Regional Study on Mapping Education Policy Challenges in Southeast

Europe
1st DRAFT
Research project Regional Study on Mapping Education Policy Challenges in Southeast
title: Europe

Timeframe: June - October 2018

Status: First draft
Date of delivery: October 8th 2018
Client: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES) in Southeast Europe
Consultant: proMENTE social research
Research Andrea Soldo
coordinator:
Research team: Hana Zylfiu-Haziri, Igor Repac, Katarina Mišetić, Milica Krulanović, Rozeta
Hoxhallari, Suzana Kirandziska, Vera Spasenović, Vlatka Domović

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Contents

1 Executive summary ............................................................................................................................... 4

2 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Aim of the Study and Methodology .............................................................................................. 5
3 Background ........................................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Context .......................................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 General overview of education systems ..................................................................................... 18
4 Findings ............................................................................................................................................... 28
5 Conclusion & Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 50
6 Annexes ............................................................................................................................................... 53
6.1 Methodology............................................................................................................................... 53
6.2 Country Context Data Profiles .................................................................................................... 59
6.3 Key Milestones ............................................................................................................................ 59
7 Graphics/Tables .................................................................................................................................. 59

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1 Executive summary
TBA - Description, major findings, key policy recommendations

2 Introduction
Formal schooling by and large is organized and controlled by the government. This
means that by its very nature the entire schooling process – how it is paid for, what
goals it seeks to attain and how these goals will be measured, who has power over it,
what textbooks are approved, who does well in schools and who does not, who has
the right to ask and answer these questions, and so on – is by definition political.
Thus, as inherently part of a set of political institutions, the educational system will
constantly be in the middle of crucial struggles over the meaning of democracy, over
definitions of legitimate authority and culture, and over who should benefit the most
from government policies and practices.

(Apple 2003: 1)

Education is seen as crucial in process of building democratic societies, with a key role in the
transmission of ‘knowledge and skills and, as important, attitudes and values’ (Barr 2012: 266).
Positive externalities deriving from education are abundant and diverse, encompassing the
economic sphere (e.g. faster economic growth, increased productivity of workers and co-
workers) and the social sphere, e.g. stronger social cohesion (Brennan et al., 2013).

However, access to education and availability of quality education is often unevenly distributed
across social groups. The growing evidence of the correlation between pupils’ socio-economic
backgrounds and their educational attainment (Barr 2012: 266) suggests that – in the absence of
inclusive systems – education may in fact reproduce and exacerbate social differences, rather
than decrease them.
If high quality education tends to be disproportionally available to those who ‘can afford it’ –
either in terms of financial endowment or ability to access and process information – societies
risk to become more and more segmented. Further, if primary education is not inclusive,
evidence suggests that the social and learning gap between more and less advantaged pupils
developed in the early schooling years is unlikely to be bridged in the future, and, rather, it will
persist throughout a lifetime (Feinstein, 2003; Hanusheck and Wössmann, 2006).

The design of systems of selection may affect inequality of educational outcomes and the access
to jobs (Kogan and Unt, 2005; Brunello and Checchi, 2007; Bartlett, 2009). Further, while inclusive
education is essentially about understanding and promoting the needs of all the pupils attending
school regardless of their economic, social, or ethnic background, it also implies recognising and
valuing the needs of all the stakeholders that are part of an education system (e.g. teachers,
policy makers, civil society representatives).

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The way education systems operate and how they are govern is what makes an education policy
and that policy is high on the agenda of governments across the world.

As Bell and Stevenson (2006) describe and explain in their book Education Policy: Process, Themes
and Impact, global pressures focus increasingly attention on the outcomes of education policy
and on their implications for economic prosperity and social citizenship.
What led to that is a global shift to supply-side economics, which has effectively elevated
education policy to a pivotal element of economic policy with the development of human capital
being perceived as central to the creation of economic growth.
However, education policy has always been about much more than economic policy, it is social
policy too.
As Bell and Stevenson (2006) point out, education has a crucial role in promoting a sense of
individual and collective welfare and through this a sense of social cohesion. Education plays an
important role in developing a sense of citizenship. Therefore, education is more than the
production of human capital. It is about values and beliefs, ethics, social justice and the very
nature of society both now and in the future.

Research around the world is contributing to an increasingly rich understanding of how

educational institutions are led and managed. However, it is important to recognize that
educational leadership does not exist in a vacuum – it is exercised in a policy context, shaped
decisively by its historical and cultural location. Therefore, it is important, that policy analysis
adequately reflect wider policy environment (Bell and Stevenson, 2006).

2.1 Aim of the Study and Methodology

The aim of the research study was to provide an overview of development trajectories and flesh
out challenges, potentials, and research needs of education policy at all education levels in eight
countries in Southeast Europe (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, FYR
Macedonia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Serbia).

Research questions at the focus of the research included the following:

 What are the values contained within the education policy?

 Are education systems contributing to social justice and equality?
 Are education systems contributing to responsible citizenship and democratic activism?
 Are education systems empowering people to get decent work?

In order to find answers on these questions the following topics were overviewed and explored:
general state of education systems, access to education, valorisation of education, civic education
and participation and school – work transition.

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A comparative qualitative methodological design has been applied which included elaborate desk
research and individual semi–structured interviews with relevant stakeholders from each
respective country (for more details please see Data collection plan and List of interviewees in
Annex).
Qualitative data analysis included narrative analysis of interview notes and transcripts and
framework and content analysis of available secondary data which further include classifying,
summarizing and tabulating the data.

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3 Background

3.1 Context

General political, economic and demographic characteristics of the region

In the last three decades, there have been dramatic and significant changes in the political
systems, economies and societies of Southeastern Europe (SEE). At the beginning of 1990s,
political map of the region was redrawn as newly reconstituted states have emerged (all
countries, except Albania, covered by this study were part of the Former Yugoslavia). Countries
experienced wars during the transformation period, resulting in devastating effects in all spheres
of political, economic and social life (ed. Bassler, 2005).

Many observers interpreted the collapse of the socialist bloc as an ultimate triumph of the West,
pointing to the monumental replacement of the socialist system by Western capitalism -
multiparty system was established, free market reforms were initiated and efforts toward a
democratic system started.

However, post-war transition period was burdened with the material destruction of the territory
combined with a negative demographic trend in general, a high unemployment rate, a large
number of people who got early retirements, and a very unfavourable educational structure. The
generally unfavourable situation has been aggravated by psychological factors such as high
expectations and hopes that changes of formal political and institutional environment would lead
to social and economic welfare (Domović & Vizek Vidović, 2015).
Major changes set the countries on distinctly different trajectories of post-conflict
transformations.

Country
Statehood Income Group EU membership status
Code
Candidate country*
in the aftermath of the Revolutions of 1991, Upper middle
ALB (awarded candidate status
the fourth Republic of Albania was established income
in June 2014)
proclaimed independence in 1992, which was Upper middle
BiH Potential candidate**
followed by the war income
proclaimed independence in 1991, which was EU member country (since
HRV High income
followed by the war July 2013)
Candidate country (the
Upper middle
MKD proclaimed independence in 1991 accession negotiations
income
opened in October 2009)
Candidate country (the
in 2006 declared independence from the State Upper middle
MNE accession negotiations
Union of Serbia and Montenegro income
started in June 2012)

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 Country
Statehood Income Group EU membership status
Code
declared independence in April 1992 as Serbia Candidate country (the
Upper middle
SRB formed a union with Montenegro which was accession negotiations
income
peacefully dissolved in 2006 opened in June 2013)
EU member country (since
SVN proclaimed independence in 1991 High income
May 2004)
Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence
Lower middle
XKX from Serbia in February 2008, which was Potential candidate
income
preceded by the war
* Candidate country - These countries are in the process of 'transposing' (or integrating) EU legislation into national law
** Potential candidate countries do not yet fulfil the requirements for EU membership

So, for example, in case of Albania, after the fall of communism, rapid economic growth led to
social change through an increase of income level, steep drop in poverty, internal rural to urban
migration as well as large-scale migration to neighbouring countries for better employment
opportunities. The transition from a centrally planned to a market-oriented economy, together
with abundant international aid and other strategic assistance over the past decades, has helped
Albania make economic progress. Due to strong growth performance, Albania grew from the
poorest nation in Europe in the early 1990s to middle-income status in 2008, with poverty
declining by half during that period and currently an upper middle-income country (World Bank,
country overview).

Other example are Slovenia and Croatia which became members of the European Union that
brought about changes in the political, economic and social system, emphasising ideas of liberal
democracy, political pluralism, market economy and civil society (Prpić, 1993, Godler and
Domović, 1999).
Before it was dragged into a deep recession by the European financial crisis, Slovenia was long
regarded as one of the best-performing new EU members. After a slow recovery from 2014
onwards, GDP of Slovenia is rising again. Slovenia's labour force survey unemployment rate fell
to 6.6% in 2017, the lowest since 2009 when it stood at 5.9%.1

On the other hand, there is an example of Kosovo. Although Kosovo’s economic growth has
outperformed its neighbours and been largely inclusive, it has not been sufficient to significantly
reduce the high rates of unemployment; provide formal jobs, particularly for women and youth;
or reverse the trend of large-scale outmigration.
When it comes to unemployment, similar case is with Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
According to Labour Force Survey, unemployment rate in 2018 in BiH was the highest among
young persons aged 15 to 24 years, 38.8% (35.4% for men and 45.5% for women). The
educational structure of unemployed persons shows that the 71.8% persons have finished the

1
http://www.stat.si/StatWeb/en/News/Index/7340

8
secondary school, followed by persons who finished the basic or lower education 14.9% and
persons who have graduated from college, university or have postgraduate degree 13.3%2.

As it can be seen from the tables and graphs below, countries, which are the subjects of this
study, differ between themselves and we must be aware of those differences while trying to
explain and understand certain issues.

Population size
8,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
ALB BiH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

Men Women

GDP (current US$)

70000

60000

50000
Millions

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

ALB BIH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

*GDP at purchaser's prices is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product
taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions
for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Data are in current U.S.
dollars. Dollar figures for GDP are converted from domestic currencies using single year official exchange rates. For

2
Agencija za statistiku Bosne i Hercegovine, Anketa o radnoj snazi 2018.

9
a few countries where the official exchange rate does not reflect the rate effectively applied to actual foreign
exchange transactions, an alternative conversion factor is used.

GDP growth (annual %)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

ALB BIH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

*Annual percentage growth rate of GDP at market prices based on constant local currency. Aggregates are based on
constant 2010 U.S. dollars. GDP is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any
product taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products. It is calculated without making
deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources.

Employment rate in % (population aged 15+)

100
90
80
70 60.6 61.4 63.6
57.2 59.2
60
50
40
30
20 26.9 28.0 29.8
25.2
10
0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

ALB BiH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

10
 Unemployment rate in % (population aged 15+)
100
90
80
70
60
50
35.3 32.9
40 30.5
27.5
30
20
10
0 10.1 9.8 9.0 8.0 6.6
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

ALB BiH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

When comparing gross average monthly wages for the last five years (across all sectors) between
countries, we can see that the lowest average wage can be found in Albania, and highest in
Slovenia.

Gross average monthly wage, USD

2500
2051.9
1946.7
1868.3
2000 1745.5 1765.7

1500

1000

500
440.4 387.0 387.8 417.2
0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

ALB BIH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

At the same time, Slovenia has the lowest Gini index among the eight countries.

