754 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

115. You want to fly your small plane due north, but there is a 117. If w = - 2i + 6j, find the following vector:
75-kilometer wind blowing from west to east.
2(- 2) + 4(- 6)
a. Find the direction angle for where you should head w.
7w72
the plane if your speed relative to the ground is
310 kilometers per hour. 118. Consider the triangle formed by vectors u, v, and w.
b. If you increase your air speed, should the direction y
angle in part (a) increase or decrease? Explain your
answer.
(a1, b1)
u
v
Preview Exercises (a 2, b 2)
u
w
Exercises 116–118 will help you prepare for the material covered x
in the next section. (0, 0)

116. Find the obtuse angle u, rounded to the nearest tenth of a a. Use the magnitudes of the three vectors to write the
degree, satisfying Law of Cosines for the triangle shown in the figure:
3(- 1) + (- 2)(4)
7 u 7 2 = ?.
cos u = ,
7v7 7w7 b. Use the coordinates of the points shown in the figure to
write algebraic expressions for 7 u 7 , 7 u 7 2, 7 v 7 , 7 v 7 2, 7 w 7 ,
where v = 3i - 2j and w = -i + 4j. and 7 w 7 2.

SECTION 6.7 The Dot Product

Objectives
 Find the dot product of
two vectors.
 Find the angle between
two vectors.
 Use the dot product to
determine if two vectors
are orthogonal.
 Find the projection of
a vector onto another
vector.
 Express a vector as the
sum of two orthogonal
vectors.
 Compute work.

Talk about hard work! I can see the weightlifter’s muscles quivering from the
exertion of holding the barbell in a stationary position above her head. Still, I’m not
sure if she’s doing as much work as I am, sitting at my desk with my brain quivering
from studying trigonometric functions and their applications.
Would it surprise you to know that neither you nor the weightlifter are doing
any work at all? The definition of work in physics and mathematics is not the same
as what we mean by “work” in everyday use. To understand what is involved in real
work, we turn to a new vector operation called the dot product.
 Section 6.7 The Dot Product 755

 Find the dot product The Dot Product of Two Vectors

of two vectors. The operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication result in vectors. By
contrast, the dot product of two vectors results in a scalar (a real number), rather
than a vector.

Definition of the Dot Product

If v = a 1 i + b 1 j and w = a 2 i + b 2 j are vectors, the dot product v # w is defined
as follows:
v # w = a 1 a 2 + b 1 b 2.
The dot product of two vectors is the sum of the products of their horizontal
components and their vertical components.

EXAMPLE 1 Finding Dot Products

If v = 5i - 2j and w = -3i + 4j, find each of the following dot products:
a. v # w b. w # v c. v # v.

SOLUTION
To find each dot product, multiply the two horizontal components, and then
multiply the two vertical components. Finally, add the two products.
a. v ⴢ w=5(–3)+(–2)(4)=–15-8=–23

Multiply the horizontal components

and multiply the vertical components of
v = 5i − 2j and w = −3i + 4j.

b. w ⴢ v=–3(5)+4(–2)=–15-8=–23

Multiply the horizontal components

and multiply the vertical components of
w = −3i + 4j and v = 5i − 2j.

c. v ⴢ v=5(5)+(–2)(–2)=25+4=29

Multiply the horizontal components

and multiply the vertical components of
v = 5i − 2j and v = 5i − 2j.
● ● ●

Check Point 1 If v = 7i - 4j and w = 2i - j, find each of the following dot

products:
a. v # w b. w # v c. w # w.

In Example 1 and Check Point 1, did you notice that v # w and w # v produced
the same scalar? The fact that v # w = w # v follows from the definition of the dot
product. Properties of the dot product are given in the following box. Proofs for
some of these properties are given in the appendix.

Properties of the Dot Product

If u, v, and w are vectors, and c is a scalar, then
1. u # v = v # u
2. u # (v + w) = u # v + u # w
3. 0 # v = 0
4. v # v = 7 v 7 2
5. (cu) # v = c(u # v) = u # (cv)
756 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

y The Angle between Two Vectors

The Law of Cosines can be used to derive another formula for the dot product. This
(a1, b1) formula will give us a way to find the angle between two vectors.
u Figure 6.64 shows vectors v = a 1 i + b 1 j and w = a 2 i + b 2 j. By the definition
of the dot product, we know that v # w = a 1 a 2 + b 1 b 2. Our new formula for the dot
v
(a 2, b 2)
u
w x product involves the angle between the vectors, shown as u in the figure. Apply the
(0, 0) Law of Cosines to the triangle shown in the figure.
FIGURE 6.64

u2=v2+w2-2v w cos u Use the Law of Cosines.

u = (a1 − a2)i + (b1 − b2)j v = a1i + b1 j w = a2i + b2 j

u = (a1 − a2)2 + (b1 − b2)2 v = a12 + b12 w = a22 + b22

(a 1 - a 2)2 + (b 1 - b 2)2 = (a 21 + b 21) + (a 22 + b 22) - 2 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u Substitute the squares of the

magnitudes of vectors u, v, and w
into the Law of Cosines.

a 21 - 2a 1 a 2 + a 22 + b 21 - 2b 1 b 2 + b 22 = a 21 + b 21 + a 22 + b 22 - 2 7 v 7 7 w 7 cosu Square the binomials using

(A - B)2 = A2 - 2AB + B2.

