Performance of the Driver, Pedestrian, and

Driver, Pedestrian, and Vehicle Characteristics Vehicle Characteristics - Impact

 The components of road transport are  Length of acceleration and deceleration lanes
 The road users  Maximum highway grades
Chapter 3. Traffic Operations  The driver
 The pedestrians  Minimum turning radius

3.1. Driver, Pedestrian, and Vehicle  The vehicle, and

 The road
 Sight passing distances
 Lane widths
 Knowledge on the characteristics of these components is essential
to provide efficient and safe transport services  Clearance heights
 Example:  Location of traffic control devices
 Driver’s age affect sight and hearing abilities, etc.  Speed limits
 Vehicle size and performance affects turning radii, ability to climb grades, etc
 The road thus, must be designed to accommodate a wide a range of vehicle  Traffic signal timing
characteristics and at the same time to allow use by driver’s and pedestrians  Stopping sight distances
with a wide range of physical and psychological characteristics
 Roadside safety features

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Driver Characteristics
The Human Sensory Process Visual Sense Visual Reception
 Drivers’ decisions and actions depend principally on  Accounts for 90% of a driver’s information
information received through the senses  Visual Acuity: Ability to see fine details
 Could be  Static (stationary objects):
 Senses  Foveal (sharp, with in a conical angle of up to 10o for most)  Depends on brightness
 Visual (sight)  Increases with increasing brightness up to ~ 3 candles (cd/sq ft) -- remains constant
 Peripheral (less sharp, up to 160o for most) after that
 Kinesthetic (movement)  Contrast
 Information received increases by movement of head &  Time (0.5 to 1.0 second)
 Vestibular (equilibrium)
eyes  Dynamic (ability to detect moving objects)
 Auditory (hearing)  Clear vision within a conical angle 3 to 5º
 Experience drivers scan a wider range of horizontal  Fairly clear within 10 to 12º
fixation locations than novice drivers  Key criteria in determining placement of traffic signs

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 Visual Reception Visual perception Visual Reception
 Glare Recovery: Ability to recover from the effects of
glare  Peripheral Vision: Ability to see objects beyond the cone of
 Dark to light : 3 seconds -- headlights in the eye clearest vision (160 degrees)  Color Vision: Ability to differentiate one color from another
 Light to dark: 6 seconds – turning lights off
 Age dependent  Lack of ability = color blindness
 Usually a concern for night driving
Need to Provide Light Transactions  Objects seen but details and color are not clear  Combinations to which the eye is the most sensitive
 Depth perception  Black and white
 Ability to estimate speed and distance  Black and yellow
 Passing on two-lane roads
 Judging gaps
 Signs are standardized to aid in perceiving distance
 Very young and old have trouble judging gaps

Key in determining traffic signs colors

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Visual Reception Factors affecting Visual Acuity Kinesthesic Sense

 Visual acuity declines and the field of vision narrows  Is the sensation of bodily presence or movement resulting
Vision: 20/20 can read 1/3 inch letters @ 20'  When lighting conditions are poor primarily from stimulation of sensory receptors in muscles
 Drivers are tired tendons, and joints.
Example: a driver with 20/20 vision can see a sign from a distance of 90  With Aging  Forces due to vehicle acceleration are transmitted by the
feet if the letter size in 2 inches. How close would a person with 20/50  Rules of thumb: after 50 the light you can see halves with each 10 years!!! seats, steering wheel, brake pedal, …
vision have to be to see the same sign?  Older drivers can take twice as long to recover from glare
 Driver brakes, slows down, … based on the info
X = (90 feet) * (20/50) = 36 feet
 Control=?
How large would the lettering have to be for a person with 20/60 vision to
see the same sign from 90 feet?
h = 2 inches (60/20) = 6 inches

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 Vestibular Sense Hearing Driver Perception-Reaction Time
 a nerve with in the ear  Sounds of Horns, Skidding Tyres, … warn driver of
 Interval between perceiving (i.e. seeing, hearing, …) and making
 Three fluid-filled semi-circular canals in the inner ear (dir. of impending collision initial response
movement, equilibrium, …)  Tire noises at curves indicate the driver must slow down
 PIEV time
 Together with the kinesthetic sense it gives the driver info on  etc.  Perception: Recognition of Information by the senses
forces associated with changes in direction, steering, braking,  Intellection: Reasoning
vibrations, and stability of the vehicle  Emotion: how a driver feels about a situation
Know when you haven’t hit the brakes when car is going downhill!
 Volition: making a decision or choice

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Perception-Reaction Process Perception-Reaction Time Pedestrians

