similar trip
when State matters of roads and transport
generators that are measured locally if such
infrastructure are at issue, triggered by
information is available and robust.
legislative provisions, scheme provisions or
threshold guidelines.
3.6 Environmental
Benchmark development sequencing is also management
provided for under legislation. This is a
3.6.1 Main Roads’ commitment
mechanism to encourage the most cost
efficient delivery of infrastructure to new Main Roads provides a commitment to the
co-ordinated and sequential development. protection of the environment in its
Identifying development sequences in “Environmental Management Policy and
planning schemes will act as an incentive to Strategy 2002-2007” (Main Roads, 2002)
encourage development within the planned and RCQ (Main Roads, 2002). The
sequence, and allow recovery of costs for commitment is for Main Roads to
bringing forward development that is “out- undertake infrastructure planning and
of-sequence”. The methodology for development in accordance with the whole
determining “bring forward” costs is of government approach to Ecologically
outlined in the Guidelines for Assessment Sustainable Development (ESD).
of Road Impacts of Development Proposals
(Main Roads, 2001).
December 2005
3-54
ESD refers to a concept of identifying the For Main Roads to achieve the
ecological, economic and social aspects of a Government’s objectives concerning ESD,
proposal and ensuring that it: a road project must at the very least
advance one of the above principles and not
“... improves the total quality of life, both
adversely impact the others (Austroads,
now and in the future, in a way that
1995). Main Roads already uses many
maintains the processes on which life
tools for assessing ESD in the concept,
depends” (UNESCO).
development and implementation phases of
ESD may be defined as using, conserving projects. Principal tools that can be used
and enhancing the community’s resources
so that the ecological processes on which
within the project charter are outlined in
Appendix 3B of this Chapter.
3
life depends are maintained, and the total
quality of life, now and in the future, can be 3.6.2 Scope
increased (Australian National Strategy for
ESD – Commonwealth of Australia, 1992). Environmental considerations cannot be
It is not a balance; it refers to the need to addressed in isolation of other road and
advance each ecological, economic or transport planning or design practices. The
social objective without loss of value in any Environmental Protection Act (Queensland
one of them. Government, 1994) places responsibility on
all Queenslanders to meet a general
To achieve the objectives of ESD and
environmental duty. This means that Main
environmental principles, environmentally
Roads (and its contractors) must not carry
sensitive decisions are to be employed
out any activity that causes, or is likely to
throughout the concept and development
cause, environmental harm unless the
phases of a road project. These principles
responsible party has taken all reasonable
are then to be carried through to
and practicable measures to prevent or
construction and maintenance activities
minimise the potential for harm to occur.
(e.g. implementation phase). The four
Therefore, all activities undertaken by and
guiding principles of ESD follow:
on behalf of Main Roads should consider
• Improve well-being – to enhance environmental impacts and incorporate
individual and community well-being environmental treatments where required.
and welfare by following a path of With this in mind, appropriate
economic development that safeguards environmental issues have been
the welfare of future generations. incorporated within all relevant chapters of
this Manual.
• Ensure intergenerational equity – to
provide for equity within and between This chapter only provides guidelines of
generations. some key environmental issues to assist the
planning and design of State Controlled
• Protect biodiversity – to protect faunal
Roads. These issues should not be
and floral diversity.
considered in isolation; they should be dealt
• Maintain ecological processes – to with in conjunction with all the other issues
maintain essential ecological processes that need to be considered.
and life-support systems.
Further detailed environmental information
relevant to the planning and design of road
December 2005
3-55
projects can be obtained from the following • Austroads’ Environmental Risk

publications (and Chapter 1): Assessment (Austroads, 2001).
• Pre-construction Processes Manual However the above list is not exhaustive
(Main Roads, 2005); and specialist advice should be sought.
• The Road Project Environmental
3.6.3 Environmental
Management Processes Manual (Main
assessment
Roads, 2004);
• Chapter 1 summarises the planning
3 The Road Landscape Manual (Main
Roads, 2004); processes for road projects, which are
detailed in the Pre-construction Processes
• Roads in the Wet Tropics Manual
Manual (Main Roads, 2005). These also
(Main Roads, 1997);
demonstrate the integration of
• Cultural Heritage Manual (Main Roads, environmental documentation into the road
1998); project phases.
• Environmental Legislation Register Appropriate actions/decisions in the early
(Main Roads, 2004); part of the concept phase of road projects
have the greatest potential to minimise
• Road Traffic Noise Management: Code
environmental harm. This is achieved
of Practice (Main Roads, 2000);
through identifying and avoiding areas that
• Fauna Sensitive Road Design (Main contain significant environmental values or
Roads, 2000); where unmanageable environmental
• RDDM (Main Roads, 2001); limitations occur (e.g. landslip prone areas,
potential acid sulphate soils).
• Main Road’s Roadside Conservation
Policy (Main Roads, 1994); During the early part of the concept phase,
constraints mapping or environmental risk
• Main Road’s Roadside Landscaping
assessments should be undertaken to
Policy (Main Roads, 1994);
establish the presence or absence of
• Main Road’s Pest Management Policy significant environmental constraints.
(Main Roads, 2003); Commonwealth legislation, (i.e.
Environment Protection and Biodiversity
• Main Road’s Interim Clearing Within
Conservation Act), also has a significant
Road Boundaries Policy (Main Roads,
impact on the planning of our roads with
2005);
regard to avoiding significant impacts on
• the Interim MRS11.51 Environmental matters of national environmental
Management Specification (Main significance (refer Chapter 1 for details).
Roads, 2004); An environmental specialist should
• Main Road’s Red Imported Fire Ant establish the environmental issues
Policy and Strategy (Main Roads, relevant to the road project so that all
2002); environmental constraints are identified
and considered.
• Main Road’s Environmental
Management Policy and Strategy 2002-
2007 (Main Roads, 2002); and
December 2005
3-56
Key areas for consideration include the (MOUs) apply – planners must
following (refer also to the following notes establish whether such MOUs exist and
as indicated): consider their requirements.
• World Heritage properties1,2. Notes to above dot points:
• Wetlands (e.g. Ramsar1,2 and otherwise 1. The location and extent of these areas
significant wetlands). can be identified from the Environment
Australia web site (the website at the
• Protected areas (e.g. National Parks and
time of publication was
Nature Reserves2).
• Fish habitat reserves2.
www.environment.gov.au).
2. The location and extent of these areas
3
• Endangered bio-regional ecosystems2. can be identified from the Road
• Areas that are known to support Corridor Environmental Assessment
internationally, nationally, state, Main Roads Intranet page on ARMIS
regionally and/or locally significant Online. This requires interrogation of
flora and fauna species and relevant databases and field
communities (as per the Environment assessments as part of the process.
Protection and Biodiversity Officers of external organisations
Conservation Act and the Nature should contact the relevant Main Roads
Conservation Act)2,3. District to obtain this information.
• Sites of indigenous and non-indigenous 3. This requires interrogation of relevant