-2a 1 a 2 - 2b 1 b 2 = -2 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u Subtract a21 , a22, b21 , and b22 from

both sides of the equation.

a1a2+b1b2=v w cos u Divide both sides by - 2.

By definition,
v ⴢ w = a1a2 + b1b2 .

v # w = 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u Substitute v # w for the

expression on the left
side of the equation.

Alternative Formula for the Dot Product

If v and w are two nonzero vectors and u is the smallest nonnegative angle
between them, then
v # w = 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u.

 Find the angle between Solving the formula in the box for cos u gives us a formula for finding the angle
two vectors. between two vectors:

Formula for the Angle between Two Vectors

If v and w are two nonzero vectors and u is the smallest nonnegative angle
between v and w, then
v#w v#w
cos u = and u = cos-1 ¢ ≤.
7v7 7w7 7v7 7w7

EXAMPLE 2 Finding the Angle between Two Vectors

Find the angle u between the vectors v = 3i - 2j and w = -i + 4j, shown in
Figure 6.65 at the top of the next page. Round to the nearest tenth of a degree.
 Section 6.7 The Dot Product 757

y SOLUTION
(−1, 4)
5 Use the formula for the angle between two vectors.
v#w
4
cos u = Begin with the formula for the cosine
w = −i + 4j
u
7v7 7w7 of the angle between two vectors.
x (3i - 2j) # (-i + 4j) Substitute the given vectors in the
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1−1 2 3 4 5 = numerator. Find the magnitude of
−2 232 + (-2)2 2(-1)2 + 42 each vector in the denominator.
(3, −2)
−3
−4 v = 3i − 2j 3(-1) + (-2)(4) Find the dot product in the numerator.
−5 = Simplify in the denominator.
213217
FIGURE 6.65 Finding the angle 11
between two vectors
= - Perform the indicated operations.
2221
The angle u between the vectors is
11
u = cos-1 ¢ - ≤ ⬇ 137.7⬚. Use a calculator. ● ● ●
2221
Check Point 2 Find the angle between the vectors v = 4i - 3j and
w = i + 2j. Round to the nearest tenth of a degree.

 Use the dot product to determine Parallel and Orthogonal Vectors

if two vectors are orthogonal. Two vectors are parallel when the angle u between the vectors is 0⬚ or 180⬚. If u = 0⬚,
the vectors point in the same direction. If u = 180⬚, the vectors point in opposite
directions. Figure 6.66 shows parallel vectors.
u
v
v w
w
u = 0⬚ and cos u = 1. u = 180⬚ and cos u = - 1. Vectors
Vectors point in the point in opposite directions.
same direction.
FIGURE 6.66 Parallel vectors
Two vectors are orthogonal when the angle between the vectors is 90⬚, shown
in Figure 6.67. (The word orthogonal, rather than perpendicular, is used to describe
v vectors that meet at right angles.) We know that v # w = 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u. If v and w are
orthogonal, then
v # w = 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos 90⬚ = 7 v 7 7 w 7 (0) = 0.
u

Conversely, if v and w are vectors such that v # w = 0, then 7 v 7 = 0 or 7 w 7 = 0 or

w

FIGURE 6.67 Orthogonal cos u = 0. If cos u = 0, then u = 90⬚, so v and w are orthogonal.
vectors: u = 90⬚ and
cos u = 0
The preceding discussion is summarized as follows:

The Dot Product and Orthogonal Vectors

Two nonzero vectors v and w are orthogonal if and only if v # w = 0. Because
y 0 # v = 0, the zero vector is orthogonal to every vector v.
5
4 EXAMPLE 3 Determining Whether Vectors Are Orthogonal
3
w = i + 2j 2
Are the vectors v = 6i - 3j and w = i + 2j orthogonal?
1 u
x SOLUTION
−4 −3 −2 −1−1 2 3 4 5 6
The vectors are orthogonal if their dot product is 0. Begin by finding v # w.
v # w = (6i - 3j) # (i + 2j) = 6(1) + (-3)(2) = 6 - 6 = 0
−2
−3
−4 v = 6i − 3j
The dot product is 0. Thus, the given vectors are orthogonal. They are shown in
−5 Figure 6.68. ● ● ●

FIGURE 6.68 Orthogonal vectors Check Point 3 Are the vectors v = 2i + 3j and w = 6i - 4j orthogonal?
758 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

 Find the projection of a vector Projection of a Vector onto Another Vector

onto another vector. You know how to add two vectors to obtain a resultant vector. We now reverse
this process by expressing a vector as the sum of two orthogonal vectors. By doing
this, you can determine how much force is applied in a particular direction. For
example, Figure 6.69 shows a boat on a tilted ramp. The force due to gravity, F, is
pulling straight down on the boat. Part of this force, F1, is pushing the boat down the
ramp. Another part of this force, F2, is pressing the boat against the ramp, at a right
angle to the incline. These two orthogonal vectors, F1 and F2, are called the vector
F1 components of F. Notice that
F2 F = F1 + F2.
A method for finding F1 and F2 involves projecting a vector onto another vector.
F
Figure 6.70 shows two nonzero vectors, v and w, with the same initial point. The
FIGURE 6.69 angle between the vectors, u, is acute in Figure 6.70(a) and obtuse in Figure 6.70(b).
A third vector, called the vector projection of v onto w, is also shown in each figure,
denoted by projw v.