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 Gini index
40
32.7 33.6
35 31.9
29 29.8 30
30 26.13
23.7
25
20
15
10
5
0
ALB BiH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

Gini index

*Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income (or, in some cases, consumption expenditure)
among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A Lorenz curve
plots the cumulative percentages of total income received against the cumulative number of recipients, starting with
the poorest individual or household. The Gini index measures the area between the Lorenz curve and a hypothetical
line of absolute equality, expressed as a percentage of the maximum area under the line. Thus, a Gini index of 0
represents perfect equality, while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality.

Lowest poverty rate i.e. the percentage of the population living below the national poverty line
is registered for Montenegro (8.6%), while highest, around 25%, is registered for Serbia where
those aged 18 – 24 are the most exposed to the poverty risk, similarly as those up to 18,while the
persons aged 65 have the lowest at-risk-of-poverty rate.
Important factor that contributes in decrease of poverty is the level of education. Data from
Kosovo (2015) illustrate that: more than one third of persons who have not completed
compulsory education live in poor households, compared to 12% of persons with higher
education qualifications. Nearly two thirds of poor persons have less than secondary school
qualification.

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 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines
30
25.5
25
21.5
% of population

19.5
20 17.6
16.9
14.3 14.3
15

10 8.6

0
ALB (2012) BIH (2015) HRV (2015) MKD (2015) MNE (2013) SRB (2015) SVN (2014) XKX (2015)

*National poverty headcount ratio is the percentage of the population living below the national poverty lines.
National estimates are based on population-weighted subgroup estimates from household surveys.

Illiteracy rate (%)

10

3.62 3.85
4
2.82
2.40
1.96
2 1.50
0.70
0.30
0
ALB BiH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

Illiteracy rate

The biggest share of illiterate persons can be found among older women (65+) from which
majority live in rural areas.

When it comes to ethnic composition of the countries, more than half of the countries are
ethnically rather homogenous. Exceptions are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and
Montenegro.

In the former Yugoslavia the members of all federative republics were considered as nationalities.
The change of status of these groups from nationality to the status of national minority (“new
minorities”) has been a challenge for most governments to work out a more appropriate model

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 of realisation of minority rights that would encompass the new national minorities with the
existing ones (such as Hungarians, Italians or Czechs, Ukrainians etc.).
Country Albanians Others (Greeks, Romani, Macedonians, Balkan Egyptians, Unknown
Serbs-Montenegrins)
ALB 82.58 1.91 15.51

Country Bosniaks Serbs Croats Others

BiH 50.11 30.78 15.43 3.68

Country Croats Serbs Others (Bosnians, Italians, Albanians, Roma and others)
HRV 90.42 4.36 5.22

Country Macedonians Albanians Turks Roma Serbs Others

MKD 64.2 25.2 3.9 2.7 1.8 2.2

Country Montenegrins Serbs Bosniaks Albanians Muslims Roma Others (Croats, Serbs- Unknown
Montenegrins, Egyptians,
Russians and others)
MNE 44.98 28.73 8.65 4.91 3.31 1.01 3.36 5.06

Country Serbs Others (Hungarians, Roma, Bosniaks and others) Unknown

SRB 83.30 13.33 3.37

Country Slovenians Others (Hungarians, Italians, Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Albanians, Unknown
Macedonians, Montenegrins, Roma)
SVN 83.10 8.00 8.90

Country Albanians Serbs Turkish Bosniaks Other (Roma, Ashkali, Egyptians, Gorans and Unknown
other)
XKX 92.93 1.47 1.08 1.58 2.79 0.15

More than 50% of the population lives in urban municipalities/settlements and what is also in
common is that demographic development demonstrates negative characteristics or
characteristics of stagnation in all countries.

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Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia
are thus approaching demographic trends that characterize the developed countries of Europe.
The delayed or negative demographic development of the SEE countries is reflected in reduction
or stagnation of the total population, the process of population aging and negative indicators of
population reproduction.

So, for example, in the next 65 years, the age structure of Slovenia's population is expected to
change significantly. In 2015, the elderly (aged 65 or more) stood for 17.9% of the population,
while in 2057 this share is projected to be at nearly 31%, and in 2080 at 29%. 3
In Croatia the number of older persons is significantly higher than the number of younger persons
as well. In 2001 those age groups were almost equal in their number, and in 2011 there were
62% more older people than children. Based on trends and projections a significant decline in the
population of Croatia can be expected in the decades to follow. According to a projection
conducted by means of the cohort - component method for closed population (not including
migration), in 2031 Croatia will have 3,680,750 inhabitants. Thus, in thirty years’ time (2001 is the
initial year of the projection) the number of inhabitants will have diminished by 756,710 or 17.1%.
Data from Serbia confirms the same issue. Comparing the period from 2006 to 2016, the number
of inhabitants decreased by 353247 and the average annual growth rate was –4.9 per 1.000
inhabitants. The population is constantly getting older, with the mean age of inhabitants of 43
years (males – 41.6 and females – 44.4). The share of young people under 15 in the total
population (14.4% in 2017) is lower compared to the share of the group aged over 65 (19.6%).

All these political, economic and demographic changes affect how education policies are being
created and implemented.

Perception and valorisation of education

After the World War II education was considered as “one of the most important activities for the
reconstruction and development of the country” and identified as a key priority in the post-war
period.

Socialist education governance, which was introduced, imposed a layer of uniformity but at the
same time, the underlying cultural diversity of the region was never fully eradicated in the
schools. The system attempted to introduce measure of social equality and mass educational
opportunity, even if those measures were arguably compromised by episodes of repression,
corruption that spread in the post-war era and political favouritism (Silova and Eklof, 2013).

However, a particular emphasis was given to primary education in order to provide basic
education to a population which was for the large majority poor and living in rural areas. Although
imperfect, the nationwide system of free compulsory education helped to serve as a mortar that

3
http://www.stat.si/StatWeb/en/News/Index/6584

15
bound the multi-ethnic states together with a communist-socialist ideology, as the schools were
open to all children regardless of their religious, ethnic, or social background.

Being educated and skilled usually meant a guaranteed job, which was directly linked to better
social status, better reputation and respect in society and all that together, led to a higher
valorisation of education and high trustworthiness in education (system) among the citizens.

With the crisis of socialism in the late 1980s, and afterwards during post-socialist transformation
of society, pseudo-meritocratic model of social reproduction became more pronounced.

We still see in this area, at least that is my idea basically, the influence of social
reproduction. The expectations in the eyes of parents related to their children are
related to the social status of parents. So if I am from lower working class, than my
parents would less frequently expect the higher education, then it would be in the
opposite case. Parents from new middle class in Slovenia cannot imagine their kids
not to reach at least the degree they have reached. So this is sociologically typical
example of social reproduction which is not due the fact that there are no enough
places in higher education for all of the age cohort in Slovenia. For at least two last
decades we have enough places all around the country (although here it is more the
question of quality of these provisions, in some of these institutions). But the question
is what do I as a parent expect from my child? How much am I prepared to invest?
How do I see the risks and the opportunities out of this prolonged education?

Slavko Gaber associate professor at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana

(Slovenia)

Perception of education by the citizens became quite ambiguous.

Generally speaking, it could be said that education is still valued within the society and it is
perceived as an important condition for getting an employment and for social inclusion. On the
other hand, research data from Serbia, indicate a steady decline in the significance to social
promotion the young people attribute to education (Mojić, according to Tomanović & Stanojević,
2015).
Similar evidence can be found in Slovenia where latest TIMMS4 results showed that, despite the
good overall results, Slovenian pupils have remarkably low attitudes toward knowledge and
learning in comparison to their peers elsewhere.5

In addition, there is a growing conviction that employment and success in life depend on other
factors (acquaintances, closeness to ruling party, etc.), meaning that level of education is not
perceived as crucial or as of vital importance.

4
http://novice.pei.si/?page_id=1719
5
http://novice.pei.si/?page_id=1719

16
In most of the countries, such are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia,
Serbia, there is a high tendency and interest in obtaining a higher education diploma. This should
indicate higher level of valorisation of education and better quality of education, but, on the
contrary, it is more the consequence of the entrance of private capital, dispersed studies and too
many faculties in some areas, on one side, and lack of possibilities for employment, on the other.

The desire for diploma is not new, but the background of diploma has changed. If in
the past the emphasize was on knowledge that one has to gain in order to reach
diploma, nowadays there is more emphasize on diploma itself, no matter what kind
of knowledge is behind the diploma.
Janez Vogrinc, Dean of the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia)

School is much more important culturally than in reality. Immediately upon

completion of secondary education, parents send their children to higher education
even though they have not seen any big benefits, simply to be at school, as other
options is scary unemployment statistics… Therefore, I can say that culturally school
is considered as a value, but do not know how long it will maintain this status.
Gerda Sula, education expert, university professor and CSO representative (Albania)

Studying became a certain type of social protection. However, that prolonged

education is not indicator of quality, although it could and it should be.

Dženana Trbić, Program coordinator, Open Society Fund (Bosnia and Herzegovina)

Education presents a social segment of vital importance and that is why it is so important for all
interested parties in education to work on its development.

We are facing a situation where people are divided in two groups; the first one is
nostalgic about the values of traditional system and the second one is disappointed
and sees no hope in believing in existence of any values.
Whatever is offered in the education system and especially in higher education
institutions has nothing to do with values.
Osman Buleshkaj, Education Expert (Kosovo)

Some of the biggest questions now are: do these societies perceive education as something
which is in itself valuable, what are the values that education is embedded in and whether
the economy and national competitiveness based discourse is the only one we should strive for?

But in long term perspective, the question that is arriving in this country as part of
European cultural space is: what for do we educate?
Slavko Gaber, associate professor at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana
(Slovenia)

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3.2 General overview of education systems

Approach to education (founding, basic principles of the education systems and goals of
education)

Constitution, relevant laws, bylaws and strategic acts guarantee right to education, under equal
conditions and without discrimination and separation in all countries, covered by this study.
Education is designated by legislation as a public good in the care of the state. It is considered as
part of public service and it is provided by accredited public and private institutions and
individuals.

The primary goal of the education system is to provide optimal development of the individual,
irrespective of gender, social and cultural background, religion, racial, ethnic or national origin,
and regardless of their physical and mental constitution or physical and mental disability.

Among other general principles of the education systems are: student-centred education which
meets children, students and adults needs, fostering motivation and raising quality of educational
outcomes; respect for the human rights and education in a democratic and socially responsible
institution; lifelong learning; competency-based education; horizontal and vertical mobility
through the system; participation of all stakeholders in education policy development and
implementation…
In realization of those principles, special attention should be focused on cooperation with
parents, local community and wider social environment; supporting the transition of students to
the next educational level and their continuity in education; opportunities for children/students
with disabilities and from vulnerable groups to have access to all levels of education; reduction
of dropout rates etc.
Overall, pre-university education aims to help students gain and develop knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values required by a democratic society; to develop intellectually, ethically,
physically, socially and aesthetically; gain civic and cultural values, develop the spirit of
entrepreneurship, use new technologies and get prepared for lifelong learning, facing life
challenges and working in different social and cultural contexts.
Structure and jurisdiction

The structure of education systems covers preschool, primary, secondary and higher education.

The education systems are organised mainly as a public service rendered by public and private
institutions and private providers holding a concession who implement officially recognised or
accredited programmes.

Concerning the governance of public institutions, the state/regional and the local communities
have several roles given that they are the regulators, founders, main financiers and supervisors.
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The responsible state/regional body for the field of education is the Ministry of Education (MoE).
It has authority to formulate and implement education policies, directly or indirectly outline
programmes and draws up budgets. Furthermore, it lays down criteria for financing public
services, oversees budget implementation, supports the salary system administration and
standardization of staff statuses, develops investment and major maintenance programmes etc.

Division of authority among central, regional and local government usually depends on the level
of education.

