University of Bahrain

College of Engineering
Institute for Transport Studies
Department of Civil Engineering
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT

Chapter One
Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the
Vehicle, and the Road
(Page 57)

Prepared by: Dr. Rashed Abdulrahman

Introduction
▪ The four main components of the highway mode of transportation are:

The
The driver The vehicle The road
pedestrian
the driver and pedestrian can also being name as road users

▪ To provide efficient and safe highway transportation, a knowledge of

the characteristics and limitations of each of these components is
essential:
o It is also important to be aware of the interrelationships that exist among these
components in order to determine the effects, if any, that they have on each other
Driver Characteristics
▪ One problem that faces highway engineers is the varying skills and
perceptual abilities (e.g. see, hear, evaluate and react) of drivers
o Abilities may also vary under different conditions such us influence of alcohol,
fatigue and time of the day we don't use average values to design

▪ Therefore, it is important that criteria used for design purposes be

compatible with the capabilities and limitations of most drivers
o The use of an average value (e.g. mean reaction time) may not be adequate for a
large number of drivers
o Both the 85th and the 95th percentile have been used to select design criteria; in
general, the higher the chosen percentile, the wider the range covered
The Human Response Process
▪ Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their evaluation of and
reaction to information they obtain from certain stimuli that they see or
hear gain info > analyze > react

o However, evaluation and reaction must be carried out within a very short time, as
the information being received along the highways is continually changing

▪ Most of the information received by a driver is visual, implying that the

ability to see is of fundamental importance in the driving task
o It is therefore important that highway engineers have some fundamental
knowledge of visual as well as of hearing perception
Visual Reception (1)
▪ The principal characteristics of the eye are:

Glare
Visual Peripheral Color Depth
vision &
acuity vision vision perception
recovery
Visual Reception (2)
▪ Visual Acuity:
o Is the ability to see fine details of an object
o Two types of visual acuity are of importance: static and dynamic visual acuity
Static
• The driver’s ability to identify an object
when both the object and the driver are
stationary
• Static acuity increases with an increase in
background brightness (to a certain limit)
• The optimal time required to identify an
object under normal conditions between
0.5 and 1.0 sec
Dynamic
• The driver’s ability to clearly detect
relatively moving objects, not necessarily in
his/her direct line of vision
• Most people have clear vision with conical
angle of 3-5 deg. and fairly clear vision with
conical angle of 10-12 deg. Vision beyond
this range is usually blurred
• This is important when locating traffic
furniture and information devices
SIGN BOARED / TRAFFIC
Visual Reception (3)
▪ Peripheral vision: THE ABILITY OF VISION INSIDE THE 20 DEGREE ONLY

o Is the ability of people to see objects beyond the cone of clearest vision
o Although objects can be seen within this zone, details and color are not clear
o The cone for peripheral vision could be one subtending up to 160 deg.
o Speed of the vehicle and driver age influence peripheral vision
THE MORE THE SPEED INCRASE THE PERIPHERAL VISION ABILTY OF VISION DECREASE
Visual Reception (4)
▪ Peripheral vision:
Visual Reception (5)
▪ Color vision: COLOR BLINDNESS

o Is the ability to differentiate one color from another

o The deficiency in this ability referred to color blindness
o Is not of great significance in highway driving because
other ways of recognizing traffic information devices
(e.g. shape) can compensate for it
Visual Reception (6)
▪ Glare vision and recovery:
o Bright light or specular glare (both result in a decrease in visibility and cause
discomfort to the eyes)
o The time required the person to recover from the glare effect passing the light
source known as glare recovery. About 3 sec (dark to light), 6 sec (light to dark)
o Glare vision is of great importance during night driving; it contributes to the
problem of serving older people, who see much more poorly at night