v u v

u w
w
projw v projw v

FIGURE 6.70(a) FIGURE 6.70(b)

How is the vector projection of v onto w formed? Draw the line segment from
the terminal point of v that forms a right angle with a line through w, shown in red.
The projection of v onto w lies on a line through w, and is parallel to vector w. This
vector begins at the common initial point of v and w. It ends at the point where the
dashed red line segment intersects the line through w.
Our goal is to determine an expression for projw v. We begin with its magnitude.
By the definition of the cosine function,

This is the magnitude of the

projwv vector projection of v onto w.
cos u=
v

7 v 7 cos u = 7 projw v 7 Multiply both sides by 7 v 7 .

7 projw v 7 = 7 v 7 cos u. Reverse the two sides.

We can rewrite the right side of this equation and obtain another expression for the
magnitude of the vector projection of v onto w. To do so, use the alternate formula
for the dot product, v # w = 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u.
Divide both sides of v # w = 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u by 7 w 7 :

v#w
= 7 v 7 cos u.
7w7
The expression on the right side of this equation, 7 v 7 cos u, is the same expression
that appears in the formula for 7 projw v 7 . Thus,

v#w
7 projw v 7 = 7 v 7 cos u = .
7w7
 Section 6.7 The Dot Product 759

We use the formula for the magnitude of projw v to find the vector itself. This
is done by finding the scalar product of the magnitude and the unit vector in the
direction of w.

vⴢw w vⴢw
projwv=a b a b= w
w w w2

This is the magnitude of This is the unit

the vector projection of vector in the
v onto w. direction of w.

The Vector Projection of v onto w

If v and w are two nonzero vectors, the vector projection of v onto w is
v#w
projw v = w.
7w72

EXAMPLE 4 Finding the Vector Projection of

One Vector onto Another
If v = 2i + 4j and w = -2i + 6j, find the vector projection of v onto w.

y SOLUTION
7 The vector projection of v onto w is found using the formula for projw v.
6
v#w (2i + 4j) # (-2i + 6j)
w
5 projw v = w = w
4 7w7 2
1 2(-2)2 + 62 2 2
2(-2) + 4(6) 20
projw v v = w = w = 12 (-2i + 6j) = -i + 3j
x
1 240 2 2 40
−4 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4
The three vectors, v, w, and projw v, are shown in Figure 6.71. ● ● ●
−2

FIGURE 6.71 The vector Check Point 4 If v = 2i - 5j and w = i - j, find the vector projection of v
projection of v onto w onto w.

 Express a vector as the sum of We use the vector projection of v onto w, projw v, to express v as the sum of two
two orthogonal vectors. orthogonal vectors.

The Vector Components of v

Let v and w be two nonzero vectors. Vector v can be expressed as the sum of two
orthogonal vectors, v1 and v2, where v1 is parallel to w and v2 is orthogonal to w.
v#w
v1 = projw v = w, v2 = v - v1
7w72
Thus, v = v1 + v2. The vectors v1 and v2 are called the vector components of v.
The process of expressing v as v1 + v2 is called the decomposition of v into v1
and v2.

EXAMPLE 5 Decomposing a Vector into Two Orthogonal Vectors

Let v = 2i + 4j and w = -2i + 6j. Decompose v into two vectors, v1 and v2,
where v1 is parallel to w and v2 is orthogonal to w.
760 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

SOLUTION
The vectors v = 2i + 4j and w = -2i + 6j are the vectors we worked with in
Example 4. We use the formulas in the box on the preceding page.
v1 = projw v = -i + 3j We obtained this vector in Example 4.
v2 = v - v1 = (2i + 4j) - (-i + 3j) = 3i + j ● ● ●

Check Point 5 Let v = 2i - 5j and w = i - j. (These are the vectors from

Check Point 4.) Decompose v into two vectors, v1 and v2, where v1 is parallel to
w and v2 is orthogonal to w.

 Compute work. Work: An Application of the Dot Product

The bad news: Your car just died. The good news: It died on a level road just 200 feet
from a gas station. Exerting a constant force of 90 pounds, and not necessarily
whistling as you work, you manage to push the car to the gas station.

Force: 90 pounds

A B

200 feet

Although you did not whistle, you certainly did work pushing the car 200 feet
from point A to point B. How much work did you do? If a constant force F is applied
to an object, moving it from point A to point B in the direction of the force, the work,
W, done is
W = (magnitude of force)(distance from A to B).
You pushed with a force of 90 pounds for a distance of 200 feet. The work done by
your force is
W = (90 pounds)(200 feet)
or 18,000 foot-pounds. Work is often measured in foot-pounds or in newton-meters.
The photo on the left shows an adult pulling a small child in a wagon. Work
is being done. However, the situation is not quite the same as pushing your car.
Pushing the car, the force you applied was along the line of motion. By contrast,
the force of the adult pulling the wagon is not applied along the line of the wagon’s
motion. In this case, the dot product is used to determine the work done by the force.

Definition of Work
The work, W, done by a force F moving an object from A to B is
"
W = F # AB.