Structure, characteristics and mechanisms of functioning as well as basic principles and goals of
preschool, primary, secondary and higher education are regulated by the different, relevant laws.

Besides MoE there are other national/regional public bodies involved in the regulation,
development and quality control of the educational sector.
(For more details for each country please see National reports).

Preschool education is dominantly under authorities of local governments. Decision-making

power on the level of primary and secondary education is primarily in the hands of
central/regional government (Macedonia is an exception), with the insufficient involvement of
local government, and with a low degree of school autonomy while higher education has
traditionally a high degree of autonomy, but this autonomy, in most cases, has not been
adequately regulated.
Education programmes can be provided by private educational institutions alongside the public
ones. Domestic as well as foreign private persons and legal entities may found private
kindergartens, schools and tertiary education institutions.

Country Code Educational system

ALB centralized
BiH decentralized
HRV centralized
MKD decentralized
MNE centralized
SRB (partially) decentralized
SVN centralized
XKX decentralized
Preschool education refers to the period between birth and 6 to 7 years of age, depending on
the country, and takes into account the transition period from early childhood to primary
education. It refers to the provision of care and education for this age group and it can take place
in various types of institutions – kindergartens, play groups, children’s libraries, children’s wards
in hospitals, mobile kindergartens, orphanages, elementary schools – which can be founded by
the state, the local governing bodies, physical and legal entities, religious communities, citizens'

19
associations. Despite the variety of institutions, the prevailing organisational form of the
preschool education is that of the kindergarten.
Preschool education is not compulsory. Kindergartens may be independent institutions or
operate as units of basic schools. The public network of kindergartens is complemented by
private kindergartens that hold a concession and employ qualified staff. Where such possibilities
exist, parents are free to decide on the placement of their child in a public or private
kindergarten. There are usually two types of kindergartens: whole-day kindergartens and half-
day kindergartens

The number of children attending public preschool institutions is usually much higher than in
private ones. There are no separate institutions for children with disabilities.
Country Groups Note
code
ALB nurseries (for children of age of 0-3),
kindergartens (3-6) and preparatory classes for
children of age of 5, who have not been able
to attend pre-school before
BiH nurseries (for children from 6 months to 3 There is a compulsory preschool program the year
years of age) and kindergartens (for children before starting school for all children who are not
from 3 years of age to school starting age) included in regular preschool programs. The program
involves a minimum of 150 hours (2 hours/week,) and
is implemented in kindergartens or at primary schools
in locations with no existing kindergarten. However,
there are differences in the implementation of
mandatory preschool programs across the country.
HRV nurseries (for children from 6 months to 3 In order to ensure equal educational opportunities, all
years of age) and kindergartens (for children the children enrolling primary school are obliged to
from 3 years of age to school starting age) attend a preparatory program, the so-called “little
school”, prior to the enrolment. These programmes
are organised in kindergartens or schools in duration
of 150 hours, encompassing 99.60 % of pre-schoolers.
MKD nurseries (for children from 6 months to 3
years of age) and kindergartens (for children
from 3 years of age to school starting age)
MNE nurseries (for children from 6 months to 3
years of age) and kindergartens (for children
from 3 years of age to school starting age)
SRB nurseries (for children from 6 months to 3 A preparatory preschool program has been
years of age) and kindergartens (for children compulsory since 2006/07. It is implemented in the
from 3 years of age to school starting age) year preceding an enrolment in primary school (for
children aged from 5.5 to 6.5 years) and lasts for 4
hours per day over the period of 9 months.
SVN two age groups: 1-3 years old, 3-6 years old for
children aged from 11 months (end of
childcare leave) to six years (or the starting age
of compulsory education)
XKX nurseries (for children of age of 0-3), A preparatory preschool program is compulsory. Pre-
kindergartens (3-6) and preparatory classes for primary classes operate in pre-school institutions and

20
 Country Groups Note
code
children of age of 5 - 6, who have not been in the schools (2-3 hours per day). They are assessable
able to attend pre-school before all over the country and are free of charge.

Basic/primary education is compulsory and funded by the public revenues. Children must enrol
in first grade at the age of six or seven, depend on the country. Schools implement the single-
structure curriculum over the course of eight or nine years, so pupils typically conclude basic
school education at the age of 15.
During their primary education, children are expected to gain core knowledge, values, attitudes
and skills, including skill in basic literacy, numeracy and critical thinking. Furthermore, the aim of
the primary education is to enable harmonious intellectual, emotional and social development
of students, to equip students for mutual tolerance, cooperation, and respect for the diversity,
the basic human freedoms and rights and to develop their awareness of the general cultural and
civilizational values.
Despite continuous efforts to support and ensure integration and inclusion of students with
special education needs into the mainstream schools, there are still special education schools,
which provide a more specialized service.

The establishment of private primary schools is allowed, but their number is negligible.
Country Starting age Structure
Code
ALB children at age of six 9 years (5+4 structure, primary and lower secondary education)
BiH children at age of six 9 years (3+3+3 - organized in three cycles; first cycle includes the first three
grades, the second from grades IV to VI, and the third from VII to IX grade)
HRV children at age of six 8 years (organised within a single structure and comprises two cycles: class
and a half teaching from I to IV grades and subject teaching from V to VIII grades)
MKD children at age of six 9 years (5+4 - The first 5 grades (lower primary education) students follow a
classroom based education programme, while grades 6 to 9 children follow
subject education (education divided in different subjects)
MNE children at age of six 9 years (3+3+3 - organized in three cycles; first cycle includes the first three
grades, the second from grades IV to VI, and the third from VII to IX grade)
SRB children at age of six 8 years (organised within a single structure and comprises two cycles: class
and a half teaching from I to IV grades and subject teaching from V to VIII grades)
SVN children at age of six 9 years (5+4 structure, primary and lower secondary education)
XKX children at age of six 9 years (5+4 structure, primary and lower secondary education)

(Upper) Secondary education is the educational stage between primary/basic education and
higher education. The main function of secondary education is to broaden young people’s
knowledge and skills and to consolidate their values and attitudes in preparation for higher
education and the world of work.

21
Depending on the country, the number of years corresponding to secondary education can range
between two and five years.
Secondary education, intended for pupils of 14/15 to 18/19 years of age, is selective and not
compulsory (with the exception of Macedonia). Secondary education is carried out in gymnasia,
vocational schools, art schools, combined secondary schools (combination of general education
and vocational programs) and schools for children with special needs (special schools). Enrolment
in secondary schools is based on the school performance in the last years of primary school and
the score in the final examination. Besides public secondary schools, there are also private
schools.
The main characteristic of upper secondary education is streaming in three directions: academic
(gymnasium), vocational schools and art schools.

General upper secondary education is provided by general upper secondary schools, called
gymnasium, which take four years to complete through regular programmes. The main goal is to
prepare the student for the pursuit of higher education. The secondary art schools organised in
the areas of music, dance, visual arts, and design, leading to studies at faculties of arts.

Vocational and technical upper secondary education is provided by range of programmes at

different levels of difficulty. The goal of these programmes is to obtain specific occupational
qualifications to enter the labour market or – in the case of four-year programmes – to continue
education at the tertiary level.

Higher education includes all types of studies, training or research at the post-secondary and
tertiary levels, provided by universities or other recognized higher educational institutions (HEIs).
Despite the diversity of higher education systems across countries, one may distinguish four
broad categories of higher education: diploma programmes, bachelor’s degrees, master’s
degrees and doctorates.
Higher education plays a key role in contributing to national development through the training
of human resources with advanced knowledge and skills, the ability to produce and disseminate
knowledge, and the capacity to engage in scientific and technological research.

Higher education institutions could be public or private, depending on the founder. In order to
have a legal status within higher education system of one country they should be accredited.
Country Types of HE Bologna Process
ALB First cycle of University studies “Bachelor”, Second cycle Albania is full member of the Bologna
of University studies “Professional Master” and Master Process / European higher education
of Sciences and third cycle of University Studies: area since 2003.
Doctorate “Executive Master”; Long Term Specialized
Studies

22
 Country Types of HE
BiH Higher education institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina
include universities and “colleges”. University is offering
academic degrees in all three cycles while college is
offering diplomas and degrees of the first cycle in at
least one subject group in one scientific area.
HRV Higher education is performed through university and
professional studies. University study includes three
levels: undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate
MKD higher education in the Republic of Macedonia can be
obtained at faculties, art academies, higher vocational
schools and colleges
MNE higher education in Montenegro can be acquired at the
university, faculty, art academy and college; study
programmes that can be implemented at institutions
are: bachelor, comprising 180 ECTS, master
(postgraduate), comprising 120 ECTS and doctoral,
comprising 180 ECTS points.
SRB higher education covers three cycles (basic, master, and
doctoral studies) and two types of studies at basic and
master levels – academic studies (180/240+120/60 ECTS)
and applied studies (180+60/120 ECTS)
SVN higher vocational colleges and higher education study
programmes - three cycles
XKX Higher education is available in various Universities and
different educational institutions, both public and
private, where students are offered Associate’s
Degrees’, Bachelor Degrees’, Master Degrees’, and
PhD’s.
Bologna Process
Bosnia and Herzegovina is full member
of the Bologna Process / European
higher education area since 2003.
Croatia is full member of the Bologna
Process / European higher education
area since 2001.
The former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia is full member of the
Bologna Process / European higher
education area since 2003.
Montenegro is full member of the
Bologna Process / European higher
education area since 2003 as Serbia-
Montenegro and 2007 as Montenegro
Serbia is full member of the Bologna
Process / European higher education
area since 2003 (initially as Serbia-
Montenegro).
Slovenia is full member of the Bologna
Process / European higher education
area since 1999.
Although Kosovo has not officially
joined the Bologna Process, since the
introduction of Bologna Reforms by the
University of Pristina in 2001/2002, all
national legislations have served to
better implement and make operational
the Bologna reform objectives and
principles within entire HE sector of
Kosovo. As a result, all institutions of
higher education currently implement
the ECTS credit system, the three-cycle
degree system, student and staff
mobility, the diploma supplement and a
quality assurance system.

Financing of education – availability, allocation and utilization

Financing in the context of education sector concerns the way financial resources are mobilized,
allocated and used toward provision of education services.

Public (state-owned) educational institutions, from primary to higher education levels, are
financed by public resources, i.e. mainly from the state/regional budget and to a smaller degree
due to the support of local governments. Relevant laws specify the sources of funding by purpose,
duty and responsibility and lay down the terms and conditions of financing and supervision.

23
Sources of funding for education include public expenditure, private expenditure and founds
from international agencies. Funding sources of public higher education institutions include
state/regional budget, student tuition fees, income from services generated by third parties,
donations, scientific activities, international projects, bilateral or multilateral agreements,
funding from special funds.
External donor investment and presence has undoubtedly been a factor in South East Europe
over the past decades. Initially, most of the effort was humanitarian, with a view toward relief in
the short term, rather than structural change for the longer term. By the year 2000, however,
there was significant activity by the major donors throughout the region on developing and
creating institutions for holistic system change in education.

As an illustration, from 2001 funds from foreign borrowing (loans from World Bank, European
Investment Bank, etc.) and donor support have had a very important role in reform and
modernization of education system in Serbia. For example, since 2003, the EU has donated €71
million for the reform of the education sector, at all levels and has been Serbia’s main partner in
projects aimed at the quality assurance, social inclusion and training of teachers (The Delegation
of EU to the Republic of Serbia, n.d.).
Another example is Bosnia and Herzegovina, where multilateral donors in BiH have focused
mainly on assisting the capacity building of local institutions, financing the development of a legal
framework for the education sector, and providing other forms of technical support. Additionally,
both bilateral and multilateral donors have supported civil society organizations dealing with
education issues (UNDP, 2007).