cultural heritage significance3. databases and field assessments that are
undertaken as part of the environmental
• High risk soil types (e.g. acid sulphate,
assessment process. Officers of
sodic and toxic soils)3.
external organisations should contact
• Contaminated sites. the relevant Main Roads District to
obtain this information.
• Areas which provide connectivity of
habitats for plant and animal species3. When deciding the appropriate location of
road corridors, the need for early
• Good quality agricultural land3.
consideration of any areas with key
• Mineral reserves3. environmental values and limitations cannot
• Noise and vibration sensitive be overemphasised.
receptors3. Planners, including strategic planners, and
• Declared areas (e.g. irrigation, designers should:
groundwater recharge, approved • Visit the site preferably, in the company
3
property plans) . Local Governments of an environmental specialist, during
generally hold information regarding the concept and development phases to
approved property plans and these plans ensure that all of the proposed
might identify conservation areas on environmental elements are practical
freehold or leasehold lands. for the site.
• Environmentally sensitive areas where • Ensure environmental assessment
existing Memoranda of Understanding documentation has been provided with
December 2005
3-57
the design brief. If it has not been, seek stakeholders as a way of meeting
instruction with regard to the Australia’s international commitments.
environmental considerations of the
The Mission Statement for the National
project.
Greenhouse Strategy is:
• Ensure environmental constraints (e.g.
“Australia will actively contribute to the
“no-go” areas, cultural heritage sites)
global effort to stabilise greenhouse gas
and opportunities (e.g. suitable sites for
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level
stockpiles, construction compounds)
that would prevent dangerous interference
3 are defined on design drawings or in

contract documentation
environmental specialist can assist).
(an
with the climate system and within a time
frame sufficient to:
• allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to
The Road Project Environmental Processes
climate change;
Manual (Main Roads, 2004) describes the
assessment and reporting requirements and • ensure that food production is not
these are summarised in the Pre- threatened; and
construction Processes Manual (Main • enable economic development to
Roads, 2005). proceed in a “sustainable way.”
3.6.4 Greenhouse strategy As part of the overall strategy being

implemented by the Australian
(Refer to “Promoting Best Practice in Government, Queensland Transport,
Transport and Land Use Planning” together with Austroads and the Australian
publication [Queensland Transport et al, Greenhouse Office, produced, in 2002, a
2002] for detailed information; this section document called “Promoting Best Practice
is based extensively on that document.) in Transport and Land Use Planning”. This
is an extensive resource of information
The National Greenhouse Strategy
available to assist in minimising greenhouse
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1998) is the
gas emissions when undertaking planning
primary mechanism through which
and design for transport infrastructure.
Australia’s international commitments will
be met. The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
from the transport sector will contribute to
The Australian Government developed a
the achievement of additional
National Greenhouse Response Strategy as
environmental, economic and social
a means of meeting Australia’s
objectives. These include:
international obligations under the
Framework Convention on Climate Change • reduced business costs through
and as a basis for examining greenhouse decreased traffic congestion;
issues. However, this strategy was
• improved urban air quality; and
subsequently extended to form the National
Greenhouse Strategy (Commonwealth of • greater public transport accessibility for
Australia, 1998). The National Greenhouse members of the community through
Strategy (Commonwealth of Australia, more efficient use of infrastructure and
1998) provides details of existing actions land.
and measures to be implemented by
December 2005
3-58
Land use planning has a key role in 3.6.5 Engineering design

providing for an integrated transport
strategy (refer also to Section 3.4.1). 3.6.5.1 Introduction
Forward planning of the location, scale, Planners and designers, in seeking to
density, design and mix of land uses can develop a context sensitive design (refer to
help reduce the need to travel, reduce the Chapter 2), should take a holistic approach
length of journeys and make it safer and to the design and consider all of the
easier for people to walk, cycle or use elements as a whole, taking account of how
public transport. Decreases in forms of
urban pollution can be achieved through
better land use development and better
they interact with and affect each other. In
some cases, the solution will only come
from an iterative approach that tries various
3
design of transport systems. solutions and assesses them against the
The transport sector is one of the largest required criteria until the most effective
sources of greenhouse gas emissions in answer emerges (e.g. options analysis).
Australia and private transport is the largest The following sections discuss some of the
urban land use related source of emissions. major road planning and design issues that
The characteristics of urban form impinge on environmental values. Other
significantly influence greenhouse gas elements can also have an effect (e.g.
emissions from the transport sector. In alignment) and these effects must be
Australia in 1998, transport was the second accommodated where they occur. The
largest contributor of emissions from the elements discussed in the following
energy sector. In terms of total net sections have a direct and enduring effect
emissions, transport comprised 16% of on the environment.
Australian emissions.
3.6.5.2 Cross section
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the
transport sector relies heavily on Chapter 7 discusses cross section design,
encouraging environmentally friendly and the particular requirements of the wet
forms of transport such as walking, cycling tropics. The significant issues, other than
and using public transport. Planners, batter slopes, relate to the total width of
including strategic planners (and designers) cross section and the extent of clearing
should be alert to the need to provide for required. The issues with respect to batter
these forms of transport in convenient and slopes are worthy of further discussion in
attractive ways when developing their the Section.
plans. A range of sources of information to
Detailed discussion of the engineering
assist in the planning process is available
requirements of batter slopes is given in
and reference to them can be found in
Chapter 7 and that chapter should be read in
Queensland Transport et al (2002).
conjunction with Main Roads’
However, the largest effects on emissions Specifications and the comments in this
are related to the broader planning aspects section, which are directed to the
as described in Sections 3.4.1, 3.4.2 and environmental sustainability of batter slope
3.4.4. design.
When designing batter slopes, planners and
designers should review the geotechnical
December 2005
3-59
data with regard to soil types (for soil conjunction with the application of a
“erosivity” and “dispersiveness”) in surface cover. Roughening should be
addition to assessing the stability of cut and done along the contour or at an angle to
fill batters. Guidelines to assist in the a grade that reduces velocities before
design of batter slopes follow: discharge.
• Direct overland flow away from the • Benching should not occur in dispersive
batter face using catch banks and/or soils. If benching is required in
catch drains. Be aware that catch- dispersive soils, consult an
3 banks/drains can create concentrated