When computing work, it is often easier to use the alternative formula for the
dot product. Thus,
W=F ⴢ AB=F AB cos u.

F is the AB is the u is the angle

magnitude distance over between the
of the force. which the force and the
constant force direction of
is applied. motion.

It is correct to refer to W as either the work done or the work done by the force.
 Section 6.7 The Dot Product 761

EXAMPLE 6 Computing Work

A child pulls a sled along level ground by exerting a force of 30 pounds on a rope
nds
pou that makes an angle of 35⬚ with the horizontal. How much work is done pulling the
30 sled 200 feet?
35°
SOLUTION
The situation is illustrated in Figure 6.72. The work done is
FIGURE 6.72 Computing work done
pulling a sled 200 feet W=F AB cos u=(30)(200) cos 35⬚≠4915.

Magnitude Distance The angle

of the force is between the
is 30 pounds. 200 feet. force and the
sled’s motion
is 35°.

Thus, the work done is approximately 4915 foot-pounds. ● ● ●

Check Point 6 A child pulls a wagon along level ground by exerting a force of
20 pounds on a handle that makes an angle of 30⬚ with the horizontal. How much
work is done pulling the wagon 150 feet?

CONCEPT AND VOCABULARY CHECK

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1. If v = a 1i + b 1j and w = a 2i + b 2 j are vectors, the 3. If v # w = 0, then the vectors v and w are .

product v # w, called the , is defined as 4. True or false: Given two nonzero vectors v and w,
v#w = . v can be decomposed into two vectors, one parallel to
2. If v and w are two nonzero vectors and u is the w and the other orthogonal to w.
smallest nonnegative angle between them, then 5. True or false: The definition of work indicates that
v#w = . work is a vector.

EXERCISE SET 6.7

Practice Exercises In Exercises 17–22, find the angle between v and w. Round to the
In Exercises 1–8, use the given vectors to find v # w and v # v.
nearest tenth of a degree.

1. v = 3i + j, w = i + 3j 2. v = 3i + 3j, w = i + 4j 17. v = 2i - j, w = 3i + 4j
3. v = 5i - 4j, w = - 2i - j 18. v = -2i + 5j, w = 3i + 6j
4. v = 7i - 2j, w = - 3i - j 19. v = -3i + 2j, w = 4i - j
5. v = -6i - 5j, w = -10i - 8j 20. v = i + 2j, w = 4i - 3j
6. v = - 8i - 3j, w = -10i - 5j 21. v = 6i, w = 5i + 4j 22. v = 3j, w = 4i + 5j
7. v = 5i, w = j 8. v = i, w = -5j In Exercises 23–32, use the dot product to determine whether
v and w are orthogonal.
In Exercises 9–16, let
23. v = i + j, w = i - j 24. v = i + j, w = - i + j
u = 2i - j, v = 3i + j, and w = i + 4j.
25. v = 2i + 8j, w = 4i - j
Find each specified scalar. 26. v = 8i - 4j, w = -6i - 12j
9. u # (v + w) 10. v # (u + w) 27. v = 2i - 2j, w = -i + j
11. u#v + u#w 12. v#u + v#w 28. v = 5i - 5j, w = i - j
13. (4u) # v 14. (5v) # w 29. v = 3i, w = -4i 30. v = 5i, w = - 6i
15. 4(u # v) 16. 5(v # w) 31. v = 3i, w = -4j 32. v = 5i, w = - 6j
762 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

In Exercises 33–38, find projw v. Then decompose v into two 55. A wagon is pulled along level ground by exerting a force
vectors, v1 and v2, where v1 is parallel to w and v2 is orthogonal of 40 pounds on a handle that makes an angle of 32⬚ with
to w. the horizontal. How much work is done pulling the wagon
100 feet? Round to the nearest foot-pound.
33. v = 3i - 2j, w = i - j
56. A wagon is pulled along level ground by exerting a force
34. v = 3i - 2j, w = 2i + j
of 25 pounds on a handle that makes an angle of 38⬚ with
35. v = i + 3j, w = - 2i + 5j the horizontal. How much work is done pulling the wagon
36. v = 2i + 4j, w = - 3i + 6j 100 feet? Round to the nearest foot-pound.
37. v = i + 2j, w = 3i + 6j 57. A force of 60 pounds on a rope is used to pull a box up a ramp
38. v = 2i + j, w = 6i + 3j inclined at 12⬚ from the horizontal. The figure shows that the
rope forms an angle of 38⬚ with the horizontal. How much
work is done pulling the box 20 feet along the ramp?
Practice Plus
60 pounds
In Exercises 39–42, let
u = - i + j, v = 3i - 2j, and w = -5j. 38°

Find each specified scalar or vector.