With the donor community becoming increasingly diversified there are greater risks of
fragmented, uncoordinated and ineffective support to education in a country. Donors may have
different agendas, priorities, management styles and administrative requirements, and all those
dealing with education issues and policies need to aware of those risks and potential obstacles.

Investment in education is a priority area within the context of Europe 2020 – the EU's growth
strategy for the current decade. High quality data from authoritative sources on education
spending are needed to monitor trends and to contribute to the policy debate at national and
European levels.
However, the lack of recent and valid information on the public funding makes it difficult to assess
and discuss the current changes in public investment in the education sector, to pinpoint the
factors explaining these changes and to analyse recent reforms undertaken by countries in their
budgetary framework (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015).

24
Data, which was available for the period 2013 – 2017, show that budget allocated to education
and public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP is quite low what makes it
impossible to encourage and enable real research and development at different levels of
education. Slovenia had highest average of government expenditure for education (5.1 % of GDP)
while Albania had lowest (3.2 % of GDP).

Government expenditure on education, total

(% of GDP)
SVN 5.1
EU-28 4.7
HRV 4.6
XKX 4.6
MNE 4.3
SRB 4.1
ALB 3.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

% of GDP (average)

*General government expenditure on education (current, capital, and transfers) is expressed as a percentage of
GDP. It includes expenditure funded by transfers from international sources to government. General government
usually refers to local, regional and central governments.

The EU average of education’s share of total general government expenditure in 2015 was 10.3
%.

Government expenditure on education, total

(% of government expenditure)

ALB 10.6

HRV 10.3

SVN 8.1

XKX 4.6

MNE 4.6

SRB 4.1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

% of government expenditure (average)

25
 According to available data, the biggest portion of public expenditure for formal education goes
to primary/basic education.

Country Pre-school (%) Primary/Basic (%) (Upper) Secondary (%) Tertiary (%) Other (%)
MNE 12.1 50.0 23.2 13.0 1.6
SVN 16.9. 44.1 19.1 19.7 0.1
SRB 20.2 40.4 18.2 14.5
XKX 11.0 42.0 27.0 20.0

Itemized total government expenditure show that a lion’s share goes to salaries and wages (more
than 75%, in some cases even more than 90%).

Gross average monthly wage in education, USD

2500
2156.9
1933.3 1952.9
1846.1 1860.4
2000

1500

1000

500
526.8 452.1 470.3 517.9
0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

ALB BIH HRV MKD MNE SRB SVN XKX

Highest gross average monthly wages have those employed in education sector in Slovenia and
Croatia (around 2000 and 1300 USD), while lowest average monthly wage is registered for
Albania and Kosovo, around 500 – 550 USD.

In more than half of countries gross average monthly wage in education sector is below the total
average.

26
 Gross average monthly wage 2013 - 2017
all sectors vs. education
(difference in %)
XKX 2.2
SVN -4.0
SRB 6.5
MNE 7.0
MKD -0.3
HRV -2.0
BIH -2.3
ALB -20.5

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25

difference in %

27
4 Findings
Main goals and priorities of education reforms - key milestones, key changes in education
policies so far

A new agenda for education in the region has taken shape over the last 20 - 25 years. Where
many once considered education the rightful “guardian of tradition,” there are now both needed
and popular debates throughout SEE about what constitutes quality in teaching and learning and
how education needs to be changed to provide it. Curricula, textbooks, teaching methods, and
the entire system of schooling have all come under critical examination (ed. Bassler, 2005).
The analysis of educational narratives throughout the 1990s and 2000s reveals that policy
rhetoric across SE/central Europe seems to have increasingly appropriated Western „standards“.
It is especially visible in the spread of „the-post-education reform package“ across the region,
reflecting a set of globally „travelling policies“ such as student-cantered learning,
decentralization, privatization, standardization of student assessment, liberalization of textbook
publishing. These reform packages were, in some cases, introduced by multilateral donors or in
other cases, were voluntarily borrowed by policy makers in the former socialist states out of fear
of „falling behind“ internationally (Silova and Eklof, 2013).

During the last twenty years all countries in the region have undergone or launched educational
reform processes.
Higher education
The reform of higher education in most of the countries in the region began in the early 2000s
by joining the Bologna process. The key issues of the Bologna declaration were introduction of a
three-cycle system, ECTS, emphasis on academic mobility and student-centred approach to
teaching and learning. The next step in the implementation of the Bologna process addressed
the formulation of new regulations at the institutional level followed by the development of new
study programs.

Although there was an evidence that higher education system was not very efficient prior to
Bologna process with large numbers of dropouts and so called “eternal” students, discipline-
oriented curricula and low mobility, these reasons would have not by themselves lead to change
without external influence imposed by Bologna principles. Bologna reform was perceived as an
externally imposed political decision and it provoked considerable resistance and mistrust among
the academic community. From the present perspective, the feeling of high pressure was the
result of too many simultaneous changes in too short a time.

The first experience with new programmes revealed that most institutions did not have adequate
infrastructure and necessary human resources. The reform was mainly focused on formal aspects
of program restructuring such as shorter one semester courses, smaller groups of students,

28
adjusting demands to 60 ECTS per year, introduction of diploma supplement and student
evaluation of teachers. That changes were not followed by achieving deeper understanding of
concepts such competence-based curriculum, constructive alignment of learning goals and
outcomes, student`s workload and student-centred approach to teaching, role of institutional
self-evaluation as a tool for improvement. The Bologna process also enhanced universities to
broaden their traditional missions of research and teaching by strengthening the so-called third
mission i.e. cooperation with community and business.
The implementation of the Bologna process also had significant consequences for the initial
teacher education system. The major change introduced by the reform of higher education has
been universitation of all initial teacher education programmes.

Products

 newly adapted Laws and strategies, defined priorities for higher education development
 newly developed rulebooks and guidelines, standards of competences for the teaching
profession
 translating requirements concerning the entering the teaching profession into
institutional policies and practices of the autonomous faculties

ALBANIA
In the framework of educational reforms, some of the main policy changes in education during
the last 5 to 10 years include:
- Approval and implementation of Law Nr.69/2012, date 21.06.2012 on Pre-University
Education System in the Republic of Albania (Nr.69/2012) and related provisions,
- Approval in January 2016 of the Pre-university Education Development Strategy (2014 -
2020),
- Development of the new competency-based curricula framework,
- Law no. 15/2017 on Vocational Education and Training in the Republic of Albania and
“National Strategy for Employment and Skills (2014-2020)”.
- National Action Plan for the Integration of Roma and Egyptians (2016 -2020),
- Law No. 80/2015, date 22.7.2015 "On Higher Education and Scientific Research in Higher
Education Institutions in the Republic of Albania;
- Change of the GPA required for enrolment in HE institutions into six and in teaching
programs into seven (through the decision of Council of Ministers No. 216, date 20.4.2018,
over the GPA required for enrolment in HE institutions),

In addition, more initiatives have been undertaken, such as:

 Organization of testing of achievements for 5th - grade students, for the first time during
academic year 2017-2018

29
  Implementation of the "three subjects in six hours" initiative, piloting of the “doing
homework at school” and “security officers at schools” initiative (which will be extended
to all the secondary schools of Albania during Academic Year 2018-2019)
 Recognition by the government of the Albanian-based sign language and cooperation
agreement established between MESY and ANAD association for people with hearing
difficulties in pre-university education
 Approval of Standards of School as a Community Centre in 2013 and
piloting/implementation of “schools as community centre“ strategy

Regarding Vocational Education and training, during the last years, development of the VET
system has been a high national priority and has been receiving a high attention, cooperation
and support of various international donors and partners, including European Commission, ETF,
Giz, German and Swiss governments, and so on. Due to measurable positive results and
significant improvement, vocational education has been improving its reputation at local and
national level, hence increasing student participation.

Regarding Higher Education, Albania started reforming the higher education system by joining
the Bologna Process in 2003. Establishment of a large number of private HEIs during 2009-2010,
and their accreditation during (2010 – 2013) without respecting strict criteria and standards was
followed by closure of 18 private HEIs and suspension of 13 in 2014, as well as closure of three
branches of public HEIs and one public HEI. This reform culminated with the adoption of the new
Law on Higher Education in October 2015. (Overview of the Higher Education - EACEA - European
Union, February 2017. p.6-7).

The main objective of higher education reform, as stated in the law on higher education, is to
create better premises for building a quality higher education system, which is responsive to
labour market needs and requirements of the country strategic development. It also aims to
educate high profile experts and train young scientists, in accordance with the country
development priorities, hence, contributing to the increase of democracy standards.

SLOVENIA

The biggest reform in basic education in last 10 years represent a gradual introduction of nine
years’ basic education (as opposed to 8 years before), which took place from 2004 till 2008. Since
then one of the most important new measures in school education is the introduction of the first
foreign language as a mandatory subject from the 2nd grade of primary education.

In November 2017, the Minister of education adopted the Order for the adoption of the upper
secondary general education programmes, namely on the background Decision of the Council of
experts of the Republic of Slovenia for general education as of June 2017 to modernise all
gimnazija programmes, general as well as technical, namely the timetable shall now specify the

30
scope of lessons by annum and not by week. The purpose of changes is to permit greater
flexibility in implementing the programme and thereby pursuing: modern didactical approaches,
problem-based learning in particular, project and research approaches, as well as to encourage
more activity by students and teamwork by teachers.

A reform of higher education started in 2017. The idea behind the two-stage higher education
reform was to speed up the adoption of less controversial measures on which there was
consensus among key stakeholders, while postponing the more demanding issues until a more
fundamental legislative change. Revisions to the Higher Education Act brought institutional
accreditation as opposed to programme-based accreditation, abolished the procedure of the
programmes' reaccreditation and increased student involvement in internal governance. They
also initiated some important changes in the funding of higher education. An ambitious
recalibration of higher education funding towards a more performance oriented system is
planned.

The other two most recent characteristics of reform that apply to all educational levels concern
the implementation of international education programmes and the Integration of children
seeking international protection into education.

MACEDONIA
The Comprehensive Education Strategy 2018-2025,6 anticipates curricula reform at all education levels,
new concept for initial years of primary education, change of textbooks and reform of teacher training
processes, all of which necessitate lots of time and funds.

The New General Education Strategy (2018 -2025) aims to continue with reforms in education. The aim of
the strategy is to improve the condition in each level of education in accordance with the established
priorities.

The following Strategic goals are listed in the above-mentioned document:

 Considerable increase in pre-school enrolment

 Rationalization of the curricula on all levels, especially lower primary school, as well as introducing
activities and resources that increase the attractiveness of education and implementing content
of local interest;
 Further amendments to the National Curriculum to adapt it to students’ stage of development
and its consistent implementation focusing on the outcomes;
 Improving and adapting quality assurance instruments putting the student in the centre of
learning;

6
https://www.na.org.mk/tl_files/docs/eplus/2018/eksperti/2/Strategija_za_obrazovanie2018-2025_-
finalna_verzija.pdf

31
  Adapting and consistent implementation of the concept of inclusive and multicultural education
focusing on gender equality, respecting diversity and ethnic cohesion;
 Promoting and consistent implementation of the textbook development methodology while
abandoning the notion of the textbook as the only tool to achieve educational goals and utilizing
ICT for learning;
 Improving of education infrastructure to improve inclusiveness, accessibility, environmental
efficacy and digitalization;
 Ensuring full inclusion of persons with disabilities through adapting the National Curricula
(focusing on educational goals and language of instruction) and focusing on their abilities and
needs;
 Rationalization and conceptual regionalization of vocational secondary school with programmers
compatible with the labour market;
 Standardization of higher education according to European criteria to uphold the law during
establishing and functioning of higher education institutions.
 Expanding the adult education opportunities and support for life-long learning
 strengthening of the professionalism, competencies and capacities of the human resources
produced on all education levels;
 Intensifying the implementation of ICT in the education system by instituting a e-learning portal
and a system to manage learning through continuous training for the staff in using new
technologies and ICT tools for learning; building a system for technological equipment renewal
and network maintenance;
 Capacity building on central, local and school/pre-school level to manage the work through
effective administration, adopting harmonizing and transparent policies to conduct continuous
and quality education in a decentralized context.