How to
minimize
glare effect?
Visual Reception (7)
▪ Depth of perception
o The ability of the human eye to differentiate between objects in term of speed,
acceleration and distance
o Important on two-lane highways during passing manoeuvres (when head-on
crashes may result from a lack of proper judgment of speed and distance)
IMPORTANT IN (TWO LANE TWO WAY HIGHWAY)
ROUNDABOUNT
PASSANOUVER
INTERSECTION
Hearing Perception
▪ Warning sounds (usually given out
by emergency vehicles)
▪ Engine and tyre noise
▪ Loss of some hearing ability is not
a serious problem, since it
normally can be corrected by a
hearing aid
Perception-Reaction Process (1)
▪ It is the process through which a driver, pedestrian or cyclist evaluates
and reacts to a situation ahead perception reaction process is called perception reaction time > the
distance covered by vehicle is called perception reaction time

▪ It can be divided into 4 sub-processes: PIEV TIME,DISTANCE

IDRAK
The driver sees a control device, warning sign, or object on
1) Perception the road
FULLY UNDERSTAND THE CONDITION OR SITUTAION
The driver identifies the object or control device and thus
2) Identification understands the stimulus
DECIDE WHAT TO DO > DECSION STAGE
The driver decides what action to take; for example, to step
3) Emotion on the brake pedal, to pass, to swerve, or to change lanes
EXECUTE THE DECIDED ACTION ONCE YOU DO THE ACTION NOT COMPLETING IT

4) Reaction or Volition The driver executes the decided action

Perception-Reaction Process (2)
▪ The total time required for the 4 stages called
perception-reaction time or PIEV time
IT IMPORTANT TO FIND OUT THE BREAKING DISTANCE 85 AND 95 PERCENTILE

▪ The perception-reaction time is essential in the

determination of braking distance:
o Which in turn dictates the minimum sight distance
required on a highway and the length of the yellow
phase at a signalized intersection

▪ The perception-reaction time varies among

individuals and may, in fact, vary for the same
person as the occasion changes
Perception-Reaction Process (3)
▪ Factors affecting the perception-reaction time include:

Expected on
Situation Environmental
Age Fatigue unexpected
complexity condition
situation

KNOWN

▪ AASHTO stipulated PIEV time as 2.5 seconds (which covers 90% of

drivers under most highway conditions)
▪ PIEV time can increase up to 35% for the unexpected conditions
Perception-Reaction Process (4)

1 MILE > 5280 FEET

1 HOUR > 3600 SEC
Older Drivers Characteristics
▪ By 2030, 20% of U.S. drivers will be older drivers (65
years or older)
▪ At this age many of their needed senses and abilities
deteriorate rapidly, which will make them more at
risk to crashes and injuries
o Reduce visual acuity, night vision, greater sensitive to
glare, higher reaction times

▪ Special attention must be done in highway design

and operational characteristics to give them safer
environment
Pedestrian Characteristics
▪ Why pedestrian facilities?
o 20% of road fatalities include pedestrians
o The major of road fatalities aged under 15 and over 70 years are pedestrians

▪ Pedestrian characteristics may influence the design and location of

pedestrian control devices, which include:
o Pedestrian signals
o Islands at intersections (area of 1 ped.= 1.5x2 ft)
o Pedestrian under-passed and elevated walkways
o Crosswalks PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE
Pedestrian Control Devices

DENSITY OF PEDES

Crosswalks ZEBRA CROSS PRIORTY TO PED Pedestrian signals BASED ON SIGNAL

BIG SCALE ROADS

Elevated walkways Pedestrian under-passed

Pedestrian Characteristics
▪ Apart from visual and hearing details, walking characteristics play a
major part in the design
o Example: Adequate time for pedestrians’ signal crossing
▪ Walking speeds vary between 3.0 and 8.0 ft/sec
o Gender (male= 4.93 ft/sec, female= 4.63 ft/sec)
o For design purposes, 4.0 ft/sec is normally used
o When percentage of elderly pedestrians is
higher than 20%, a walking speed of 3.0 ft/sec
should be used for design
o Sometimes depends on location, How??
FOR DESIGN PADESTRIAN WE USALLY USE 4 FT/SEC BUT IN SOME CASES WE CONSIDER SLOW MOVMENT SO WE USE 3 FET/SEC
Pedestrian Characteristics

▪ Consideration should be given to handicapped pedestrians (e.g. blind):

o Bell ringing, tactile surface, dropped kerb and ramps for grade separated crosswalks
o Note their relative lower walking speed (1.97 to 3.66 ft/sec)
Pedestrian Characteristics: Examples
▪ Determine the time required to cross a road of 30 ft wide.