12°
39. 5u # (3v - 4w)
40. 4u # (5v - 3w) 58. A force of 80 pounds on a rope is used to pull a box up a ramp
inclined at 10⬚ from the horizontal. The rope forms an angle
41. proju(v + w)
of 33⬚ with the horizontal. How much work is done pulling
42. proju(v - w) the box 25 feet along the ramp?
59. A force is given by the vector F = 3i + 2j. The force moves
In Exercises 43–44, find the angle, in degrees, between v and w. an object along a straight line from the point (4, 9) to the
4p 4p 3p 3p point (10, 20). Find the work done if the distance is measured
43. v = 2 cos i + 2 sin j, w = 3 cos i + 3 sin j in feet and the force is measured in pounds.
3 3 2 2
60. A force is given by the vector F = 5i + 7j. The force moves
5p 5p
44. v = 3 cos i + 3 sin j, w = 2 cos pi + 2 sin pj an object along a straight line from the point (8, 11) to the
3 3
point (18, 20). Find the work done if the distance is measured
in meters and the force is measured in newtons.
In Exercises 45–50, determine whether v and w are parallel, 61. A force of 4 pounds acts in the direction of 50⬚ to the
orthogonal, or neither. horizontal. The force moves an object along a straight
45. v =
3i - 5j, w = 6i - 10j line from the point (3, 7) to the point (8, 10), with distance
46. v =
-2i + 3j, w = -6i + 9j measured in feet. Find the work done by the force.
47. v =
3i - 5j, w = 6i + 10j 62. A force of 6 pounds acts in the direction of 40⬚ to the
horizontal. The force moves an object along a straight line
48. v =
-2i + 3j, w = -6i - 9j
from the point (5, 9) to the point (8, 20), with the distance
18 measured in feet. Find the work done by the force.
49. v = 3i - 5j, w = 6i + j
5 63. Refer to Figure 6.69 on page 758. Suppose a boat weighs
50. v = -2i + 3j, w = -6i - 4j 700 pounds and is on a ramp inclined at 30⬚. Represent the
force due to gravity, F, using
F = -700j.
Application Exercises a. Write a unit vector along the ramp in the upward
51. The components of v = 240i + 300j represent the respective direction.
number of gallons of regular and premium gas sold at a b. Find the vector projection of F onto the unit vector from
station. The components of w = 2.90i + 3.07j represent the part (a).
respective prices per gallon for each kind of gas. Find v # w
c. What is the magnitude of the vector projection in part
and describe what the answer means in practical terms.
(b)? What does this represent?
52. The components of v = 180i + 450j represent the respective
number of one-day and three-day videos rented from a video 64. Refer to Figure 6.69 on page 758. Suppose a boat weighs
store. The components of w = 3i + 2j represent the prices to 650 pounds and is on a ramp inclined at 30⬚. Represent the
rent the one-day and three-day videos, respectively. Find v # w force due to gravity, F, using
and describe what the answer means in practical terms. F = - 650j.
53. Find the work done in pushing a car along a level road from a. Write a unit vector along the ramp in the upward
point A to point B, 80 feet from A, while exerting a constant direction.
force of 95 pounds. Round to the nearest foot-pound. b. Find the vector projection of F onto the unit vector from
54. Find the work done when a crane lifts a 6000-pound boulder part (a).
through a vertical distance of 12 feet. Round to the nearest c. What is the magnitude of the vector projection in part
foot-pound. (b)? What does this represent?

Writing in Mathematics
65. Explain how to find the dot product of two vectors.
66. Using words and no symbols, describe how to find the dot
product of two vectors with the alternative formula
v # w = 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u.
67. Describe how to find the angle between two vectors.
68. What are parallel vectors?
69. What are orthogonal vectors?
70. How do you determine if two vectors are orthogonal?
71. Draw two vectors, v and w, with the same initial point. Show
the vector projection of v onto w in your diagram. Then
describe how you identified this vector.
72. How do you determine the work done by a force F in moving
an object from A to B when the direction of the force is not
along the line of motion?
73. A weightlifter is holding a barbell perfectly still above his
head, his body shaking from the effort. How much work is
the weightlifter doing? Explain your answer.
74. Describe one way in which the everyday use of the word work
is different from the definition of work given in this section.
Critical Thinking Exercises
Make Sense? In Exercises 75–78, determine whether each
statement makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your
reasoning.
75. Although I expected vector operations to produce another
vector, the dot product of two vectors is not a vector, but a
real number.
76. I’ve noticed that whenever the dot product is negative, the
angle between the two vectors is obtuse.
77. I’m working with a unit vector, so its dot product with itself
must be 1.
78. The weightlifter does more work in raising 300 kilograms
above her head than Atlas, who is supporting the entire
world.
Section 6.7 The Dot Product 763
In Exercises 79–81, use the vectors
u = a 1 i + b1 j, v = a 2 i + b2 j, and w = a 3 i + b3 j,
to prove the given property.
79. u#v = v#u
80. (cu) # v = c(u # v)
81. u # (v + w) = u # v + u # w
82. If v = -2i + 5j, find a vector orthogonal to v.
83. Find a value of b so that 15i - 3j and -4i + bj are
orthogonal.
84. Prove that the projection of v onto i is (v # i)i.
85. Find two vectors v and w such that the projection of v onto w
is v.
Group Exercise
86. Group members should research and present a report on
unusual and interesting applications of vectors.
Preview Exercises
Exercises 87–89 will help you prepare for the material covered in
the first section of the next chapter.
87. a. Does (4, - 1) satisfy x + 2y = 2?
b. Does (4, - 1) satisfy x - 2y = 6?
88. Graph x + 2y = 2 and x - 2y = 6 in the same rectangular
coordinate system. At what point do the graphs intersect?
89. Solve: 5(2x - 3) - 4x = 9.
764 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