In 2010, the state adopted the policy paper “Steps Towards Integrated Education in the Education System
of the Republic of Macedonia”, providing guidelines for improving interethnic integration in schools, to
be implemented with funds from the national budget and international donors. Some progress has been
made in the curriculum, textbooks and training for teachers and school directors on interethnic
integration. However, the policy measures to promote inter-ethnic relations in education and measures
against separation along ethnic lines in schools have been insufficient especially since the country still has
ethnic shifts in schools and separate school buildings for different ethnic groups. Currently, steps are being
undertaken to revive and upgrade the Strategy.

Serbia

a) changes concerning coverage, access and equity in education

On the preschool level an important novelty was the introduction of a preparatory preschool
program, obligatory since 2006 for all children in the year before starting school. By this solution
compulsory education has been extended to 9 years, which brings Serbia closer to the trends
typical for majority of the European countries in terms of duration of compulsory education. Also,
this measure is beneficial for narrowing the achievement gaps faced by children from vulnerable

32
groups (children from poor families or rural communities, children with developmental
disabilities, children at risk, ethnic minorities, etc.) and for reducing the risk of failure in later
schooling (Krnjaja & Pavlović Breneselović, 2017). During recent years a few important and big
projects in preschool education have been realized in Serbia, aimed at enhancing the coverage
of preschool children, especially those from vulnerable groups, through improvements in the
quality of preschool programs and expansion of the capacities of preschool institutions.
However, the preschool coverage is not high for whole population, but particularly for Roma
children, children with disabilities and those from the poorest households. There are also high
disparities, including significant regional and urban/rural differences in the availability of
preschool services. On the one hand, capacities are not sufficient to cover all children, while, on
the other hand, preschools are unequally distributed through the country. For example, in rural
areas preschool institutions are twice as far from children’s homes comparing to the country as
a whole. The coverage of children in devastated municipalities is least pronounced (UNICEF,
2014).
In order to increase accessibility of education and to create conditions for quality education for
all students, inclusive education was introduced in Serbia in 2009 (Official Gazette of the RS,
2009) and its implementation started in the school year 2010/11. The key novelties of the legally
regulated policy of inclusive education included: new admission policy; provision of additional
educational support to everybody who need it; individual education planning; adaptation of the
achievement standards; removal of physical and communication barriers; introduction of
pedagogical assistants; changes in the financing modes of institutions supporting the inclusion of
children into education system, etc.

Although it can be noticed that at the level of educational policy Serbia has embraced a modern
and human inclusive approach to education, experiences from the practice indicate that there
are a lot of problems in the implementation process. Research data indicate that teachers do not
feel competent enough for inclusive education and that they are not satisfied with the existing
types and forms of support provided for the development of inclusive education (Gutvajn &
Vujačić, 2016). Also, research findings show that parents of children with developmental
disabilities have better experiences with education of their children in special schools than in
regular, which indicate that there is a lack of necessary support for children who need it in regular
schools (National Organization of Persons with Disabilities of Serbia, 2017).

Preventing drop-out is recognized as important goal in obtaining quality education for all, both
in the strategic and legislative documents. Implementation of a set of measures introduced in
recent years in the field of inclusive education, are beneficial to the reduction of drop-out (new
enrolment policy, establishment of inter-sectoral committees, introduction of pedagogical
assistants, creating individual education plans, etc.). Besides that, schools are obliged to include

33
the measures for dropout prevention in the school development plan, as well as to implement
and monitor them.

However, having in mind that the exact measures has not been specified, it is expected that
schools and the local community should develop it by themselves. Although some improvements
have been made in the reduction of drop-out, it is hard to say precisely to what extent, because
the data on dropout are not collected systematically, which hinders adequate monitoring and
early identification of at-risk students (Jovanović et al., 2016).

Various affirmative actions were implemented aimed at increasing the coverage of children from
vulnerable groups (for example, enrolment to primary school without complete documentation;
from 2012/13 setting a total quota of 2% of places funded from the budget for students with
disabilities and Roma ethnic community).

However, as Mr. Dejan Stanković pointed out: "State policy relating to scholarships for both
secondary and higher education is inadequate, because awarding scholarships implies that
academic achievement is much more prominent than socioeconomic status. Scholarship policy
should be more focused on those who need the most resources. On the other side, a good measure
which increased the number of Roma students in secondary education concerns more favourable
conditions for enrolment of the Roma national minority. When Roma students enrol in secondary
school, the number of points they achieved based on school success and the results of the final
examination will be increased by 30% of the number of points that they miss up to 100 points.
Those who receive social assistance have additional 5% of increase".

Free textbooks are provided for primary school students belonging to socio-economically
vulnerable groups (welfare recipients). In addition, during the past years textbooks have been
provided for students with disabilities, as well as for those who are the third (and each next) child
in the family (Ministarstvo prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja, 2017).

b) changes concerning curricula

The reform of national curricula was introduced by legal regulations in 2017 and new curricula
would be successively implemented from 2018/19. National Education Framework, which was
adopted in 2017, determine basic guidelines for educational process in preschool, primary, and
secondary education, and are basis for the development of curricula ("Plan and program of
teaching and learning") for each grade, as well as for school curricula (Službeni glasnik RS, 2017).
From 2018/19, new curricula will be implemented in the first and fifth grade of primary
education, as well as in the first grade of secondary education, while in other grades of primary
and secondary education will be introduced later. New curricula for primary and secondary
education are outcomes-based and incorporate child-centred approach. They contain general

34
aims of education and learning objectives for each grade; general subject competences; specific
subject competences; learning outcomes; educational standards for primary and general
secondary education; qualification standards for vocational education; key concepts for each
subject; teaching guidelines and guidelines for formative and summative assessment of students.

Curricula in secondary vocational education were reformed only in those educational profiles
which have been included in the project of modernisation and improvement of secondary
vocational education, implemented within the EU VET Reform Programme. Those curricula,
having a pilot status at the beginning, have been gradually systematised starting from 2011/2012
academic year. The reformed curricula are focused on education outcomes, have modular
approach and increased volume of practical teaching and practice. With adoption of the
amendments on the Law on Secondary Education (in 2017), acquisition of general and cross-
curricular competencies are emphasized.

However, up to now, dominant model of teaching and learning could be described as content-
based curricula, teacher centred approach, knowledge transmission, with insufficiently
developed learning skills and transferable knowledge needed for personal development and
labour market needs.

PISA study confirms that the quality of education in Serbia is pretty weak. Findings from PISA
show that the educational achievements of students in Serbia (i.e. mathematical, science and
reading competences) are below the international average and that just under 40% of students
are below the level of functional literacy (OECD, 2013). The gap in achievements comparing to
international average is especially prominent in the tasks that request application of knowledge
in realistic situations (Baucal & Pavlovic Babic, 2009; 2011).

Although general and cross-curricula competences, and educational performance standards have
been already defined in national regulations, yet curricula, textbooks and teaching strategies
have not been in line with such approach. It could be expected that the announced curricular
reform will bring positive effects relating to the quality of teaching process.

As Mr. Dejan Stanković pointed out: "The basic idea that education is focused on outcomes, not
inputs, is something which emerged, but it is far from being a dominantly accepted principle,
according to which the curriculum is a means, and that the outcome is the goal. Still, a teacher is
one who leads to the goal, that is the Bible."

There is a general opinion that current education system (especially VET) doesn't correspond to
the labour market needs. Enrolment plan for secondary vocational education is not compliant
with labour market needs, as well as with the structure of economy and its needs. There are a lot
of educational profiles for which there are no need anymore, or overproduction of others where

35
surplus in the labour market exists. For example, the highest enrolment rate is in the field of
Economics, law and administration, but there is a very similar number of unemployed in this area
of work seeking their first employment. Problem is also weak competences of VET students for
the world of work (due to: outdated curricula /those which are not part of the reformed
programs/, the quality of practical work in the curriculum outside the classroom, etc.).

According to Mrs. Biljana Bodroški Spariosu: "Basic compulsory education and various forms of
secondary education provide a relatively good general education basis for continuing
education. Digital literacy is perhaps the weakest link in the education system, which is
otherwise the underlying competence for long-term employment and lifelong learning. There
is a lack of cooperation between schools and the world of work in terms of professional practice,
internships and professional development".

According to PISA indicators, the level of the education equity in Serbia is relatively acceptable.
However, it should have in mind a fact that the education level among the students from most
vulnerable/marginalized groups is extremely low and that it is necessary to do more in order to
compensate low achievement and to encourage high ones.

c) changes concerning assessment and evaluation in education

Novelties in terms of external evaluation of schools date from 2012 since then this process has
been conducted under a new procedure (Službeni glasnik, 2012) and in line with the newly-
established standards and indicators of quality of institutions' work.
Since 2010/11 final examination (school leaving exam) after compulsory education replaced the
former qualification (entrance) exam (whose function was to select students for continuation of
education in four-year secondary schools) and it was introduced with the purpose to: assess the
accomplishment level of standards for the end of compulsory education; obtain the certificate of
completed compulsory education; select students for (upper) secondary education. Besides
testing Serbian language (i.e. native language) and Mathematics, from 2014 the combined test
was introduced including the following subjects: History, Geography, Biology, Chemistry and
Physics.
The implementation of the new concept of final examination after secondary education is
planned for 2020/21 and new matura exams should replace existing higher education entrance
exams.
Novelties in assessment of student achievement is connected to application of formative
assessment in addition to summative assessment, performing assessment according to defined
standards of students' achievements, introduction of initial assessment at the beginning of the
school year, as well as using diverse methods of assessing student achievement (Službeni glasnik,

36
2013; 2015).
Standardization in education was pronounced during the last decade and a numerous bylaws
passed related to the quality of education (quality standards of student achievement: at the end
of compulsory education; at the end of the first cycle of primary education; for individual subjects;
for general education subjects at the end of secondary education; for adult learners in primary
education); quality standards of institution's work; standards of competences in teachers
profession and their professional development; textbook quality standards, etc.
d) other initiatives

Preventing and protecting children from violence has been set as one of the key priorities in
education policy initiatives. National Strategy for Preventing and Protecting Children from
Violence was adopted in 2008, while the action plan for its implementation was adopted in 2010.
Schools are obliged to perform prevention and intervention of violence and other forms of
antisocial behaviour.

MONTENEGRO

Preschool education

All preschool institutions in Montenegro apply a publicly valid Program for Areas of Activities in
Preschool Education (2011). For the implementation of reform solutions preschool teachers
where trained at seminars organized by the Bureau for Education. At the Faculty of Philosophy,
Department of Preschool Education the reform of study program was made, and a large number
of teachers completed three or a four years study. In practice, from school 2017/18 year
preschool institutions started implementing a specialized program for English language, and in
some institutions there are specialized programs intended for work with gifted children (Law on
Amendments to the Law on Preschool Education, 2017).

Gifted children get their chance to reach their abilities after the implementation of specialised
programmes, which represents one of the imperatives of the programme intended at working
with children of preschool age.