 Ranges from 0.5 – 7 sec.  Characteristics similar to driver
 Perception
 It is affected by:  Design of pedestrian facilities
 See a deer
 Intellection  Environment (urban vs. rural; night vs. day, wet vs. dry)  Signal timing – get peds across during red phase
 Realize the deer is  Age
on the road  Physical Condition (drugs, alcohol, fatigue)
 Emotion  Complexity of situation
 Swerve, stop, change lanes  Expected vs Unexpected situation
 Volition
 time to start events in motion
but not actually do the action

PIEV
16 Used for Signal Design and Braking Distance 17 18

3
 Pedestrians Bicycles Transportation Facilities Users
 Walking Speed varies between 0.9 to 2.4 m/sec  On-road
 Pedestrians
 Separate facilities
 Design value is ~ 1.2 m/sec  Similar to driver (perception-reaction)  Bicyclists
 Used to calculate safe pedestrians crossing time  Cyclists are divided by AASHTO into 3 classes  Vehicles:
 Class A: experienced or advanced bicyclists  Passenger Cars
 Consider bike as a vehicle and ride comfortably with traffic  Heavy Vehicles
 Usually not allowed on freeways
 Class B: less experienced bicyclists
 Usually prefer neighborhood streets and bike facilities We need to know their characteristics in
 Class C: children on their own or with parents
 Mainly residential order to produce and efficient Design

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Design Vehicle Vehicle Characteristics Static Characteristics

 Class of vehicle that sets design criteria  Size:
 Static: those characteristics that DO NOT depend on the  Design of lane widths, parking bays, etc…
 Characteristics of “design” vehicle are used to determine interaction with the transportation facility  Vertical clearance
criteria for design, sight-distance requirements, etc.
 Weight:
 Dynamic: those characteristics that DO depend on the  Pavement design, bridge design, axle loads
interaction with the transportation facility  Maximum grade

 Radius of Curvature:
Important factor in determining the design  Intersection design
standards for the physical components of the  Interchange ramps
transportation facility

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 Minimum Turning Path for Passenger
Design Vehicle Design Vehicle Vehicle Regulation and Dimensions
 Vehicle attribute regulated
For a Passenger Car (P):  Vehicle condition (yearly check on the condition of the car to
check road worthiness)
 Vehicle weight and weight distribution
Height: 4.25 ft  Bridge formula
Width: 7 ft  Axle loading
 Vehicle dimensions
Length: 19 ft  Total length
Front overhang: 3 ft  Length of trailers
Rear overhang: 5 ft  Number of trailers
 Height
Wheelbase: 11 ft  Width

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Dimensions Regulation - Need Vehicle types Turning Radius

 Safety  Low speed and high speed off-tracking and swept
 Create uniformity path
 Protect the infrastructure
 Establish standards for design
1
2
.5
m
5
.3
m

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 Kinematic (Dynamic) Characteristics Dynamic Characteristics Hill Climbing Ability
 Acceleration (Constant or variable):  Hill Climbing Ability  Force acting on a vehicle:
 Engine Power
 Passing maneuvers  Air Resistance
 Cornering Dynamics
 Gap acceptance  Grade Resistance
 Dimensions of freeway ramps and passing lanes  Rolling Resistance
 Motion elements (Distance and Velocity)  Braking Distance  Friction
 Weight

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Air Resistance, Ra Grade Resistance, Rg Rolling Resistance, Rr

 component of the gravitational force acting down a • A vehicles motion is retarded by surface irregularities (mud vs.
Resistance due to air in front as well as friction of air acting
frictionless inclined surfaces. asphalt). Resistance is also developed within the vehicle itself
around it
 For even the steepest grades encountered: Sin θ  tan θ friction effects of moving vehicle parts.
ƒ(frontal area, density of air, speed, etc) = G/100 • Rolling resistance is high on low quality pavement surfaces, and
 Uphill: vehicle must apply acceleration to maintain constant
v 2 speed
increases with increase in vehicle speed.
Ra  Cd A  Downhill: vehicle must apply brakes to retard motion and
Rolling resistance of passenger cars on various surfaces at different speeds
(N/ MetricTon)
where: g maintain constant speed
Ra = air resistance force (N) Surface Uniform Speed (km/hr)
 Most significant for heavy-trucks
r= density of air (kg/m3) [1.225 kg/m3 (0.0766 lb/ft3)] 32 48 64 80 96
CD = aerodynamic drag coefficient (passenger cars=0.4, trucks=0.5) Rg  mg Sin  mg (G / 100) Smooth pavement 123 132 142 152 167
Weight