HERE IS V = 4 FT/SEC BUT IF CRITICAL AREA LIKE HOSPITAL V = 3FT/SEC

▪ A pedestrian waiting area is 10x8 ft, determine the maximum

number of pedestrians that can use this space at one time?
Vehicle Characteristics
EACH HIGHWAY HAVE ITS DESIGN VEHICLE
TRACKS CAN BE NAMED HEAVY GOOD VEHCILE
RADIUS AND WEDITH OF ROAD TO BE CONSIDERED
THE HAVIEST VEHICLE IS THE CONSIDERED TO DESIGN
ONLY U TURN IS CONSIDERED IN THE DESIGN FOR THE HGV

▪ Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly based on the
static, kinematic and dynamic characteristics of vehicles
▪ Nearly all highways carry both passenger and truck traffic:
o Therefore, it is essential that design criteria take into account the characteristics of
different types of vehicles
o Proper design should lead to smooth and safe operations (passing, stopping and
turning)
Vehicle Characteristics
▪ Designing a highway involves the
selection of a design vehicle:
o Whose characteristics will encompass
those of nearly all vehicles expected to use
the highway
o The characteristics of the design vehicle
are then used to determine criteria for
geometric design, intersection design, and
sight-distance requirements
 EVERY
WE DONT HAVE STRAIGHT ROADS BECAUSE TO HELP THE DRINGE SYSTEM

Static Characteristics (1)

IN CARRYING WATER

THE WEIGHT IS IMPORTANT TO CARRY THE LOAD IN THE MAXIMUM GRID LENGTH AND WIDTH ARE IMPOTANT TO MEASURE THE GRID
USUALLY 10- 12% OF THE lane

▪ Static characteristics include the weight and size of HIGHT

the vehicle Weight

THE DEPTH OF THE PAVEMENT DEPENDS ON THE WEIGHT OF THE VEHICLE

▪ The size of the design vehicle is an important factor in

the determination of design standards for several
physical components of the highway: Static
o These include lane width, shoulder width, length and width of characteristics

parking bays
▪ The weight of the vehicles expected on a highway are
important to determine pavement depth and
Size
maximum grades
Static Characteristics (2)
Static Characteristics (3)
 ITEMS RLATED TO MOTION SPEED OF CAR > ABILITY TO ACCLERATE > DEACCELERATE

Kinematic Characteristics
▪ Kinematic characteristics involve the motion of the vehicle without
considering the forces that act on a vehicle

▪ The primary element among kinematic characteristics is the

acceleration capability of the vehicle:
o Acceleration capability is important in several traffic operations, such as passing
manoeuvres and gap acceptance
o Acceleration influence the elements of motion, such as speed and distance
o The higher the speed situation, the lower capability of acceleration
DECCELRATE
 THINGS THAT APPLY TO VEHICLE DURING MOTION

Dynamic Characteristics (1) HAVE AFFECTION DURING DESIGN

▪ Dynamic characteristics involve the forces that act on a vehicle while

moving
▪ Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion:
MORE SPEED > AIR RESISTANCE INCRASE
PROPERTIONAL CONCEPT

HIGHER CROSS SECTIONAL AREA

> HIGHER AIR RESISTANCE

AIR RESISTANCE ALWAYS OPPOSITE

DIRECTION TO MOTION
Air Grade Rolling Curve
resistance resistance resistance resistance

▪ The extents to which these forces affect the operation of the vehicle
are discussed in the next slides
Dynamic Characteristics (2)
▪ Air Resistance:
o The force required to overcome the resistance of the air in front of vehicles and
sides
o It is related to the cross-sectional area of the vehicle in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of motion and speed
Dynamic Characteristics (3)
HIGHER GRADE > HIGHER RESISTANCE