Inclusive education

The process of reformation and establishment of inter-sectoral network of professional

assistance and support for children with disabilities and difficulties in development and their
families has been initiated at local, regional and national level. The Strategy for Inclusive
Education (2013) represents a part of the reform process relying on international and European
goals directed towards the economic and social development of society, poverty reduction
process, and ensuring accessible and high-quality education for children, students and adults

37
with disabilities and other difficulties rendering those persons a marginalised group of citizens.
Roma children have also been systematically integrated in public preschool institutions along
with the engagement of Roma assistants. This can be pointed out as a specific feature of the
reform.

Special educational institutions in Montenegro have been reformed into resource centres. They
play an important role in education of children with special educational needs. They provide
support for inclusive education through: advisory and professional work, training of teachers and
professional associates in order to work with children with special educational needs, use of sign
language, preparation, adaptation, development, training for the use of special textbooks (in
Braille, Daisy format ) and other specialized teaching aids ".

Primary schools
Reform of the Educational System began by bringing long term Strategy for Educational System
in 2001, along with the document called 'The Book of Changes' (2001). The document puts
strategic orientations into action, which results in activities that are also actual today: adoption
of the new legislation; change of school duration from 8 to 9 years; adaption of new subject
programs with emphasis on ways of realisation of contents; openness of the program which
allows the teachers to choose contents and ways to adopt them in independent way starting with
goals and standards of knowledge; schools had communities, parents and teachers can define
final program in National framework curriculum; team work is being shown as significant ,
transition to goal planning mode; teaching plans and programs are being adjusted to children
with special needs; the schools are being trained for evaluation and self-evaluation of education.
Expert institutions are being formed to follow and evaluate the quality of education. Descriptive
evaluation of students is being made, conditions for contemporary teaching are being formed as
well as supplying schools with contemporary information technology... (Damjanovic, 2009).
The first generation of six years olds was enrolled in school in school 2004/2005). It was
implemented gradually, and from the school year 2012/2013 all children in primary schools in
Montenegro are studying under new programs nine-year education, which is organized in three
cycles. First cycle includes the first three grades, the second from grades IV to VI, and the third
from VII to IX grade.

Secondary schools
During the year of 2005/06 Gymnasiums started with new curricula, and during 2008/09 all
classes in Vocational Schools started working with new curricula. Last few years there is intent
for promoting vocational and technical education, and to implement dual education.
There is a clear decrease in interest for general schools (enrolment trends in last few years 10401
in 2012/13 to 9183 in 2016/17 school year). Dual education is improving employment rate of
students who finished the secondary school.

38
Main issues related to quality of education

- Lack of same quality education opportunities for all children - quality of the teaching force
and in the availability of resources (urban/rural, majority/minority…)
- Policies are not being properly implemented (i.e. competency based curricula, use of various
participatory teaching methods, application of action plans…)
- Insufficient and inadequate support to teaching staff; lack of expert associates in regular
schools
- Lack of adequate working and didactic material; outdated textbooks
- Inadequate working conditions
- Dropout of vulnerable groups
- Lack of Interethnic integration in education
- Shrinking of the government expenditure on education
- Privatization of education
- The absence of quality assurance measures, the lack of development of connections among
higher education institutions conducting teacher initial education and institutions providing
continuing professional development of teachers, a vague connection between continuing
professional development and teacher advancement, the absence of the system of
(re)licencing in the teaching profession

Albania
Even though Albanian education has been undergoing a wide range of reforms aiming at a better
quality and more equitable and inclusive education, „quality in education“ is a broad and complex
concept and remains a key issue of concern and high priority for all. Great efforts have been made
in terms of access to education and improvement of participation and quality supported by
legislation, specific policies and provisions, and a variety of interventions. A great contribution
has also been provided by national and international non-governmental organizations and other
agencies.
However, the Education Policy Review team of UNESCO (2017) found that pre-university
education in Albania is not of equal quality for all students in all regions of the country. There are
differences between rural and urban schools, in the quality of the teaching force and in the
availability of resources. There are also groups of minority students, such as Roma, Balkan

39
Egyptian, low-income students, and students with disabilities, who are not yet being well-served.
(UNESCO, Education Policy Review, 2017).
In the efforts toward a better quality and more equitable education for all, development of a
more child-centred culture, successful implementation of the new competency-based curricula
and enhancement of active participation of all students, including marginalized ones, there is a
high need for an effective use of various interactive and participatory teaching
methods/strategies, which require teacher training and professional development, as well as
mentoring and continuous support.
Aiming at a better quality education, during this academic year, all collective class-satellite
schools in the outskirts of cities or remote rural areas, where the number of students is very low,
will close down, and children studying in those schools will attend the closest school. It was
widely known and accepted that collective classes were not able to provide quality and equitable
education, therefore, this initiative is expected to contribute to a better quality education for all
those children, provided that „quality transport“, as one of the interviewees states, and
continuous support is provided to students, their teachers and families.

In terms of integration of students with disabilities into mainstream/inclusive schools, schools

have started to renovate some of their premises, and a larger number of assistant teachers has
been ensured for this academic year (2018-2019). However, an issue of concern remains
qualification of those teachers and the need for further professional development to successfully
accomplish their duty.

In addition, the current National Action Plan for Integration of Roma and Egyptian Communities
in the Republic of Albania (2016-2020), referring to the field of education and promotion of
intercultural dialogue, aims to: increase the number of Roma and Egyptian students who
complete all levels of education; promote intercultural dialogue and mutual understanding
through development of school-based communities; strengthen cooperation of school and social
services in addressing cases of Roma and Egyptian children with socio-economic problems;
promote recognition of identity of Roma and Egyptian communities as an integral part of the
cultural heritage of Albania.

In addition, in line with the country efforts toward EU integration and international
commitments, some of the main recommendations of the EU-Albania political dialogue seminar
include: implementation of preventive strategies of Ministry of Education and Sports, local
education authorities and schools for addressing the school drop-out (such as: counselling,
scholarship programs, timely delivery of free school textbooks, and provision of free transport
for distances even less than 2 km from school, exempt from pre-school annual fees by the local
government units of children from Roma and Egyptian families with low economic income,
decrease of number of children who participate in the „second-chance“ program, increase of
number of Roma and Egyptian that return to regular classes and get integrated into the

40
mainstream classes, increase of employed teachers from Roma community
(https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/albania-eu_seminar_conclusions_al).

Slovenia

Education is currently not recognized as a national priority, however there are some ongoing
issues and debates that attract more attention not only from educational stakeholders, but also
in general public.

Financing of Education

One of the most worrying trends in Slovenian education system is shrinking of the government
expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP. The share dropped from 5,65% in 2012 to
4,8% in 2016, which represents one of the highest declines in the EU. Since 2009, public
expenditure on education has decreased by 13 % in real terms, whereas the number of pupils
and students has remained broadly stable.7 Annual expenditure per student across all education
levels is around the OECD average (above the OECD average at primary level and below the OECD
average at tertiary level).8 In regards to financing of education one cannot overlook that Slovenia,
due to further financial cuts in education, decided not to participate in TIMSS 2019 survey.

Unions

Educational Unions have a significant role in Slovenian educational system. The government and
the unions discuss and negotiate the particular issues related to basic working conditions for
employees in educational sector and reach the collective agreement.9 Unions have been long
time warning that Slovenian teachers’ statutory salaries are lower than the salaries of other civils
servants in other sectors with comparable education, and below the EU-22 average in all
education sectors and at all points in their career. They have also pointed out to the period of
financial crisis in which teachers' salaries were frozen, and public expenditure for education
drastically lowered. With the recovery of Slovenian economy, they expected and demanded the
improvement of financing of education sector, which did not happen. After the unsuccessful
negotiating with the government, unions started organising strikes in early 2018. But then the
government unexpectedly resigned before the end of term and left the negotiations to the new
government, which is only now (Autumn 2018) starting new term. It is unclear what position in

7
https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/monitor2017-si_en.pdf
8
http://www.oecd.org/slovenia/Education-Policy-Outlook-Country-Profile-Slovenia.pdf
9
The issues covered by collective agreement include: participation of teachers/other employees in governing of
the institution where they are employed, salaries and bonuses, reimbursement of work related travel costs and
meals’ costs, employment relationships, internships, relocation of employees, work hours, vacation, work breaks,
sick leaves and other forms of (paid and unpaid) absence from work, in-service training, the conditions for
termination of employment, the employers working responsibilities etc.

41
regards to this question will take the new government and whether or not we will face new
strikes of workers in educational sector.

Financing of Private Education

As mentioned before, private education is enabled in Slovenia, but the number of private
education institutions in Slovenia and enrolled pupils/students remain relatively low. Even
though the public financing of private education does not represent a significant sum in overall
educational budget, the question of financing private basic schools became one of the most
burning issues that is currently occupying and polarizing public opinion and political parties. So
far private basic schools were entitled to 85% of funds allocated by the state or local community
for the implementation of the public school programme. At the end of 2014, however,
Constitutional Court ruled (with votes 5 : 4) that private schools should be entitled to 100% public
funding, which caused quite a turmoil in public. As mentioned previously, due to small number
of private basic schools this decision does not have big financial implications for public funds, but
it has certainly big ideological impact, in particular because two of the six private schools in
Slovenia were founded by the Roman Catholic Church (and one more is organised in line with
catholic principles, but is not under direct control of Church). The previous central-left
government, however, postponed the implementation of Court’s decision and rather
(unsuccessfully) tried to initiate the procedure for change of Constitution, which would more
clearly define the financing of private schools. Currently it is not entirely clear what position in
regards to this question will take the new government, again central-left orientated, which is
starting new term.

Reform of Higher Education

Based on the Resolution on National Higher Education Programme 2011–2020 a reform of higher
education was initiated in 2016 and implementation started in 2017. As a first step, revisions to
the Higher Education Act were adopted in November 2016. These brought institutional
accreditation as opposed to programme-based accreditation, abolished the procedure of the
programmes' reaccreditation and increased student involvement in internal governance. They
also initiated some important changes in the funding of higher education. An ambitious
recalibration of higher education funding towards a more performance oriented system was
planned. As a second step in the higher education reform, the government committed to
delivering a new Higher Education Act by the end of 2017. The new law would define what
constitutes public service in higher education and from which sources this service should be
financed. It would also define more clearly the rights and responsibilities of employees in higher
education and science; define the rights of students and users of higher education; and provide
for more stable and systemic financing of research activities. However, due to political reasons
and lack of consensus regarding particular issues covered by the act (for example, big public

42
debate developed over the question of whether or not to allow study programmes in English) the
planned comprehensive new Higher Education Act has never been adopted. Currently it is
unclear what will be the faith of this reform with the new government.

Croatia

Some relevant strategic documents and procedures are still missing, such as national
qualification standards for teaching profession or model of teacher licencing, although some
projects have recently been started with support from EU funds10.

Another challenge is the issue of universitation which in some degree weakened the link between
academic courses and school based practice, especially regarding insufficient support to school
based mentors.

It has been observed that upgrading of teacher initial education programs put more pressure on
teacher educators for reaching higher research attainments, which shifted the focus from their
teacher educator competences.

The general comment regarding teacher continuous professional development is that new
strategy has not yet been fully implemented. Also, the offered programs do not fully take into
account the results of the studies on teacher educational needs.

Besides, it is possible to identify some other problems in this subsystem of teacher education,
such as: the absence of quality assurance measures, the lack of development of connections
among higher education institutions conducting teacher initial education and institutions
providing continuing professional development of teachers, a vague connection between
continuing professional development and teacher advancement, the absence of the system of
(re)licencing in the teaching profession (Domović and Vizek Vidović, 2011).