CHAPTER 6 Summary, Review, and Test

SUMMARY

DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS EXAMPLES

6.1 and 6.2 The Law of Sines; The Law of Cosines
a. The Law of Sines Ex. 1, p. 683;
Ex. 2, p. 684;
a b c
= = Ex. 3, p. 685;
sin A sin B sin C Ex. 4, p. 686
b. The Law of Sines is used to solve SAA, ASA, and SSA (the ambiguous case) triangles. The ambiguous Ex. 5, p. 687
case may result in no triangle, one triangle, or two triangles; see the box on page 685.
c. The area of a triangle equals one-half the product of the lengths of two sides times the sine of their Ex. 6, p. 688
included angle.
d. The Law of Cosines
a 2 = b2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A
b2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos B
c 2 = a 2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
e. The Law of Cosines is used to find the side opposite the given angle in an SAS triangle; see the box at the Ex. 1, p. 696;
bottom of the page on page 695. The Law of Cosines is also used to find the angle opposite the longest side Ex. 2, p. 697
in an SSS triangle; see the box on page 696.
f. Heron’s Formula for the Area of a Triangle Ex. 4, p. 698
The area of a triangle with sides a, b, and c is 2s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c), where s is one-half its perimeter:
s = 12 (a + b + c).

6.3 and 6.4 Polar Coordinates; Graphs of Polar Equations

a. A point P in the polar coordinate system is represented by (r, u), where r is the directed distance from the Ex. 1, p. 703
pole to the point and u is the angle from the polar axis to line segment OP. The elements of the ordered pair
(r, u) are called the polar coordinates of P. See Figure 6.20 on page 703. When r in (r, u) is negative, a point
is located 兩 r 兩 units along the ray opposite the terminal side of u. Important information about the sign of r
and the location of the point (r, u) is found in the box on page 703.
b. Multiple Representations of Points Ex. 2, p. 704
If n is any integer, (r, u) = (r, u + 2np) or (r, u) = (-r, u + p + 2np).
c. Relations between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates
y
x = r cos u, y = r sin u, x 2 + y 2 = r 2, tan u =
x
d. To convert a point from polar coordinates (r, u) to rectangular coordinates (x, y), use x = r cos u and Ex. 3, p. 706
y = r sin u.
e. A point in rectangular coordinates (x, y) can be converted to polar coordinates (r, u). Use the procedure in Ex. 4, p. 707;
the box on page 707. Ex. 5, p. 708
f. To convert a rectangular equation to a polar equation, replace x with r cos u and y with r sin u. Ex. 6, p. 708
g. To convert a polar equation to a rectangular equation, use one or more of Ex. 7, p. 709
y
r 2 = x 2 + y 2, r cos u = x, r sin u = y, and tan u = .
x
It is often necessary to do something to the given polar equation before using the preceding expressions.
h. A polar equation is an equation whose variables are r and u. The graph of a polar equation is the set of all Ex. 1, p. 714
points whose polar coordinates satisfy the equation.
i. Polar equations can be graphed using point plotting and symmetry (see the box on page 716). Ex. 2, p. 716
 Section
Summary,
6.7 Review,
The Dotand
Product
Test 765

DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS EXAMPLES

j. The graphs of r = a cos u and r = a sin u are circles. See the box on page 715. The graphs of r = a { b sin u Ex. 3, p. 717;
and r = a { b cos u are called limaçons (a 7 0 and b 7 0), shown in the box on page 718. The graphs of Ex. 4, p. 719;
r = a sin nu and r = a cos nu, a ⬆ 0, are rose curves with 2n petals if n is even and n petals if n is odd. See Ex. 5, p. 720
the box on page 720. The graphs of r 2 = a 2 sin 2u and r 2 = a 2 cos 2u, a ⬆ 0, are called lemniscates and are
shown in the box on page 721.

6.5 Complex Numbers in Polar Form; DeMoivre’s Theorem

a. The complex number z = a + bi is represented as a point (a, b) in the complex plane, shown in Ex. 1, p. 727
Figure 6.38 on page 726.
b. The absolute value of z = a + bi is 兩 z 兩 = 兩 a + bi兩 = 2a 2 + b2. Ex. 2, p. 727
c. The polar form of z = a + bi is z = r(cos u + i sin u), where a = r cos u, b = r sin u, r = 2a 2 + b2, Ex. 3, p. 728;
b Ex. 4, p. 729
and tan u = . We call r the modulus and u the argument of z, with 0 … u 6 2p.
a
d. Multiplying Complex Numbers in Polar Form: Multiply moduli and add arguments. See the box on Ex. 5, p. 730
page 729.
e. Dividing Complex Numbers in Polar Form: Divide moduli and subtract arguments. See the box on Ex. 6, p. 731
page 730.
f. DeMoivre’s Theorem is used to find powers of complex numbers in polar form. Ex. 7, p. 732;
Ex. 8, p. 732
[r(cos u + i sin u)] = r (cos nu + i sin nu)
n n

g. DeMoivre’s Theorem can be used to find roots of complex numbers in polar form. The n distinct nth Ex. 9, p. 733;
roots of r(cos u + i sin u) are Ex. 10, p. 734
n u + 2pk u + 2pk
1r J cos a b + i sin a bR
n n
or
n u + 360⬚k u + 360⬚k
1r J cos a b + i sin a b R,
n n