A = frontal cross-sectional area (m2) Badly broken and patched pavement 142 167 196 250 -
Rg = grade resistance (N); m = mass
v = vehicle speed (m/s) g = gravitational acceleration (m/sec2) Dry well-packed gravel 152 172 245 304 -

35 G= gradient (%)
2
34 g = acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s ) 36
Loose Sand 172 196 279 373 -

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 Rolling Resistance Curve Resistance, Fc Power Requirements
For passenger cars: Rr = (Crs + 2.15Crvv2)W  Power: rate at which work is done
• External forces acting on a vehicle from maneuvering around a  Engine power required to overcome air, grade,
For trucks: Rr = (Ca + 1.47Cbv)W
curve curve, and friction resistance to keep vehicle in
• These forces are imparted through the front wheels and retards motion
where:
forward motion
Rr = rolling resistance (lb)  HP = 550 lb-ft/sec
Crs = constant (usually 0.012 for passenger cars Fc  mv / R 2
P  Rv
Crv = constant (usually 0.65 x 10-6 sec2/ft2)
Ca = constant (usually 0.02445 for trucks) where:
Where:
Cb = constant (usually 0.00044 sec/ft) Fc = cornering resistance (N)
P= power in Watt
v = velocity (mph) v = velocity (m/sec)
R= sum of resistances
R = radius of curve

Weight
W = gross vehicle weight v= speed (m/sec)

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Example Example Example

How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to
provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot
horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb

P = 1.47 Rsu P = 1.47 Rsu P = 1.47 Rsu

550 550 550
Air resistance = Ra = 0.5 (2.15pCDAu2) =
g Grade Resistance = Rg = w x g = 4,500 lb x 0.03 Rolling resistance = Rr = (Crs + 2.15Crvu2)W
Ra= 0.5(2.15(0.0766 lb/ft3)(0.4)(40 ft2)(602 mph)
32.2 ft/sec2 Rg= 135.0 lb Rr= (0.012 + 2.15(0.65 x 10-6 sec2/ft2)(60 mph)2)4,500 lb
Ra= 147.3 lb
Rr= 76.6 lb
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 Example Example Sight Distance
 Basically, it is the distance visible to the driver of a vehicle
How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to  For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of
provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of their
horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected object
horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb on the traveled way.
P = 1.47 Rsu  Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight distance to
550 P = 1.47 Rsu enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing
Curve resistance = Rc = 0.5 (2.15u2W) 550 maneuvers, without risk of accident.
gR Rs = 147.3 lb + 135.0 lb + 76.6 lb + 540.8 lb = 899.8 lb  Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing
Rc= 0.5(2.15 (60 mph)2(4,500 lb)) sight distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of
(32.2 ft/sec2)(1000 ft) P = 899.8 lb (60 mph) = 98.2 HP their length.
Rr= 540.8 lb 550

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Braking Distance Stopping sight distance Effect of Grade of SSD

Db = braking distance  On grade, the braking distance formula is modified to
V2
u 2 (mph) u = initial velocity when brakes SSD  (0.278)(t )(V ) 
Db( ft )  are applied 254 f V2
30 f  G  f = coefficient of friction d
G = grade (decimal) Where G=percent 254 ( f divided
of grade G ) by 100.
Assumes a rate of deceleration, driver may brake harder SSD = Stopping Sight Distance (meter)
= Dist. traveled during perception/reaction time + Braking Dist.
a = 11.2 ft/sec2 normal
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds Note:
a = 14.8 ft/sec2 emergency, use tables from AASHTO V = initial speed (km/h)
1. Safe SSD on upgrades is shorter than on downgrades
f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
Friction is a function of pavement condition (wet, icy), tire, and 2. Min. SD should be adjusted where steep grades and high speed
roadway surface
occur in combination
Depends on weight, but some assumptions are made to arrive at a
standard equation
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 Stopping Sight Distance Coefficient of friction, f
 g = acceleration of gravity
 a = acceleration of vehicle
Pavement condition Maximum Slide
 u = initial velocity when brakes u
Good, dry 1.00 0.80
are applied Db wf cos 
Good, wet 0.90 0.60
w
w sin   wf cos   a
G
 Db = braking distance  u2
g

a 1.0
Poor, dry 0.80 0.55
 γ = angle of incline 2x
Db  x cos 
Poor, wet 0.60 0.30
 f = coefficient of friction Db( ft ) 
u 2 (mph)
30 f  G 
Packed snow and Ice 0.25 0.10
w
a
 G = grade (decimal) g
w
w sin 

γ
Distance to stop vehicle
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Stopping distance Grade impacts on stopping Friction impact on stopping