Macedonia

The constitution and the law for primary and secondary education government commits to
provide equal opportunities for all. Unfortunately, in practice, institutional capacities to
implement these policies are still underdeveloped and only modest efforts have been made
towards creating a more responsive and inclusive society and education system.

In the comparative analyses of European Commission Country reports 2013-2016, it is stated that
“children from rural areas and children from minority communities, as well as children with
disabilities face barriers for regular and quality education”.

10
for example: IPA project: Development of the national qualification standard for teachers as a basis for the
implementation of a teacher licensing system. see: http://www.nskzaucitelje.hr/eng/project (retreived: 2nd
October, 2014)

43
Roma people have historically been a target of discrimination and stereotyping. In Macedonia,
most Roma live in cities, mainly concentrated in ghettoes and underdeveloped neighbourhoods.
Due to poor start-up skills, lack of community/family support and teaching disregarding children’s
potentials, needs and abilities, children from poor rural communities and Roma children, often
pass through education without acquiring knowledge and skills that ensure participation in the
labour market and inclusion in mainstream society. Government and donors have invested
significant efforts in improving education, health, housing and employment of Roma, with some
progress noted in education. Recently, a new strategy for Roma Inclusion 2015-20 was adopted,
the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy's unit for implementing Roma policies was strengthened
though seminars and training. However, the gross enrolment rate in compulsory primary
education is still significantly low for Roma (74%) compared to non-Roma (90%), with primary
school net attendance rate lying at 85.6% and primary school completion rate 67.1%. Concerning
education achievements of Roma students, the situation is equally worrying. Erratic attendance
in primary and secondary education, often due to migration, domestic chores and child labour
(prevalence of child labour among the Roma aged 5-11 is estimated at 14%) decreases motivation
for learning and results in poor performance, dropout or discontinuation of education.
The pressure from international organizations and conventions that the country is signatory to
or has taken under advisement, contributed to creating a National Strategy for Equal Rights of
People with Disabilities 2010–2018 and further acts resulting from ratification of the UN
Convention of Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

As a result, national education policies prioritize mainstreaming for students with disabilities, but
there are no mechanisms for ensuring its implementation. In general, teachers and school staff
lack necessary competencies to identify special needs and appropriately plan and deliver
individualized teaching. Pre-service teacher training rarely and marginally addresses inclusion
while in-service training and professional development is limited to project-based piloting of
isolated international best practices. Special educators are available on school or municipal level
and recently Ministry for labour and social policy introduced personal assistants to persons with
disabilities. Unfortunately, the awareness for the needs of students with disabilities is still very
low and the general approach to the issue prioritizes needs over rights and reflects humanitarian
help rather than the recognition of equality and value. Parents of children without disability often
object to their child being educated along a student with disability, so many schools still have
difficulties when enrolling students with disabilities.

Interethnic integration in education remains a challenge for this government as well. In its report
from January 2018, the High Commissioner on National Minorities of the Council of Europe
concluded that there is no essential integration in education. Natasha Angeleska, Senior
Educational Coordinator in Foundation Open Society Macedonia, regarding interethnic

44
integration, stated that general perception is that: “There is small number of extracurricular
activities for interactions among pupils from different ethnic communities, most often between
Macedonians and Albanians, while pupils from small ethnic communities (Turks, Serbs, Bosniaks,
Roma), representing 11% of the total number of pupils, have been neglected, especially those
attending instruction in their mother tongue and attending classes at rural schools.
The same is valid for most of Roma pupils that attend schools in suburban areas and follow
instruction in Macedonian language, with the exception of Roma Language and Culture as
elective subject. Due to lack of access to preschool education, their starting positions are lower
compared to their peers from urban areas which, combined with additional inequalities they are
facing at their schools (in terms of equipment, lack of textbooks and teaching aids in their relevant
instruction language, insufficient number or insufficiently trained teachers, etc.), usually results
in lower quality of education services they receive and in poorer school performance”.
Kosovo

Participation of boys and girls in all levels of pre-university education continues to be balanced,
except in upper secondary education where there is room for improvement. The gender parity
index for this level of education is 0.91, whereas according to the population structure it should
be 0.94.

School dropout rate in compulsory education in the school year 2016/17 is 0.07%, while among
the Roma, Ashkali and Egyptian communities it is 26 times higher – 1.85%.

Integration of repatriated children in the education system is a process to which special

importance is dedicated.

Notwithstanding the fact that school dropout is not at a critical level, mechanisms for prevention
of school dropouts and non-enrolment are not effective.

Apart from some isolated cases, there is lack of support for children with exceptional intellectual
potential and special talents in academic, creative and artistic areas. (Evaluation Report on
Implementation of Kosovo Education Strategic Plan).

Most schools, especially in cities, have a large number of students. Due to this, schools work in
two shifts and have overburdened classes.

Schools lack didactic and other teaching materials. This is especially evident in rural areas.

Textbooks are outdated. MEST has initiated a call for new textbooks for classes 1, 5 and 9. These
textbooks should be drafted in line with the New Curricula.

Montenegro

45
The key deficiencies are related to the lack of material and personnel resources, especially in the
central parts of Montenegro. The need for new preschool, primary and secondary schools,
especially in Podgorica, is evident. As well as the lack of qualified staff, where we especially refer
to professional associates, because they are still not present in the necessary number for the
successful implementation of education reform. We need to mention neglect of lifelong learning
in Montenegro, the insufficient work in the andragogic and gerontology areas, and the lack of
incentives and motivation of young people to engage in teaching profession.

One of the interviewees, Ms. Milić stresses that problems are clearly outlined in the work of some
teachers, quality of their work and their curriculum orientation. Some of them work with the
curriculum still oriented on the programs subject, standards, some do not know the concept of
outcomes, they insist on the frontal approach and there is evident “lack of motivation, team
work, professional development and practices monitoring ... ". Further in analysing the legal
regulations, she points out that "legal solutions are trying to improve the conditions, supervision,
but there is an impression that they are often an ad hoc solutions, and that they are less realistic
in the direction of real quality and long-term vision". Milić asserts that the priorities of preschool
education should be seen in the increase of the number of institutions and employing the
experts. She points out that at this moment, the key challenge is to work on the quality of
education, in terms of the equal approach in the teaching process, outcomes, reduction of social
differences and equal accessibility for each student to quality and incentive education.

Mr. Zorić mentions material conditions as key obstacles, emphasizing the lack of proper
equipment, space, materials. "Human resources are also far from satisfactory, improvement is
noticeable, but it's still far from a satisfactory level ... especially in terms of quantity and
somewhat of quality. Because, on one hand, we are still importing the experts, and on the other,
we do not develop and retain the domestic staff ".

As another problem he points out the insufficient number of pedagogies and psychologists
employed in education system (from preschool to university level, from resource centres for
children with special needs to institutions for working with adults and the elderly people...).
There are not adequate rules and legal regulations for their employment, although it is the
current topic.

Serbia

The recent reforms in the education system of Serbia have been directed toward improvement
of the quality and relevance of education, providing equity and increasing efficiency of the
education system. Comprehensively defined aims, objectives and mechanisms of education
system development are specified in the document Strategy for Education Development in Serbia
2020 (2012), adopted by the Government of Serbia in 2012. The objectives determined by the
Strategy are to increase the quality of education processes and outcomes to a maximum

46
achievable level; to increase the coverage of the population of the Republic of Serbia at all
educational levels, from preschool education to lifelong learning; to reach and sustain the
relevance of education by making it compliant with the developmental needs of individuals and
the social system; and to increase the efficient use of all education resources, that is, completing
education on time, with a minimum extension of duration and reduction of education drop-out.
Specific goals of development of all education system components were defined on the basis of
these objectives. In addition, the policy and strategy framework for education system
development was elaborated. An action plan for the achievement of the goals set by the Strategy
has been adopted in 2015 (Official Gazette of the RS, 2015). It specifies a set of measures (157)
aimed at achieving objectives, methods for their implementation, deadlines, responsible
institutions, instruments for monitoring and indicators of progress per activity. New policies and
initiatives were supported by adoption of new laws and bylaws or amendments on existing laws,
which provided a legal framework for achievement of those objectives and their implementation.

However, the implementation of the adopted arrangements, as well as the application of the
action plans, remain one of the key challenges the education system in Serbia will be facing in
the future. Also, it is obvious that education funding does not follow a statement that education
has a priority for the government.

Although significant initiatives have been launched and certain results have been achieved in
education in the last years, it is difficult to predict further development in this sector, since
previous experience indicates that the success in implementing reform efforts is strictly
dependent on social, political, and economic changes, and these were not continually beneficial
(Spasenović, Hebib & Maksić, 2015).

Bosnia and Herzegovina

The right to education is not standardized within the country, and due to the practical division of
the nation, there are numerous cases of the discrimination of students based on their origin and
background. A system of “two schools under one roof” still exists. In most parts the educational
system is not interethnic and is not adapted to different minorities. As for the Roma children the
situation is very disquieting. In general, the level of education is low and the illiteracy rate is
extremely high. Public education in Bosnia and Herzegovina is offered in Bosnian, Croatian and
Serbian language. Although Romanes is the first language of as much as 86 percent of Roma in
the country, all Roma attending public education institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina study in
the language of one of the constituent people11.

11
http://www.popis.gov.ba/

47
Even though Law foresees equal right to education for all children, children with physical
disabilities and mental disorders are still excluded from the regular preschool programs. There is
also no organized system of early intervention12.

Schools are not equally distributed across the country. The government’s answer was the
provision of “branch schools“, sometimes for four grades, sometimes for eight, in locations
reasonably close to these remote communities. This was moderately successful; completion of
the first four grades of primary school in particular rose as a result. These schools have not
changed with the changing demographics of the country. As a result, many such schools now find
themselves educating only handfuls of pupils in mixed-age classes. Transportation to and from
such main schools, however, presents a serious barrier. Pupils are most likely to drop out of
school after they have completed the earlier grades in the local branch school. This generally
occurs when the child must make his or her way to a more distant school in a more central district
of the municipality. Rural families, who are the least likely to have access to good roads and public
transport, are also often the most likely to have financial difficulties that prevent them from
paying for whatever mode of transport may be available. As the National Human Development
Report for 2007 points out: Children who do not attend school come mainly from poor families.
It appears that one in four children in the poorest stratum do not attend school at all… It is
estimated that in BiH almost 15 percent of primary school students live more than three
kilometres away from school, while over 50 percent of secondary school students are located
more than three kilometres away.

o Access to education – equal opportunities; adequate education facilities and

resources available in the country; existing policies targeted toward deprivileged
social groups in education

o Teachers – status

The quality of education in any country depends largely on the quality of its teaching force, which
includes teachers and practitioners in the education system and in higher education institutions,
instructors in technical and vocational institutions, and facilitators in non-formal education
centres and programmes. Therefore, improving the training and motivation of teachers can make
a decisive difference in stimulating and improving teaching and learning.

12
World Vision Bosnia and Herzegovina (2017) Children with Disabilities in Bosnia and Herzegovina: I Don’t Think I
Am Different

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xxx

o Curricula – relevance to societal needs and community development

Curriculum is at the heart of education. A curriculum translates expected learning outcomes into
courses of studies and teaching-learning processes. It determines the kinds of learning materials
and teaching aids to be designed, produced and used by teachers and learners. It also guides the
teachers to impart learning in an organized manner, so as to help learners to achieve the desired
learning outcomes. Taking into account pedagogy and language of instruction, the relevance of
the curriculum is a critical factor for good quality education.

xxx

To improve the quality of educational system, most countries worldwide participate in testing of
various relevant fields. Those testing include one or more of the following: PIRLS (Progress in
International Reading Literacy Study), TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study) and PISA (The Programme for International Student Assessment). Apart from being very
extensive, the assessment is not based on curricula and the reproduction of acquired knowledge
but primarily draws on students’ ability to apply knowledge and skills and to analyse, reason and
communicate effectively as they examine, interpret and solve problems.

