KOM 3431 Comm.

Research Method

“Sampling & Generalizability ”

By: Dr. Tham Jen Sern

Why conduct surveys?
• A research tool & instrument
• Very popular for social science research
• Beliefs, attitudes, behaviours, demographic composition,
understanding, etc.
• Data that describe one or more characteristics of a specific
population.
• E.g., universities need data from graduates to improve the
current curriculum and student services based on changes;
companies in service line need data to improve their quality of
service and product, etc.
Surveys can be…
 Advantages and Disadvantages (Advantages)

• To investigate problems in realistic settings

• Cost is relatively low as a researcher can use either
mail, telephone, personal interview, group
administration and the Internet
• Large amount of data can be collected
• Can be conducted almost everywhere
• Archive – primary sources or secondary
 Advantages and Disadvantages (Disadvantages)

• IV cannot be manipulated
• Inappropriate wording or placement of questions – guiding the
respondents to collect the desired information
• Response rates continue to decline due to the nature of the
research
Types
 Steps
1. Identify a research topic
2. Conduct a review of the literature
3. Research objective(s)
4. Develop research question(s) & hypotheses
5. Develop the survey
1. Constructing questions
2. Cover letter
3. Consent form
4. Validity test
5. Pilot test
6. Reliability test
6. Administer survey
7. Data coding
8. Analyzing data
9. Interpreting data
Construction of questions (basic rules)
1. Understanding the goals/objectives of the project/research
2. Questions should be clear and unambiguous (validity)
3. Questions must accurately communicate what is required from the
respondents
4. Don’t assume respondents understand the questions you are asked
5. Questionnaire design depends on the choice of data collection
technique (e.g., mail survey– easy to read; telephone survey—
cannot use long lists of response options, etc.)
Construction of questions (cont…)
• Types of questions (i.e., closed-ended or open-ended)
• Selection-type items (Likert, ranked, checklist)
• Define or explain ambiguous terms. E.g., Do you spend a lot of time
each week studying Science?
• Avoiding leading questions = don’t you agree…
• Avoid sensitive questions = did you have sex during the past two
weeks? Do you watch porn movies? What is your annual income?
• Do not ask double-barreled questions = “and”
External Validity
Sampling
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Systematic sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• All individuals in the defined population have an equal and
independent chance of selection for the sample.
• Is completely out of the researcher’s control
• So, every individual has the same probability of being selected
• The sample may not have the exact same ratio of males to females,
but the ration will be close
Stratified random sampling
• Some populations can be subdivided into subgroups. For example,…?
• Strata/stratum
• Strategically select participants from each subgroup (equal selection)
• It’s good if the research goal is to compare the behaviour of
participants from different subgroups of the population.
Difference between stratified and cluster
samplings
• Stratified = must have an equal selection from each group that is
proportionate to the population.

• Cluster = does not have to be equal; however, the cluster should be as

close to the same size as possible.
Cluster sampling

• Intact groups, not individuals, are randomly selected

• Examples: classrooms, schools, hospitals,
neighborhood, etc.
Systematic sampling
• Sample members from a larger population are selected according to a
random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval
• Calculated by dividing the population size by the desired sample size
• For example, if you wanted to select a random group of 1,000 people
from a population of 50,000 using systematic sampling, you would
simply select every 50th person, since 50,000/1,000 = 50.
Non-random sample / non-probability
sampling
• Does not permit the researcher to specify the
probability, or chance, that each member of a
population has of being selected for the sample
• It is usually difficult to describe the population from
which a sample was drawn and to whom results can be
generalised.
• Cannot generalize drawn sample to the population
Convenience sampling
• Including whoever happens to be available at the time
• Seeking volunteers and studying existing groups “just
because they are there”
• E.g., in a shopping complex
Purposive sampling
• is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose
• A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level
business executives
• Main difference between CONVENIENCE and PURPOSIVE is that the
former selects participants who happen to be available, while the
latter is which the research deliberately identifies criteria
Quota sampling
• deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample
• Select a sample based on required, exact numbers or quotas.
• E.g., 35 1st year students who are currently studying corporate
communication
• Data are obtained from easily accessible individuals
Snowball sampling
• identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in
your study
• ask them to recommend others who they may know who
also meet the criteria
• useful when you are trying to reach populations that are
inaccessible or hard to find
• E.g., marginalised groups
 Determining sample size (Yamane, 1967)
#
!=
1 + #& '
In which:
•n = required sample size
•N = the population size
•e = Type-1 error/alpha (0.05)
Thank you