▪ Grade Resistance:
o When moving upgrade, a component of the weight of the vehicle acts
downward
o This creates a force acting in a direction opposite that of the motion. This force
is the grade resistance
o A vehicle traveling upgrade will therefore tend to lose speed unless an
accelerating force is applied
o Higher grade vs. Lower grade?
Dynamic Characteristics (4)
▪ Rolling Resistance FRICTION FORCE IS PART OF ROLLING RESISTANCE

o There are forces within the vehicle itself that offer resistance to motion
o These forces are due mainly to frictional effect on moving parts of the vehicle, but
they also include the frictional slip between the pavement surface and tires
o The sum effect of these forces on motion is known as rolling resistance
o The rolling resistance depends on the speed and the type of pavement. Rolling
forces are relatively lower on smooth pavements than on rough pavements
Dynamic Characteristics (5)
▪ Curve Resistance:
THERE IS RELATION BETWEEN SPEED AND CURVE REISTANCE
HIGHER RADIUS AS THE RADIUS INCREASE CURVE RESISTANCE
BALANCE BETWEEN WEIGHT AND CURVE RESISTANCE CONSIDEREING THE RADIUS

o External forces acting on the front wheels of

a vehicle when its manoeuvred to take a
curve
o These forces have components that have a
retarding effect on the forward motion of the
vehicle. The sum effect of these components
constitutes the curve resistance
o This resistance depends on the radius of the
curve, speed and the weight of the vehicle
Dynamic Characteristics (6)
▪ Power Requirement:
o The horsepower needed to overcome air, grade, curve and friction resistance
forces to put the vehicle in motion

▪ Where:
o P= horsepower delivered (hp)
o R= sum of resistance forces (Ib)
o u= speed of vehicle (mi/h)
Dynamic Characteristics (7)

THE POWER REQUIRERED BY ENGINE

TO PASS AND OVERCOME THE RSISTANCE POWER
Braking Distance Db (1)
▪ The action of the forces (shown in Figure 3.6) on the moving
vehicle and the effect of perception-reaction time are used to
determine the braking distance

▪ The braking distance is the

horizontal component of distance
travelled during the braking
o From time the brake is applied to the
time the vehicle comes to rest
Braking Distance Db (2)
Braking Distance Db (3)
▪ A general equation for the braking distance can be written as:

▪ Where:
o Db = braking distance (ft)
o u = speed when brakes applied (mi/h)
o f = coefficient of friction between tires and pavement = a/g
o a = vehicle comfort declaration rate= 11.2 ft/sec2
o g = acceleration of gravity= 32.2 ft/sec2
o G = grade (% grade/ 100)
Braking Distance Db (4)
Braking Distance Db (5)
Braking Distance Db (6)
Estimate of Velocities (1)
Estimate of Velocities (2)

▪ Where:
o Uu = unknown speed before applying the break (mi/h)
o Db = braking distance (average of skid marks) (ft)
o Uk = speed of trial run (mi/h)
o Dk = distance travelled during trial run (ft)
o U1= the speed at the moment of impact (mi/h)
Estimate of Velocities (3)
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve (1)
▪ When a vehicle is moving around a circular curve, there will be two
radial forces acting on the vehicle:
o Outer radial force (centrifugal force) PUSH OUT THE CAR FROM THE CENTER

o Inner radial force (the side frictional force + the component of the vehicle weight)

▪ At high speeds, the outer radial force is greater the inner one
▪ Inclination of the road toward the center of the curve is used (called
superelevation, e) to provide balance effect between the two force
components
▪ Speed and radius should provide equilibrium
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve (2)
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve (3)
▪ The centrifugal force (Fc) is:

▪ Where:
o ac= acceleration for curvilinear motion = u2/R
o R = radius of the curve
o u = speed of the vehicle
o W= weight of the vehicle
o g = acceleration of gravity
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve (4)
▪ The Inner radial force:
o Acting toward the centre of the curvature
o Depends on the weight of the vehicle, type of pavement, an side friction (fs)
between road surface an tires.