flow and therefore also cause an
erosion problem. As such, armouring
environmental specialist for advice
regarding suitable erosion control
treatments.
of the catch drain and outlet, or
• Consider soil types in addition to the
reducing flow velocities through the use
cut or fill height and land acquisition
of diversion drains (or level spreaders),
boundaries when determining the slope
may be required.
of a batter (refer to Table 3.2 for
• Flatten the slope of (cut and fill) batters guidelines).
wherever possible. In addition to
• Stormwater from the road must be
reducing erosion potential, flatter
managed and controlled to avoid
batters provide safety benefits and often
erosion of batters. Dykes and batter
remove the need for a safety barrier.
drains provide one method of control of
Flatter batters can also significantly
this run-off (refer Chapter 7 and the
reduce mowing maintenance costs if a
RDDM [Main Roads, 2001]).
tractor and rear mounted slasher can be
used instead of a side boom mower. 3.6.5.3 Drainage
• Flatter batters assist in the (Note: Section 3.2.5.6 also contains a
establishment of landscaping and general discussion about drainage.)
reduce erosion of topsoil. Grass will
The design of drainage for the road should
usually grow on flatter batters in areas
fit in with any strategic or master drainage
where grass would otherwise find it
schemes of the relevant Local Government
difficult to grow.
where possible. Planners and designers can
• Where required, batter protection obtain the details of these schemes and the
treatments (e.g. rock mulching, existing drainage networks from the
shotcrete, grouted rock, erosion control relevant Local Government and from
blankets) should extend at least 1m previous departmental schemes and
beyond the slope crest and the toe of documents (e.g. plans).
the slope.
In addition, major drainage structures might
• Surface roughening to a depth of 30mm require the approval of the Queensland
to 50mm should be provided on stable Department of Natural Resources and
batters because it provides greater Mines.
opportunity for the establishment of
vegetation. Roughening is not suitable
in dispersive soils unless carried out in
December 2005
3-60
Table 3.2 Guidelines for selecting batter slope based on soil types
Material Slope Type Height Slope

Stable material/rock <1m [1on3.
Cut
>1m ≤[1 on 1.5.
<1m [1 on 4
Fill
>1m [1 on 2
Soils with high erosion 1 on 2 with surface treatment and diversion
Cut Any
potential(e.g. sodic drains above the slope.
subsoils)
Fill -
Materials should not be used for fill slopes
without treatment or covering with non-
3
dispersive material.
Sandy soils (lacking <2m [1 on 4.
Cut
cohesion) >2m [ 1 on 3.
Fill - 1 on 4 to 1 on 6.
1. Where benching is required, geotechnical input is required to determine location of bench and
whether inward or outwards drainage is required. Generally, drainage should be inward unless slopes
to be affected are treated.
2. Diversion drains may need to be lined to prevent dispersion of underlying materials. If upstream
catchment is small, drainage can be sheeted over the face of the slope provided erosion control
treatment has been applied to the slope.
3. Benching should not be used in soils with high erosion potential.
4. Refer also to Chapter 7.
During the concept phase and in particular, • the proposed drainage structure (or
the development phase, it will be necessary drainage works) might conflict with
to undertake a more detailed examination of PUP or other structures thereby
the requirements of major drainage affecting the structure’s size, shape and
structures when: location.
• cultural heritage issues arise; The overall effect of the structure on the
cost and/or land requirements will
• native title issues arise;
determine the extent of design required at
• the size and shape of the structure the various phases of the project. This
affects the land acquisition required; could require a detailed hydrological or
• environmental impacts might be hydraulic analysis to be undertaken; if a
significant; complex hydrological or hydraulic analysis
is required, specialists should undertake it.
• the vertical distance from the base of
(Refer also to the RDDM [Main Roads,
the drainage path to the bottom of the
2001]). Discussion of some specific issues
pavement is critical;
follows.
• the height of the upstream head might
cause flooding problems; and
December 2005
3-61
Major drainage structures In the early stages of a planning project, an

approximate waterway area for cross
A major drainage structure is one where the
drainage structures should be calculated to
cost of the structure has a significant effect
provide an estimate of the extent of work
on the total cost of the project and includes
required. The RDDM (Main Roads, 2001)
structures over rivers or creeks. Planners
describes approximate methods. A
and designers will need to assess the
preliminary assessment of the type and size
approximate structure sizes early in the
of culvert can be determined from this
concept phase (e.g. proposal and/or options
information together with the preliminary
3 analysis) to avoid misleading conclusions
about the cost of the project.
vertical alignment and natural surface. Any
possible adverse effects of the resultant
In some rural schemes that lack major upstream headwater level should be
drainage structures, the costs of drainage considered. If it is suspected that tail water
works structures might only be a very small levels might have a dominant effect (i.e. in
part of the overall cost. In this case, very low-lying flat areas), then preliminary
few calculations will be required to design calculations assuming outlet control
determine the drainage requirements and and a tail water level should be considered.
cost. However, in some cases in urban
If a floodway is to be considered on a
situations, the costs of drainage
Auslink National Network Road Link the
works/structures are a substantial part of the
Commonwealth Government should be
overall cost and planning of the drainage
consulted to ascertain its requirements, if
system will need to be more exact at earlier
any, should be reflected in the relevant Link
stages of the process.
Strategy. For all other roads, the flood
Preliminary design for major drainage immunity requirements are defined in the
structures includes obtaining topographic Link Strategies for that road.
maps or contour plans of the catchment
In addition to flood immunity requirements,
areas surrounding the alignment to
the impact of a flood larger than the
determine major drainage paths.
“design” flood on the road and on adjacent
Approximate flows may be determined as
properties must also be considered.
described in the RDDM (Main Roads,
2001). Future upstream development Methods of floodway design are contained
should be considered in the calculation of in the RDDM (Main Roads, 2001).
the drainage flows. Any possible drainage Likewise erosion and sediment control is
reserves or easements that are required discussed in detail in the RDDM (Main
should also be considered. (Refer also to Roads, 2001).
the RDDM [Main Roads, 2001]).
Longitudinal drainage
Chapter 22 provides guidelines on bridge
The location of the outlets of longitudinal
design and discusses potential
drains can affect the quantity of water to be
environmental effects. Planners and
carried in some of the culverts and therefore
designers should refer to Chapter 22 and the
can have a major bearing on culvert sizes
RDDM for guidance (Main Roads, 2001).
and lengths. In some cases, the boundaries
Specialist advice should also be sought.
of the catchments might be affected by the
Cross drainage distribution of the water from the
December 2005
3-62
longitudinal drainage system – this should caused by tractor mowing of the