Practical Stopping Distance
Varying Friction
Varying Grade

Stopping Distance in Feet

700 1800
Stopping Distance in Feet

600 1600
Stopping Distance

600
500 1400
500
1200 Friction = 0.5
400 2 percent grade
400 1000
Series1 0 percent grade Friction = 0.25
300 300 800
200
-2 percent grade 600 Friction = 0.1
200
100 400
100 200
0
0 0
0 20 40 60 80
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Speed in MPH
Miles per Hour Miles per Hour

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 Impact of reaction time Sight distance Stopping Sight Distance
Distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time Distance to stop vehicle, includes P/R and braking distance
Varying Reaction Time
Design must allow sufficient distance for a driver to S = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
800 2.5 second perceive/react and stop, swerve etc when necessary 30({a/g} ± G)
Stopping
Distance

600 reaction time

where:
1.5 second
400 Db = braking distance
reaction time
200 0.6 second u = initial velocity when brakes are applied
0 reaction time f = coefficient of friction
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 G = grade (decimal)
t = time to perceive/react
Miles per Hour
a = vehicle acceleration
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
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Stopping Sight Distance SSD Example SSD Example

 A vehicle is traveling at uniform velocity, at t0 the driver realizes a
vehicle is stopped in the road ahead and the driver brakes SSD = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
With assumed acceleration, using friction  Grade = + 1% 30({a/g} ± G)
 tP/R = 0.8 sec
S = 1.47ut + _____u2_____  The stopped vehicle is just struck, assume vf = 0 Stopping distance = 405 feet
30(f ± G)  The braking vehicle leaves skid marks that are 405 feet long 405 feet = 1.47u(0.8 sec) + ________u2________
 Assume normal deceleration (11.2 ft/sec2) 30({11.2/32.2} + 0.01)
where: 405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________
Db = braking distance  Should the police office at the scene cite the driver for traveling 30(0.358)
u = initial velocity when brakes are applied over the 55 mph posted speed limit? 405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________
10.73
f = coefficient of friction Solving for u, u = 59.9 mph
G = grade (decimal)
t = time to perceive/react

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 Passing Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance
• Minimum distance required to safely complete passing maneuver on 2-lane
two-way highway PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
• Allows time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle and not
cut off passed vehicle when upon return to lane d1 = distance traveled during perception/reaction time and
• Assumes: d
distance traveled while accelerating to passing speed
1. Vehicle that is passed travels at uniform speed and when vehicle just enters the left lane
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it reaches
V f  Vo
2 2
passing section
d1  Vot  ( )
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass 2a
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and velocity of
where
the passing vehicle is 10 mph (16kph) greater than that of the passed
vehicle
t = perception/reaction time (sec)
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming vehicle Vo= average speed of passing vehicle (m/s)
when the passing vehicle returns to its lane Vf= speed as vehicle enters the left lane (m/s)
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a = acceleration (m/s2)

Passing Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance PSD

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d2 = distance traveled by vehicle while in left lane
Passing veh. driver must traverse the clearance distance
This image cannot currently be
between itself and the slow vehicle, the length of the slow
display ed.
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d3 = clearance distance between the passing vehicle and the
opposing vehicle at the moment the passing vehicle returns to
A vehicle moving at a speed of 80kph is slowing traffic on a two lane
highway. What passing distance is necessary, in order for a passing
manoeuvre to be carried out safely?
Use PRT=2.5sec, passing vehicles acc. rate= 0.67m/sec2, Vo of
passing =80kph, V of opposing vehicle =95kph, Lengths of all veh

the right lane. Usually d3 is taken equal to 75m. = 6.7m, clearance distances b/n passing and slow veh at lane
vehicle, its own length, the length of the clearance distance
change and at re-entry=6m, clearance distance b/n passing and
between itself and the slow veh. at lane re-entry d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during 2/3 of the time the opposing vehs at lane re-entry=75m.
d 2  Vt passing vehicle is in the left lane. (d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2 )
t  V / D,
where : D  (6  6.7  6.7  6)m, and
V  16kph(relative speed of pas sin g vehicle]
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Sight Distances How are these factored into design References
 Wright (1996) Highway Engineering, J. Wiley (Chapter 5)

Design Speed Coefficient of SSD PSD (m) Reduced PSD

(km/h) Friction (f) (m) from formulae for design (m) Design criteria must be based on
20 .42 20 160 50
30
40
.40
.38
30
45
217
285
75
125
the capabilities and limitations of
50
60
.35
.33
55
85
345
407
175
225
most drivers and pedestrians.
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425

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