The Inner radial force =

▪ Where:
o fs = coefficient of side friction
o W = weight of the vehicle
o α = angle of incline
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve (5)
The minimum radius of circular curve (R) for a vehicle travelling at u (mi/h) can be
determined by considering the equilibrium of the vehicle with respect to its moving
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve (7)
▪ The values used for side friction fs generally vary with the design
speed and the superelevation
▪ Table 3.3 gives values recommended by AASHTO for use in design
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve (8)
▪ Factors controlling the max. value for the rate of superelevation:
o The location of the highway (urban or rural area)
o The existence of adverse weather conditions (e.g. the occurrence of snow)
o The distribution of slow-moving vehicles within the traffic stream

▪ For highways in rural areas with good weather (emax = 0.10)

▪ For highways in rural areas with bad weather (e = 0.08 to 0.10)
▪ For expressways in urban areas (emax = 0.08)
▪ Because of the relatively low speeds on local urban roads, these roads
are usually not superelevated
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve (9)
Road Characteristics
▪ The characteristics of the highway discussed in this section are
those related directly to the characteristics of the driver and the
vehicle
▪ Geometric design of highways will be discussed in later chapters
Sight Distance (1)
▪ Sight Distance (SD) is the length of
the roadway a driver can see ahead
at any particular time
▪ The SD available at each point of
the highway must be such that:
o When a driver is traveling at the design
speed, adequate time is given after an
object is observed in the vehicle’s path
to make the necessary maneuvers
without colliding with the object
Sight Distance (2)
▪ The two types of sight distance are:

Stopping Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance

(SSD) (PSD)
Stopping Sight Distance (1)
▪ The SSD is the minimum SD required for a driver to stop a vehicle
after seeing an object in the vehicle’s path without hitting that object

Perception
Reaction Braking
SSD
Process Distance
Distance

▪ It is essential that highways be designed such that sight distance

along the highway is at least equal to the SSD
Stopping Sight Distance (2)
Perception
Reaction Braking
SSD
Process Distance
Distance
Stopping Sight Distance (3)
Stopping Sight Distance (4)
▪ The SSDs given in Table 3.4 are usually adequate for normal
conditions (PIEV time= 2.5 sec)
o However, unexpected or unusual maneuvers required longer SSDs since the
perception-reaction time is much longer
o This longer sight distance is the “decision sight distance”

▪ The decision sight distances depend on:

o The type of maneuver required to avoid the hazard on the road
o on whether the road is located in a rural or urban area
Stopping Sight Distance (5)

▪ Table 3.5 gives AASHTO’s

recommended decision
sight distance values for
different avoidance
maneuvers, which can be
used for design
Passing Sight Distance (1)
▪ The PSD is the minimum SD required on a two-lane, two-way highway
that will permit a driver to complete a passing maneuver without
colliding with an opposing vehicle and without cutting off the passed
vehicle

▪ In determining minimum PSDs for

design purposes, only single
passes are considered
Passing Sight Distance (21)
▪ To determine the min. PSD, certain assumptions have to be made related
the movement of the passing vehicle during a passing maneuver:
If decision is made
to pass, the A suitable
The speed of the On arrival at a passing vehicle is clearance exists
passing vehicle is passing section, accelerated during between the
The vehicle being some time elapses
reduced and is the passing passing vehicle and
passed (impeder) during which the
behind the maneuver, and the any opposing
is travelling at driver decides
impeder as the whether to average passing vehicle when the
uniform speed
passing section is undertake the speed is about 10 passing vehicle re-
entered passing maneuver. mi/h more than enters the right
the speed of the lane
impeder vehicle

▪ These assumptions have been used by AASHTO to develop a min. PSD

requirement for two-lane, two-way highways
Passing Sight Distance (3)
▪ The minimum PSD is the total of four components as shown below:

▪ Where:
o d1 = distance traveled during perception-reaction time
o d2 = distance traveled during the time the passing vehicle is traveling in the left lane
o d3 = distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the end of the passing maneuver
o d4 = distance moved by the opposing vehicle during two thirds of the time the passing vehicle is in the left lane
(usually taken to be 2/3 d2)
Passing Sight Distance (4)
Passing Sight Distance (5)
▪ Table 3.6 shows the
components calculated
for different speeds