be avoided. The water level at the outlet is median invert.
also a major consideration. Refer to the
• Consider collecting road run-off from
RDDM (Main Roads, 2001) for design
bridge scuppers and discharging run-off
methods.
into a sediment basin, gross pollutant
Consideration of the environmental issues trap or other relevant first flush
for longitudinal drainage is important to containment device. This is
reduce erosion risk and the resulting particularly important where the run-off
sediment laden water and maintenance
costs. Key issues include:
would otherwise be directed into a pond
or the base flow channel, and/or if
upstream of a sensitive environment
3
• Limit the use of “V” drains, particularly
(e.g. wetland, fish habitat reserve).
in erosive soils. Parabolic or flat-
bottomed drains should be used in • Design the transition between
preference. The latter may still require longitudinal drains (e.g. table drains)
armouring but in these circumstances a and a cross-drainage culvert to avoid
combination of armouring and slopes in the drain with high potential
vegetation treatments are more likely to for scour. Specific erosion protection,
succeed. and/or particular attention to the design
of the drainage structures will be
• Limit flow velocities for longitudinal
required.
drainage for different soil types. (Refer
to the RDDM [Main Roads, 2001] also Refer to the RDDM (Main Roads, 2001) for
provides guidance on acceptable flow further details.
velocities.) Flow velocities may be
Complex hydraulic analysis
slowed through the use of roughening
techniques (e.g. embedded rock, Where the major drainage structure is on a
turfing), check dams and/or vegetation. waterway that requires precise analysis,
Where check dams are installed, specialist advice should be sought about the
designers need to ensure that the design flood immunity required, and the type and
and location will not cause a hazard to size of structure required. Complex
errant vehicles. Limiting flow hydrological and hydraulic analysis is
velocities is preferred over maintaining generally required on the following
high flow velocities and providing waterway types:
armoured structures (e.g. by paved • waterways in/from large catchments;
channel to energy dissipaters). In
• waterways in/from complex catchments
addition, an increase in the number of
(e.g. multi stream systems peaking at
diversion drains (or turnouts, level
different times during the design flood);
spreaders) from the longitudinal
drainage should be considered. • waterways with unsteady flows;
Notwithstanding the above, median
• flood plains;
longitudinal drainage will usually have
a concrete lined invert to assist • waterways downstream from dams,
maintenance and reduce the risk of weirs and reservoirs;
errant vehicles rolling after hitting ruts • waterways with tidal flow; and
December 2005
3-63
• waterways with significant local As these conditions occur below the ground
storage. surface, some level of geotechnical
investigation will normally be required
Minor drainage structures
during the options analysis (in the concept
There is generally no requirement to phase) to allow preliminary geotechnical
undertake any design calculations for minor models to be developed for use in the
drainage systems in the early concept assessment of the options.
phases. In the early concept phases:
The level of investigation will vary from a
•
3 A nominal cost is usually sufficient to
allow for minor drainage systems.
simple collation of existing data confirmed
by visual assessment, to some level of
• Cross drainage culverts can be located sampling, testing and analysis. A
by visual inspection of topographic competent engineering geologist and
maps or contour plans. geotechnical engineer should undertake
such investigations. The geological and
• For minor longitudinal drainage in
geotechnical models can be progressively
urban areas, pits may be placed at a
developed as planners and designers
nominal spacing along the roadway and
proceed through the concept and
a nominal number of pits may be
development phases. As the project
allowed for at each intersection.
proceeds, geological and geotechnical
The detailed drainage design requires that investigations should focus on the critical
the designer consider a range of factors in geotechnical aspects of the selected option.
addition to the normal engineering This progressive development of the
requirements for the design. These include geological and geotechnical model will also
both environmental and the requirements of facilitate the development of appropriate
various federal, state and local government design parameters for design as well as
agencies. Such factors should be identifying any constraints on the
reconsidered to ensure that the requirements construction process.
are the same as determined during the
Ground conditions that have a significant
concept phase. Environmental
influence on the feasibility of any particular
considerations are further considered in
option include:
following sections.
• Conditions of natural slopes including
3.6.5.4 Geotechnical and geological evidence of potential land instability,
conditions erosion, nature of materials and
groundwater seepage.
Geotechnical and geological conditions for
any particular option can have a significant • Occurrence and direction of slope of
influence on its feasibility and cost. In hard rock in cuts and the impact on
extreme cases, natural hazards may excavation techniques and slope
preclude some options altogether while the stability (and hence resumptions),
presence of land slips, swamps, rock stabilisation measures and drainage
outcrops and the nature and depth of requirements.
foundations of structures will influence the
• Presence of soft and swampy ground
feasibility of some options.
under embankments and implications
December 2005
3-64
for settlement, stability, need for Design Manual (Main Roads, 2000)
ground improvements, construction provides details on such designs. The
programming and investigation following should be considered:
requirements and timing.
• Accommodation of fish passage (if an
• Subgrade soil conditions that will identified requirement in the Review of
influence pavement design and Environmental Factors), use an arch or
drainage. bridge in preference to a culvert. The
RDDM (Main Roads, 2001) provides a
• Presence of acid sulphate soils.
• Presence of sodic soils.
detailed description and methods of
design for accommodating fish passage. 3
• Usability of excavated materials and • Accommodation of terrestrial fauna
implication on the earthworks balance, movement. Refer to the Fauna
disposal of unsuitable material and Sensitive Road Design Manual (Main
selective winning and usage of suitable Roads, 2000) as a guide for minimum
materials. culvert/underpass heights (e.g. desirable
• Presence of underground openings (e.g. minimum culvert cell height for
caves, old mine workings, etc.) causing terrestrial passage).
potential short and long-term • Concrete safety barriers and noise
subsidence problems for both road and barrier fencing do not allow passage of
structures. terrestrial fauna across the road.
• Presence of PUP, adjacent structures Therefore, designers should consider
(e.g. embankments, retaining walls, and alternatives to concrete safety barriers
bridges) and/or need to construct under such as guardrail or wire rope. Noise
traffic restricting, any of which may mounds can be an alternative to noise
affect the range of alternatives. barrier fencing. In designs where
concrete safety barrier and/or noise
• Presence of problem materials such as
barrier fencing is used, a combination
expansive soil/s, spoiled fill, refuse,
of wildlife exclusion fencing and the
contaminated land and other unsuitable
provision of appropriately sized and
material requiring specific
located underpasses or culverts should
improvement techniques or removal
be included (refer to the Fauna
and replacement.
Sensitive Road Design Manual [Main
Roads, 2000] for details).
3.6.6 Fauna
• Where appropriately sized and located
Road designs that accommodate fauna underpasses or culverts cannot be
passage are of increasing community provided, an environmental specialist
interest. Planners and designers should should be consulted to determine
provide special attention to fauna passage whether wildlife exclusion fencing
along (especially where the road reserve is should be used (in most instances it
the only fauna path remaining) and across would not be recommended).
the road reserve at fauna corridors
Refer also to the RDDM (Main Roads,
(especially permanent and semi-permanent
2001) for discussion of culvert treatments.
watercourses). The Fauna Sensitive Road
December 2005
3-65
Australian Standards (2000): AP-R166/00:

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State Planning Policy (SPP) - Protection of
Extractive Resources. (The internet website The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd (1997):
current at the time of publishing was: The Macquarie Dictionary, third edition.
http://www.ipa.qld.gov.au/codes/codespolic Transportation Research Board (TRB)
ies.asp) (1998): NCHRP Report 414 – HOV
Systems Manual.
Transportation Research Board (TRB)
(2000): Highway Capacity Manual.
December 2005
3-71
United States Department of

Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration (1997): Flexibility in
Highway Design, FHWA-PD-97-062 HEP-
30/7-97(10M) E.
December 2005
3-72
Relationship to other
Chapters
This Chapter relates to all Chapters of this
Manual. It relies on Chapters 1 and 2 for
overall context and particularly relevant
Chapters include:
• Chapter 7;
• Chapter 8; 3
• Chapters 10, 11 and 12;
• Chapters 13, 14 and 16;
• Chapter 20; and
• Chapter 22.
December 2005
3-73
dealings between developers and Main

Appendix 3A Trip
Roads. This publication is freely available
generation rates
on the Main Roads website
The Transport Assessment Guide draft (www.mainroads.qld.gov.au).
document (Queensland Transport, 1995) Trip generation rates for other land uses are
provides a summary of average basic traffic available from a number of sources,
generation rates for development in urban including:
areas.
• the Guide to Traffic Generating
3 It should be noted that the most reliable

source of trip generation data is survey
•
Developments (RTA, 2002); and
Trip Generation (USA Institute of
data from the actual development or a
Transportation Engineers, 2003).
similar one in a similar location (in close
proximity). Note:
Appendix 3A provides only basic trip • “Peak Rate” refers to the trips in the
generation rates for some land uses to peak hour, which varies between
assist people who may not have traffic different regions and roads.
engineering training. It should be • “Trip” is defined as a one way
recognised that by simplifying the rates, vehicular movement from one point to
site specific variations cannot be taken another and excludes the return trip.
into account. In all instances, it is
desirable to use recent, local data. For Child care centres
detailed information further reference Traffic generation rates for childcare
should be made to: centres should be based on the licensed
• The Roads and Traffic Authority’s maximum enrolments allowed on any one
(RTA’s) Guide to Traffic Generating day.
Developments (which is available Of the three types of child care centres
from the Main Roads Central commonly found in urban areas, pre-school
Library or which can be purchased facilities have, on average, higher traffic
from the RTA); and generation than long day care centres which
• the Guidelines for Assessment of in turn have higher generation rates than
Road Impacts of Development before school/after school care.
Proposals (for details see below). Peak times commonly coincide with the trip
The proportion of development traffic that to/from work, however they can also vary
impacts on State Controlled Roads has to be with operating hours of the centre. Some
assessed for each development. The adjustments to these peak hours may be
methodology for the assessment of necessary where the centre is remote from
developments that impact on State the general place of work.
Controlled Roads is provided in the The rates in Table 3.3 are based on
Guidelines for Assessment of Road Impacts childcare centres in urban locations. A
of Development Proposals (Main Roads, reduction of up to 20% may be applicable
2000). While the guidelines are not in areas remote from commercial centres.
mandatory, they provide a basis for the
December 2005
3-74
Table 3.3 Traffic generation data – child premises. The RTA data (Table 3.4) is
care centres based on sites with a mean peak hour mode
split for cars of 0.62 and a mean peak hour
Peak
car occupancy of 1.19 (52% car drivers).
Rate Daily
Description Unit Source* Employee density also affects generation
(per Rate
rates, with the RTA data based on 4.75
unit)
employees per 100m2 GFA. A site specific
Pre-school 1.4 N/A Child RTA
analysis may indicate different figures
Long Day should be used.
Care
Before/After
0.8
0.65
N/A
N/A
Child
Child
RTA
RTA
Table 3.4 Traffic generation data –
commercial premises
3
School Care
Notes: Peak
* Description Rate Daily
Unit Source*
RTA – Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW. Source* (per Rate
Unit)
Commercial premises
100m²
Commercial premises generally refer to All 2 10 RTA
GFA
offices with little or no manufacturing or Notes:
retail facilities. The nature of a business *
and the proximity of its premises to the RTA – Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW
Central Business District (CBD) affect the
traffic generation of it. Dwellings
A survey by the RTA found that computer Residential buildings are usually treated
and technology driven businesses have the under three categories:
highest employee densities and high visitor • detached dwellings (e.g. traditional
trips. Management, legal and accountancy house on block);
type offices have average employee
• medium density dwellings (e.g. town
densities while customer orientated offices
houses); and
such as banks have the lowest employee
densities but higher visitor trips. • high density dwellings (e.g. apartment
buildings).
To assess a proposed development, the
likely future tenant mix needs to be There is a trend to smaller residential lots
determined, keeping in mind that it may giving higher density development, coupled
change in the future. with increased HOV usage, in
developments remote from the inner
Office intensity is usually measured in
metropolitan areas.
terms of floor area with Gross Floor Area
(GFA) being the typical unit of Other factors that affect traditional traffic
measurement. generation rates are the size of
developments, with those beyond about 200
Peak times for the majority of offices
lots tending to have trip attractors (e.g.
coincide with the roadway peak hours.
schools, shops) contained within the
Mode split and car occupancy are to be
development.
considered when assessing commercial
December 2005
3-75
For medium to high density dwellings, the Fast food outlets

smaller units (up to 2 bedrooms) are more
Fast food outlets can be classified as one of
likely to have a lower vehicle generation
the following groups, with reasonable
rate, and vice versa for larger units and
generation consistency within these groups:
townhouses (three or more bedrooms).
• McDonalds or Hungry Jacks;
The rates for high density dwellings (in the
CBD), do no include vehicle generation • KFC or Red Rooster;
rates for commercial purposes, which • Pizza shops; or
3 should be considered separately.