where k = 0, 1, 2, c, n - 1.
6.6 Vectors
a. A vector is a directed line segment.
b. Equal vectors have the same magnitude and the same direction. Ex. 1, p. 740
c. The vector kv, the scalar multiple of the vector v and the scalar k, has magnitude 兩 k兩 7 v 7 . The direction Figure 6.52, p. 741
of kv is the same as that of v if k 7 0 and opposite v if k 6 0.
d. The sum u + v, called the resultant vector, can be expressed geometrically. Position u and v so that Figure 6.53, p. 741
the terminal point of u coincides with the initial point of v. The vector u + v extends from the initial point
of u to the terminal point of v.
e. The difference of two vectors, u - v, is defined as u + (- v). Figure 6.54, p. 742
f. The vector i is the unit vector whose direction is along the positive x@axis. The vector j is the unit vector
whose direction is along the positive y@axis.
g. Vector v, from (0, 0) to (a, b), called a position vector, is represented as v = ai + bj, where a is the Ex. 2, p. 743
horizontal component and b is the vertical component. The magnitude of v is given by 7 v 7 = 2a 2 + b2.
h. Vector v from (x1, y1) to (x2, y2) is equal to the position vector v = (x2 - x1)i + (y2 - y1)j. In rectangular Ex. 3, p. 744
coordinates, the term “vector” refers to the position vector in terms of i and j that is equal to it.
i. Operations with Vectors in Terms of i and j Ex. 4, p. 745;
If v = a 1 i + b1 j and w = a 2 i + b2 j, then Ex. 5, p. 745;
Ex. 6, p. 746
• v + w = (a 1 + a 2)i + (b1 + b2)j
• v - w = (a 1 - a 2)i + (b1 - b2)j
• kv = (ka 1)i + (kb1)j
j. The zero vector 0 is the vector whose magnitude is 0 and is assigned no direction. Many properties of vector
addition and scalar multiplication involve the zero vector. Some of these properties are listed in the box on
page 746.
766 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS EXAMPLES

v
k. The vector is the unit vector that has the same direction as v. Ex. 7, p. 747
7v7
l. A vector with magnitude 7 v 7 and direction angle u, the angle that v makes with the positive x@axis, can be Ex. 8, p. 748;
expressed in terms of its magnitude and direction angle as Ex. 9, p. 748
v = 7 v 7 cos ui + 7 v 7 sin uj.
6.7 The Dot Product
a. Definition of the Dot Product Ex. 1, p. 755
If v = a 1 i + b1 j and w = a 2 i + b2 j, the dot product of v and w is defined by v # w = a 1 a 2 + b1 b2.
b. Alternative Formula for the Dot Product: v # w = 7 v 7 7 w 7 cos u, where u is the smallest nonnegative angle
between v and w
c. Angle between Two Vectors Ex. 2, p. 756

v#w v#w
cos u = and u = cos-1 ¢ ≤
7v7 7w7 7v7 7w7
d. Two vectors are orthogonal when the angle between them is 90⬚. To show that two vectors are orthogonal, Ex. 3, p. 757
show that their dot product is zero.
e. The vector projection of v onto w is given by Ex. 4, p. 759

v#w
projw v = w.
7w72
f. A vector may be expressed as the sum of two orthogonal vectors, called the vector components. See the box Ex. 5, p. 759
at the bottom of the page on page 759.
g. The work, W, done by a force F moving an object from A to B is W = F # AB .
h
Ex. 6, p. 761
h
Thus, W = 7 F 7 7 AB 7 cos u, where u is the angle between the force and the direction of motion.

REVIEW EXERCISES
6.1 and 6.2
In Exercises 1–12, solve each triangle. Round lengths to the nearest 15. a = 2 meters, b = 4 meters, c = 5 meters
tenth and angle measures to the nearest degree. If no triangle exists, 16. a = 2 meters, b = 2 meters, c = 2 meters
state “no triangle.” If two triangles exist, solve each triangle.
17. The A-frame cabin shown below is 35 feet wide. The roof of
1. A = 70⬚, B = 55⬚, a = 12 the cabin makes a 55⬚ angle with the cabin’s base. Find the
2. B = 107⬚, C = 30⬚, c = 126 length of one side of the roof from its ground level to the
3. B = 66⬚, a = 17, c = 12 peak. Round to the nearest tenth of a foot.
4. a = 117, b = 66, c = 142
5. A = 35⬚, B = 25⬚, c = 68
6. A = 39⬚, a = 20, b = 26
7. C = 50⬚, a = 3, c = 1
8. A = 162⬚, b = 11.2, c = 48.2
9. a = 26.1, b = 40.2, c = 36.5
55° 55°
10. A = 40⬚, a = 6, b = 4
11. B = 37⬚, a = 12.4, b = 8.7 35 ft
12. A = 23⬚, a = 54.3, b = 22.1
In Exercises 13–16, find the area of the triangle having the given 18. Two cars leave a city at the same time and travel along straight
measurements. Round to the nearest square unit. highways that differ in direction by 80⬚. One car averages
60 miles per hour and the other averages 50 miles per hour.
13. C = 42⬚, a = 4 feet, b = 6 feet
How far apart will the cars be after 30 minutes? Round to the
14. A = 22⬚, b = 4 feet, c = 5 feet nearest tenth of a mile.
 Section
Summary,
6.7 Review,
The Dotand
Product
Test 767