Almost all countries, except Bosnia and Herzegovina, participated in at least one cycle of PISA
testing and results were quite surprising. Just Slovenian students succeeded to reach above OECD
average result, while all the others (Albania, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro and
Serbia) were below the average.

The PISA test results confirmed that the education in this region is lacking quality. Besides the
poor ranking, a great concern was caused by the significant percentage of students who failed to
reach the minimum level of skills on using and applying their knowledge in real-life situations.

o Education system and labour market - is education system meeting labour

market demands?

tba

*Supported and illustrated with direct quotes from interviews and relevant graphs/figures

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5 Conclusion & Recommendations
tba

Even though a lot of educational policies and measures were initiated in the last fifteen to twenty
years, a success of undertaken actions was variable. Until now, some reform initiatives have been
accomplished, while some others were initiated, then slowed down and stopped. Obviously, one
of the obstacles to policy implementation was the dependence of education policy on political
changes in the top executive power.

An important dilemma is whether the reform initiatives launched by educational authorities are
encouraged mainly by the requirements to follow the European standards, policy and practice
for the sake of integration into the unique educational space or there is essential and inherent
need for the development and improvement of education system

- the institutions, agencies and organizations in charge of decision making and planning have
made no real attempt to learn from the experiences of other countries that have faced similar
problems in their educational systems

- some government initiatives in the past have had an adverse effect on the quality of
education, most notably: decentralization is many cases is used to control over local
authorities or schools; procurement and installation of 18 000 PCs, 100 000 monitors and 300
000 lap tops disrupted the classroom learning environment, making interaction and
individualized learning impossible; mandatory external testing for all students over 9 years of
age completely defocused the educational process from competence-based learning to
teaching and memorizing facts; introduction of a “Cambridge curriculum” in Math and
Sciences, without any prior appraisal of its appropriateness with particular setting, without
necessary time and resources

- significant obstacle in the implementation of the reform has been the resistance and/or lack
of interest of teachers and other educational staff to changes; besides that, unfavourable
social status and the position that teachers currently hold in the society result in apathy and
lack of motivation for activities which need their further effort and commitment

The biggest issues which should be priorities are:

 financing of education
 teacher policy
 curricula
 assessment and evaluation in education
 leadership in education institutions

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  greater coverage by early, high quality pre-school education, especially for children from
less privileged social groups (poor, children with special needs, ethnic minority)
 improvement of higher education

R The democratic right to education must be implemented through solutions that are based on
permanent and universal humanist values, and not through a process of trial and error or as the
result of experiments from which the students will emerge scarred for life; educational
institutions must be freed from all types of discrimination; they must be inclusive and ready to
meet the needs of every student in an equally successful manner

R Education reforms need to be designed through a deep analysis and a comprehensive

consultation process, piloted, evaluated, and reviewed in order to be successfully implemented
at national level accompanied by continuous monitoring and review
R Regardless the political party in power, good evidence-based reforms need to be closely
monitored and evaluated, and greater advocacy work is needed to raise knowledge and
awareness of the public and civil society on their role in shaping policy and practice

R Development and implementation through a participatory approach of school-based policies

tailored to the needs, challenges, interests and goals of the whole school community in line with
national and international legal frameworks will facilitate implementation of national reforms
and policies and maximize positive results at school, community and national level

R In order to assure the continuation of quality educational system, it has to be properly financed,
which means that trend of shrinking public expenditure for education should be reversed

R Adopted strategic documents and action plans need commitment to the implementation of all
objectives by all responsible actors and efficient coordination of individual activities of different
authorities, bodies and institutions within the system
R Comprehensive efforts and interventions at national, local and school level are necessary to
support and boost teacher professional development, reputation, as well as motivation and
commitment

R Introduction to and effective implementation of effective interactive participatory teaching

methods, cooperation and exchange among teachers and frequent communication and
involvement of parents will contribute to a more favourable and inclusive classroom and school
environment that will encourage and support student participation and learning

R Continuous professional development of school leaders and improvement of school

governance through strengthening of inner school structures and cooperation with parents and
other stakeholders will lead to a better quality and more equitable and inclusive school.

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R The further modernisation of education system in all educational levels should be continued
(e.g. better regulate early teaching of foreign language and elective subjects in basic school,
reform gymnasium programme and matura, reform of vocational education etc.) and the level of
difficulty of education on all levels of education reconsidered, so the standards required for each
particular level of education would not be decreasing
R It is necessary to improve and harmonize legislative base of education, to improve statistical
data collection system and education management information system

R School directors should be recruited based on merit and not political affiliation.

R Quality assurance should be reviewed and reliability of state matura results as well as the
results of PISA test should be taken into consideration.

R Universities and VET should take into consideration the labour market demands and structure
their programs accordingly.

R Participation of Roma and other ethnic minorities should be supported through Learning
Centres, provision of scholarships for upper secondary school and university.

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6 Annexes

6.1 Methodology

Data collection plan

Method  Secondary (desk) research
 Individual semi–structured interviews
Data sources  Government published data (laws, strategies, plans, reports, analysis)
 National statistic agencies
 International statistic databases (e.g. World Bank, OECD, Eurostat…)
 Books, journal articles, (research) reports and analysis published by universities, research agencies,
international organizations and non-governmental organizations…
 Interviewees – relevant key informants (officials from the professional organisations in the field of education,
representatives from non-governmental organisations/interest groups dealing with the educational issues,
researchers/academics dealing with the educational issues)
Criteria for data selection  Availability
 Relevance
 Quality, credibility and accuracy
 Recency
 Containing material to show the development and limitations in this area

Topic Research questions Operationalization of research questions/Indicators

What does the policy aim to do - desired objectives, the main goals and
priorities? What are the values relating to the curriculum, assessment and
pedagogy?

Is the right to education recognized and mentioned in the legislation, policies

What are the values contained within the and public discourse in the country?
APPROACH to education
education policy?
Does the government provide free and compulsory basic education to all?

Kinds of political and government institutional frameworks?

The degree of decentralization of the political-administrative structure?
Topic Research questions Operationalization of research questions/Indicators
How does the government finance the education sector and what do they
finance?
How are financial and human resources distributed across the education sub-
sectors?
To what extent are external donors, the non-government sector and local
communities financing education in the country?

Demographics – population, structure

Employment rates
Poverty rates
Literacy rates
Capacities/resources

Are there sufficient numbers of schools and capacity, with appropriate

geographical distribution, to meet actual needs?
Are children provided with basic textbooks and appropriate learning
Are education systems contributing to social materials?
justice and equality?
ACCESS to education What and how much are parents/households expected to contribute to the
schooling of their children?
What type of preschool programmes exist? Are they funded and managed
publicly or privately? What are the levels of participation in these different
programmes?

Teacher policies

What are the entry requirements to the teaching profession? What are the
different types of pre-service teacher education programmes? What are the
different forms of in-service training for practicing teachers?

What kinds of policies or incentives have been offered to attract talented

young people to join the teaching profession?

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Topic Research questions Operationalization of research questions/Indicators

What is the percentage of teachers, by employment status, in each level and

type of education? Are there sufficient numbers of trained teachers to teach?
What are the working conditions of teachers in terms of hours of work, class
size, teaching aids and materials…?
How do teacher salaries compare with the salaries for other professions in the
country?
Is there any collective bargaining through teacher unions, social dialogue
through teacher professional associations, or regular consultation with
teachers’ organizations?
Participation levels

Enrolment rates? Were there any changes in the pattern of enrolment in

different educational levels? Have transition rates from primary to secondary
education evolved in recent years? What have been the recent enrolment
trends in technical and vocational secondary education compared to general
secondary education?

What are the trends of student progression in primary schools? Are there any
particular population groups that repeat grades and drop out more than
others? What specific measures have been put in place to address these
issues?

What are the student inflow and outflow rates in the country?
What policies and strategies exist to increase enrolment for marginalized
populations?

What financial and educational support is offered to students from poor and
marginalized communities (fellowships, scholarships, loan schemes)?

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 Topic Research questions Operationalization of research questions/Indicators

To what extent school curriculum is in line with the competence framework.

Are education practices focused on instilling knowledge or developing
capacities of learners? Learning outcomes measurement? Results of
international testing?

Do school curriculum (textbooks) include aspects of civic and political

Are education systems contributing to education? Are there any other public institutions or non-governmental
responsible citizenship and democratic organisations that provide political education?
activism?
Economic and social Are pupils, teachers, parents, further societal stakeholders) involved in
FUNCTION of education Are education systems empowering people to education policy and management? What are the existing forms of
get decent work? involvement?
Is there a system in place to identify and analyse the skills needed by employers
and society?
Is the information about future labour demand and supply in line with the
country’s socioeconomic development plan or strategy?
Are there career development information and guidance services? What are the
existing mechanisms to facilitate school - work transitions?

Tools and templates used for data collection and interview protocols are attached as separate documents to this study report.
Short national report for each country is attached as a separate document to this study report.

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List of interviewees
Country Basic information about Date of interview Duration
respondent
Albania Silva Paralloi, education 10/09/2018 45 minutes
specialist at Elbasan Regional
Education Directorate
Albania Gerda Sula, education expert, 11/09/2018 60 minutes
researcher, university professor
at the teaching program and
Civil Society representative
Bosnia and Herzegovina Dženana Trbić, Education 04/09/2018 50 minutes
Program coordinator, Open
Society Fund Bosnia &
Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina Žaneta Džumhur, Learning 24/09/2018 60 minutes
Standards and Evaluation Unit
Head, Agency for Pre-Primary,
Primary and Secondary
Education
Croatia Eli Pijaca Plavšić, executive 14/09/2018 40 minutes
director of the CSO Forum za
slobodu odgoja
Croatia Dejana Bouillet, Chair of 25/09/2018 40 minutes
Department for Pedagogy and
Didactics, Teacher Education
Faculty, University of Zagreb
Kosovo Agim Berdynaj, Director of the 05/09/2018 40 minutes
Development of Pre-university
Education within the Ministry
of Education, Science and
Technology
Kosovo Osman Buleshkaj, Education 04/09/2018 45 minutes
Expert
Macedonia
Macedonia
Montenegro Tamara Milić, Head of 03/08/2018 60 minutes
Department for Preschool
education and education of
persons with special
educational needs
Montenegro Vučina Zorić, university 18/07/2018 60 minutes
professor – Pedagogy
Department at the Faculty of
Philosophy, University of
Montenegro
Country Basic information about Date of interview Duration
respondent
Serbia Biljana Bodroški Spariosu, 10/08/2018 50 minutes
associate professor at the
Department of Pedagogy and
Andragogy, Faculty of
Philosophy, University of
Belgrade
Serbia Dejan Stanković, Research 24/07/2018 60 minutes
coordinator at the Centre for
Educational Policy, Belgrade
Slovenia Janez Vogrinc, Dean of the 07/09/2018 40 minutes
Faculty of Education, University
of Ljubljana; President of State
Commission for National
External Evaluation
Slovenia Slavko Gaber, associate 28/08/2018 45 minutes
professor at the Faculty of
Education, University of
Ljubljana

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6.2 Country Context Data Profiles

tba - The data framework for each country

6.3 Key Milestones

tba - List of Key Milestones in Education Systems in respective countries during last 5 to 10 years

7 Graphics/Tables
Relevant graphics and tables showing trends and/or comparative overview.

59