Peak times commonly coincide with the
• Miscellaneous smaller urban take-away
shops.
road peak.
The RTA found that traffic generated by the
Table 3.5 provides some guidance for larger outlets is extremely variable and
dwellings. cannot be accurately related to floor area.
Table 3.5 Traffic generation rates – Further, there is very little data available for
residential dwellings estimating traffic generated by the smaller
urban outlets.
Peak
Daily Factors which should be considered when
Description rate Unit Source*
rate evaluating the generation capability of fast
/unit
food outlets in urban areas includes the
Detached 0.85 9 Dwelling RTA
proximity of other outlets, hours of business
0.8 6-10 Dwelling QT
(e.g. sites open for breakfast will generate
N/A 9.6 Dwelling AMCORD
more daily traffic than vehicles open from
Qld lunch to dinner), the duration of stay of
N/A 10 Dwelling
Streets patrons, the waiting time for foodstuffs, the
Medium 4-6.5 Dwelling RTA presence of a drive through facility and the
Density N/A 5.9 Dwelling AMCORD demographics of the residential catchment.
Qld
N/A 6 Dwelling A summary of available generation data is
Streets
shown in Table 3.6. This data should only
High 0.4 3-6 Dwelling QT be used where market research
Density 0.29 N/A Dwelling RTA information is unavailable. In cases
N/A 4.2 Dwelling AMCORD where access configuration is an important
Notes: factor, significant sensitivity testing should
*Abbreviations are as follows: be included in any analysis. Queue space
RTA – Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW for drive through facilities is also important
QT – Queensland Transport as is the provision of cycle and pedestrian
AMCORD – Australian Model Code for Residential access to the site (separated from drive
Development through entrances and exits).
Qld Streets – Institution of Engineers Australia
publication on standards and guidelines for streets
December 2005
3-76
Table 3.6 Traffic generation rates – fast When considering entire industrial areas,
food outlets the site peak often coincides with the
adjacent major road peak. Isolated facilities
Peak
Daily may have different site peak times to road
rate peak times and locations need to be
/unit
reviewed in a site-specific basis.
McDonalds, 180 N/A Vehicles RTA
Hungry A summary of some of the available traffic
Jacks generation data for industrial land uses is
KFC, Red
Rooster
100 N/A Vehicles RTA
shown in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Traffic generation data –
3
Pizza shops 12 N/A 100m² QT industrial uses
and other GFA
Peak
small Daily
outlets rate
/unit
Notes:
100m²
*Abbreviations are as follows: 1 5 RTA
GFA
RTA – Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW Factories
100m²
QT – Queensland Transport N/A 4-5 QT
GFA
Industrial 100m²
Warehouses 0.5 4 RTA
Industrial sites vary significantly in type GFA
from light industry/retail to heavy industry. Light 100m²
0.9 9 QT
They can include showrooms, warehouses, Industrial GFA
factories, production plants, and bulk Notes:
storage facilities. The diversity in this type Factories are sites where articles are manufactured.
of facility requires caution to be exercised For warehouses, generation rates can vary depending
when applying generation rates. on the type of goods being stored. Also, if the
warehouse has a retail component, the daily
The key factors affecting peak traffic
generation rate may be higher.
generation of industrial sites are employee
The light industrial category is considered to
density, travel mode, peak period travel
encompass sites with established uses such as
distribution, location and style of facility
storehouses, light fabrication, building supplies and
(e.g. labour intensive versus machinery
showrooms.
intensive).
*Abbreviations are as follows:
The most important of these is employee RTA – Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW
density. However, this figure is often QT – Queensland Transport
difficult to determine prior to development
of an industrial precinct. Previously Service stations
developed rates have therefore been based The recent trend in service station
on floor area. As a guide, GFA is typically developments has been to include
about 45% of site area for industrial uses, as convenience stores in the same facility. As
considerable space has to be devoted to a Brisbane survey (date of survey unknown)
parking, servicing and manoeuvring. has shown only 50% of the users of the
shared facilities stop for refuelling only;
December 2005
3-77
30% only stop for goods only and 20% stop Shopping centres
for refuelling and goods.
The traffic generated by shopping centres is
Factors affecting peak hour generation rates most influenced by the proximity of other
that need to be considered are the proximity centres and hence the size of the urban
of other service stations and convenience catchment. On site facilities such as
stores, hours of business, the volume of cinemas, restaurants, etc can also have a
passing traffic and ease of access into the significant impact on generation rates.
facility.
Refer to the Guide to Traffic Generating
3 In most urban localities, peak usage of

service station facilities coincides with the
Developments (RTA, 2002), and Appendix
F of the Guidelines for Assessment of Road
road peak with the largest generation Impacts of Development Proposals (Main
occurring during the afternoon peak period. Roads, 2001) for information regarding
shopping centres.
A summary of some of the available traffic
generation data for service stations is shown Other land uses
in Table 3.8. This data should only be used
Table 3.9 provides a summary of some of
for service stations in urban locations.
the available traffic generation data for a
Service stations/service centres/road-houses
variety of other land uses.
located on major rural highways are
expected to develop significantly different Modifying factors
generation rates and patterns. These will Traffic generation rates may be affected by
require a site specific analysis. the provision of good quality pedestrian
Table 3.8 Traffic generation rates - access and appropriate cycling facilities (on
service stations and/or off-road). This is particularly so
around:
Peak
Description rate
Daily
Unit Source*
• schools;
rate
/unit • recreational facilities, and
With
100m² • shopping areas.
Convenience 66 N/A RTA
GFA The extent of any reduction in traffic
Store
100m²
generation rates will have to be consistent
Urban - All 70 700 QT with the circumstances prevailing at the
GFA
site, and the potential for change in mode in
Notes:
the future.
RTA – Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW
QT – Queensland Transport
December 2005
3-78
Table 3.9 Traffic generation data – other land uses
Peak Daily
Land use Type range Unit Peak time/comment Source*
rate rate
Amusement Centre All 10 N/A 100m² GFA - ITE
Bank All 20 N/A 100m² GFA - QT
Car Repair Tyres/brakes 6 N/A 100m² GFA - QT
Car tyre Retail All 1 10 100m² GFA - RTA
Caravan Park Urban 0.4 4 Occupied site - QT
Caravan Park Rural
Metropolitan-
0.8 8 Occupied site - QT 3
3 20 100m² GFA 6-7pm weekdays RTA
regional centre
Metropolitan-
Fitness Centres
sub regional 9 45 100m² GFA 6-7pm weekdays RTA
area
All 10 80 100m² GFA - QT
Hotel All 100-200 N/A Vehicles - QT
Medical Centres All 13 N/A 100m² GFA - QT
Medical Centres All N/A 30-70 Doctor - QT
Assume 100%
Motel All 0.4 3 Unit RTA
occupancy rates
Motel All 0.4 4 Occupied Unit - QT
Motor Showrooms All 0.7 N/A 100m² GFA N/A RTA
Total daily trips can be
Restaurants All 5 60 100m² GFA greater if lunch is RTA
served.
Restaurants All 5 N/A 100m² GFA - QT
Rates of resident funded
facilities are generally
Retirement/ Ages greater than subsidized
Aged/Disabled 0.1-0.2 1-2 Dwelling RTA
homes facilities as indicated by
the higher end of the
range
Schools State Primary 0.2 N/A Student - QT
Schools State Secondary 0.12 N/A Student - QT
Schools Private 0.1 N/A Student - QT
Squash Courts All 3 N/A Court Evening peak rates RTA
Squash Courts 2 courts 17 N/A Court - QT
Squash Courts 4 courts 13.5 N/A Court - QT
December 2005
3-79
Peak Daily
Land use Type range Unit Peak time/comment Source*
rate rate
100m² site
Swimming Pools All 4.95 N/A - RTA,QT
area
Tennis Courts All 4 45 Court - RTA
Tennis Courts All 4 N/A Court - QT
Truck Terminals Road Transport 1 5 100m² GFA - RTA
Truck Terminals Truck Stop 1.3-3.3 13 100m² GFA - QT
3 Video Stores
Video Stores
Friday
Saturday
22.8
49.9
N/A
N/A
100m² GFA
100m² GFA
4-6pm peak time
5-8pm peak time
RTA
RTA
Notes:
ITE - Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE). ITE data is from Trip Generation ((ITE, 2003) which is based on
empirical data from trip generation studies conducted in the USA by public agencies, developers and consulting firms).
RTA – Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW
QT – Queensland Transport
December 2005
3-80
Appendix 3B Ecologically
sustainable development
assessment
Table 3.10 outlines the applicable designers should refer to Austroads ESD
Ecologically Sustainable Development toolbox (Austroads, 2000) for a complete
(ESD) process and tools relating to the list, and detailed explanation of, ESD and
phases of a project. The use of some of the ESD tools.
these tools is summarised in the following
pages of this Appendix. Planners and 3
Table 3.10 ESD tools and applicability to network/corridors and phases (Austroads,
2000)
Phases applicable to:

Tool/process3
Concept Development Implementation Operation
1 1
Network/corridor strategy Major Major - -
1
REF (concept) Major - - -
1
REF (planning) - Major - -
1 1
Impact assessment study Major Major - -
1
Environmental design report - Major
2
Environmental management systems Lesser Major1 Major1 Major1
Environmental management plan (maintenance) - - - Major1
Environmental management plan (planning) Major1 Major1 - -
Environmental management plan (construction) - - - Major1 -
1 1 2
Strategic environment assessment Major Major Lesser Lesser2
Cumulative impact assessment Major1 Major1 Lesser2 Lesser2
Life cycle assessment - Major1 Lesser2 Lesser2
Environmental risk assessment Major1 Major1 Lesser2 Major1
Sustainability Assessment (MCA) Major1 Major1 Major1 Major1
Notes:
1. Major consideration during this phase.
2. Lesser consideration during this phase.
3. Not all tools or processes are described in this Appendix. Refer to Austroads ESD toolbox (Austroads, 2000) for a
complete list, and detailed explanation of, ESD and the ESD tools.
December 2005
3-81
Strategic Environmental Assessment

(SEA)
Table 3.11 Summary of SEA
Strategic
Environmental SEA is an important tool for the ‘integration’ principle of ESD
Assessment (SEA)
3 Intent and area of

application
Useful at the early stages of project development. Often applied to strategy and network
formulation. Spatial extent is usually focussed on corridor, network, regional or larger areas.
A broad analytical framework for examining tradeoffs between social, economic and
Strengths
environmental concerns.
Weaknesses No standard methodology exits. Can be data intensive and time consuming
Level of Difficulty High
SEA is best suited to the early stages of the decision making process.
SEA may be applied in a number of areas including multi-modal and inter-modal proposals
including evaluation of alternative scenarios including road-rail interchanges, waterway
Applicability options (inland waterways and sea ports), networks of airports, major route selection,
and integrated transport and land use planning.
Concept Phase Development Phase Implementation Phase Operation Phase
9 9 - -
Example: Roadsides as biolinks Desert and the Big Desert Wilderness

National Parks. While the area retains less
In this example the ‘integration’ principle is
than 5% of its original vegetation cover, it
demonstrated by examining roads in their
is still rich in species diversity.
broader social, environmental and
Furthermore, much of this diversity is
economic context. In addition to their
located within the road corridor.
transport role, roads are considered as an
opportunity to provide ‘biolinks’ for fauna This revegetation of the existing road
habitat and movement. network would create a large corridor
network or ‘biolink’ and is an example of a
SEA is often focussed on corridor wide
strategic interpretation of the use of roads.
issues rather than localised project specific
issues. An example of how SEA may be
used is seen in a Victorian project called the
Big to Little Desert Biolink Corridor
Management Plan (Straker, 1998). This
project is located in the Wimmera in the
North-West of Victoria.
The project is designed to revegetate key
parts of the network of roads in the 5,000
square kilometre gap between the Little
December 2005
3-82
Qualitative ESD assessment
Table 3.12 Summary of qualitative ESD assessment
The use of qualitative ESD assessment is recommended as an initial review tool to provide a
rapid coverage of key project aspects from an ESD perspective. The approach is also useful
Qualitative ESD
for graphical presentation of the relative performance of project options. Qualitative ESD
Assessment
Assessment may be used to aid the decision making process at the early stage of a
Intent and area of

application
development proposal.
Quick assessment of compatibility with the objectives and principles of ESD. 3
Transport planners, environmental planners and strategy and network analysts would use this
Strengths approach without reference to detailed technical issues. When combined with graphical
presentation can be a very valuable communication technique.
Limitations relate to subjective nature of some of the assessments. There is no standard set
Weaknesses
criteria with which performance can be assessed.
Level of Difficulty Low to Medium
Can be applied before and after project implementation.
Applicability Concept Phase Development Phase Implementation Phase Operation Phase
9 9 9 9
Example: Environmental Effects well being and quality of life. In

Statement (EES) for the Scoresby particular, the transport related aspects
transport corridor include safety, accessibility, amenity
(e.g. noise, visual amenity) and equity
A graphical display of performance
in terms of transport choice.
measures is useful as a communication and
management tool. Such a display could be • Sustainability – focuses on the natural
based on a Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) environment. In particular the key
approach using a range of selected issues relate to energy use, greenhouse
performance measures. gas emissions, water quality, ecosystem
processes and biodiversity.
The Scoresby Transport Corridor EES
adopted three main themes for assessment. This approach can be used to assess
different implementation options using a
They are:
display that rates how well each option
• Prosperity – focuses on economic satisfies the prosperity, liveability and
development that enhances the capacity sustainability objectives.
to meet the essential needs of the
community and the welfare of future
generations.
• Liveability – focuses on human health,
environmental amenity and needs for
December 2005
3-83
Risk assessment
Table 3.13 Summary of risk assessment.
Risk assessment is a key approach to implementing the precautionary principle. Risk

assessment also contributes towards other principles of ESD. For example, inter-generational
Risk Assessment
equity can be considered by using a risk exposure approach that examines, for instance, the
distribution of environmental exposures (e.g. noise or accident exposure).
Implementation of the precautionary principle. Useful at the early stages of project
Intent and area of development. Risk Assessment is a critical technique for examining the need for a project.
3 application Risk Assessment is a key ESD tool. It is particularly important for implementing the
precautionary principle.
Risk assessment is a discipline with mature methodologies. Can be used for a wide variety of
Strengths risk assessments including assessment of transport risk, safety risk, societal or health risk,
environmental risk and ecological risk.
Weaknesses Limitations relate to difficulties with quantifying consequences and risk exposure.
Moderate to high. The level of difficulty varies with the scope. Qualitative risk assessment
Level of Difficulty can be made much easier than quantitative risk assessment. The level of time and resources
required is also a function of the level of detail required.
Typical applications include route selection and comparative risk assessment by transport
mode for a given transport task.
Applicability
9 9 9 -
Example: Acid sulphate soils. implementation phases. This also avoids

potentially large cleanup costs.
Acid sulphate soils are often found in
lowland coastal areas, mangrove areas, and Tasks that are part of the concept and
in soils not more than 5m above high tide development phases, such as route
level in marine and estuarine areas. selection, will play a key role in avoiding
such water quality issues. Linked with
Potential acid sulphate soils have high
geotechnical investigations the extent of
concentrations of dissolved sulphates and
acid sulphate soils can be determined, and
sulphur containing compounds. Exposure
routes planned to avoid these areas.
of these soils to oxygen following
excavation works can result in the Analysis can produce a probability
formation of sulphuric acid with a distribution map of the site that indicates
corresponding risk of damage to water the probability (from low to high) of
quality and aquatic ecosystems. In encountering acid sulphate soils within the
addition, the acidification of the soil can corridor at different depths below the
also impact vegetation growth. ground surface.
These issues of risk exposure are best Appropriate management responses to limit
identified and managed at the concept phase the disturbance of these soils should be
rather than later at the development or included the preparation of an Acid
December 2005
3-84
Sulphate Soils Management Plan

(Queensland Government, 2002).
December 2005
3-85
Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA)

Table 3.14 Summary of CIA
Cumulative Impact CIA techniques assist the implementation of the ‘precautionary principle’ of ESD.
Assessment (CIA)
CIA is used in planning, policy development and environmental assessment. Since the
approach explicitly considers interactions between different activities as well as interactions
Intent and area of across time, it is well suited as an ESD assessment tool for transport infrastructure projects.
application CIA is a useful tool for examining impacts that arise at different times and in different places.
3 These include global impacts of greenhouse gas emissions and regional impacts relating to
large water bodies or air sheds.
CIA provides for ‘cumulative thinking’. It allows project suitability and need satisfaction to
Strengths
be compared with other projects and community needs.
Weaknesses -
Level of Difficulty Moderate to High
Typical applications include route selection and comparative risk assessment by transport
mode for a given transport task.
Applicability
9 9
Example: road runoff and wetland enhancement in addition to stormwater

sediments management.
Constructed wetlands are used for a range A wetlands maintenance program should
of purposes including urban stormwater include the need for sediment removal to
management, road runoff, creation of ensure efficient hydraulic function as well
habitat and for recreation and visual as prevent the release of pollutants over
amenity. One of the key operation and time. If removal was not undertaken then
maintenance issues is the management of the heavy metals within sediments could
sediment and the bioaccumulation of toxic accumulate in coastal zones and other
materials. receiving waterways. The disposal of
removed sediment may need to consider the
Wetlands used for road drainage purposes
legislative requirements for contaminated
are likely to accumulate heavy metals and
waste disposal.
toxic materials over time. This can occur
through heavy metal binding to soils, In general the long-term implication of the
sediment and particulate matter. Pollutants accumulation of heavy metals in wetland
may come from the first flush from road sediment has not been well studied. These
surfaces or through pesticides used on issues illustrate the need to use CIA as a
adjacent land. In addition, there may be tool for road planning, design and
bioaccumulation within the wetland operation.
ecosystem that can lead to damage to flora
and fauna. This will be an issue if the
wetland ecosystem is used for habitat
December 2005
3-86
Appendix 3C Transit lane capacity
Figure 3.6 HOV lane capacity for a signalised urban street with a capacity of 650v/h/lane
(PPK et al, 2000)
December 2005
3-87
Figure 3.7 HOV lane capacity for a signalised suburban arterial with a capacity of
800v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000)
December 2005
3-88
Figure 3.8 HOV lane capacity for a high standard suburban arterial with a capacity of
900v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000)
December 2005
3-89

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Department of Main Roads Chapter 3

3.5.10 Development assessment 3-54

Chapter 3 Amendments – December

Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date

3.1 Objectives • fair access and amenity; and 3

of the issues together (i.e. produce a context o purpose of the road;

3 all users within the boundaries of the

The management and administration, which

will suffer from a perception that Main • Community engagement policy,

Community engagement is: range of avenues such as the telephone,

3.2.2 Local Government in advance of the commencement of

• SPP 2/02 “Planning and managing • whether screening is required (refer to

o PUP Authorities may have • aquaplaning which should be

The following sections discuss some of the 3.2.5.2 Pavements

pavements (e.g. heavy-duty motorway • Lighting, including route and

3 Further discussion on pavements

information in addition to what can be • Oil pipelines.

o substations; Further discussion on PUP is contained in

3 pavement surface. Specifically, the

relatively small volume of traffic, even if Ideally, there should be sufficient

requirements of the appropriate design experience should be based on objective

3 3.3.2.7 Application of standards

• Requirement for safety barrier and • natural access control;

3 of heavy vehicles, traffic speeds, and

3.3.4 Crime Prevention Through • a relocation of gathering areas to

3.3.4.1 Natural access control • using “see-through” fencing or walls (if

though each has distinct operational o designing to provide more fixtures

• avoiding obstructions to sight lines and CPTED measures for pedestrian

3 avoiding potential entrapment spots by;

fences or advertisements that • maximising sight lines and avoiding

o eliminating unnecessary buildings or o locating entrances/exits where they

- designing the fittings such as to o if the bikeway coincides with a

3 o design of nearby land uses should

design of transport systems. (The transport • business activity centres.

• transport corridors; and • neighbourhood design;

3 including bus shelters, pedestrian and

3 and low) should be considered or evaluated

2005-2026 (SEQIPP – Office of Development, Trade and Innovation and the

o Robina to Tugun Rail Impact Identifying the future travel demand is

Other sources of information for o growth in traffic including through

For rural areas, the issue of freight approaches to providing transport

3 increasing the usage of sustainable

private vehicles with multiple passengers Pavement Rehabilitation Manual

their planning and implementation. For a converting a busy general-purpose lane to

together would contribute to achieving • HOV lane implementation - when is

Key planning issues General-purpose lanes are generally open to

• Usage criteria and warrants - when is a o emergency vehicles;

o motorcycles; combined bus/car-pool volumes in transit

3 Buses, taxis, motorcycles, bicycles and

Criteria Measures *Weighting

Safety frequency and timing of services.

of bus priority should be considered (refer be carefully assessed. Particular factors to

detailed analysis of the traffic impacts of Other examples include:

3 aspects of the design and can have a

3.4.6.3 Maintenance needs • safety barriers (refer to Section 3.4.6.2);

The ongoing maintenance costs of the • landscaping elements (refer to Section

3 Indigenous Cultural Heritage Policy and

o reduced flexibility in building The extent of land required should be

have a significant effect on the required to obviate this effect (refer to

3.5.5 On-road amenity –

3 within it to provide the appreciation of

Potential pedestrian/motor-vehicle conflict

3.5.7 Roadside amenities • Fauna crossings, which are discussed in