19. Two airplanes leave an airport at the same time on different In Exercises 47–49, test for symmetry with respect to
runways. One flies on a bearing of N66.5⬚W at 325 miles per p
a. the polar axis. b. the line u = .
hour. The other airplane flies on a bearing of S26.5⬚W at 2
c. the pole.
300 miles per hour. How far apart will the airplanes be after
two hours? 47. r = 5 + 3 cos u
20. The figure shows three roads that intersect to bound a 48. r = 3 sin u
triangular piece of land. Find the lengths of the other two 49. r 2 = 9 cos 2u
sides of the land to the nearest foot.
In Exercises 50–56, graph each polar equation. Be sure to test for
symmetry.
50. r = 3 cos u 51. r = 2 + 2 sin u
52. r = sin 2u 53. r = 2 + cos u
460 feet
54. r = 1 + 3 sin u 55. r = 1 - 2 cos u

55° 46°
56. r 2 = cos 2u

21. A commercial piece of real estate is priced at $5.25 per square 6.5
foot. Find the cost, to the nearest dollar, of a triangular lot
measuring 260 feet by 320 feet by 450 feet. In Exercises 57–60, plot each complex number. Then write the
complex number in polar form. You may express the argument in
6.3 and 6.4 degrees or radians.
In Exercises 22–27, plot each point in polar coordinates and find its 57. 1 - i 58. - 2 23 + 2i
rectangular coordinates. 59. -3 - 4i 60. -5i
4p
22. (4, 60⬚) 23. (3, 150⬚) 24. a- 4, b In Exercises 61–64, write each complex number in rectangular
3
form. If necessary, round to the nearest tenth.
5p p p
25. a- 2, b 26. a- 4, - b 27. a-2, - b 61. 8(cos 60⬚ + i sin 60⬚) 62. 4(cos 210⬚ + i sin 210⬚)
4 2 4
2p 2p
In Exercises 28–30, plot each point in polar coordinates. Then find 63. 6 acos + i sin b 64. 0.6(cos 100⬚ + i sin 100⬚)
another representation (r, u) of this point in which 3 3
a. r 7 0, 2p 6 u 6 4p. In Exercises 65–67, find the product of the complex numbers.
b. r 6 0, 0 6 u 6 2p. Leave answers in polar form.
c. r 7 0, -2p 6 u 6 0. 65. z1 = 3(cos 40⬚ + i sin 40⬚)
p 2p p z 2 = 5(cos 70⬚ + i sin 70⬚)
28. a3, b 29. a2, b 30. a3.5, b
6 3 2
66. z1 = cos 210⬚ + i sin 210⬚
In Exercises 31–36, the rectangular coordinates of a point are z 2 = cos 55⬚ + i sin 55⬚
given. Find polar coordinates of each point.
3p 3p
31. (- 4, 4) 32. (3, -3) 33. (5, 12) 67. z1 = 4 acos + i sin b
7 7
34. (- 3, 4) 35. (0, - 5) 36. (1, 0) 4p 4p
z2 = 10 acos + i sin b
7 7
In Exercises 37–39, convert each rectangular equation to a polar
equation that expresses r in terms of u. z1
In Exercises 68–70, find the quotient of the complex numbers.
37. 2x + 3y = 8 Leave answers in polar form. z 2

38. x 2 + y 2 = 100 68. z1 = 10(cos 10⬚ + i sin 10⬚)

39. (x - 6)2 + y 2 = 36 z 2 = 5(cos 5⬚ + i sin 5⬚)

In Exercises 40–46, convert each polar equation to a rectangular 4p 4p

69. z1 = 5 acos + i sin b
equation. Then use your knowledge of the rectangular equation to 3 3
graph the polar equation in a polar coordinate system. p p
z2 = 10 acos + i sin b
3p 3 3
40. r = 3 41. u =
4 5p 5p
42. r cos u = -1 43. r = 5 csc u 70. z 1 = 2 acos + i sin b
3 3
44. r = 3 cos u 45. 4r cos u + r sin u = 8 p p
46. r 2 sin 2u = - 2 z2 = cos + i sin
2 2
768 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

In Exercises 71–75, use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find the indicated 93. The magnitude and direction angle of v are 7 v 7 = 12 and
power of the complex number. Write answers in rectangular form. u = 60⬚. Express v in terms of i and j.
71. [2(cos 20⬚ + i sin 20⬚)]3 94. The magnitude and direction of two forces acting on an
72. [4(cos 50⬚ + i sin 50⬚)]3 object are 100 pounds, N25⬚E, and 200 pounds, N80⬚E,
1 p p 7 respectively. Find the magnitude, to the nearest pound, and
73. J acos + i sin b R the direction angle, to the nearest tenth of a degree, of the
2 14 14
resultant force.
74. 11 - i23 2
2
95. Your boat is moving at a speed of 15 miles per hour at an
75. (- 2 - 2i)5 angle of 25⬚ upstream on a river flowing at 4 miles per hour.
The situation is illustrated in the figure below.
In Exercises 76–77, find all the complex roots. Write roots in polar
form with u in degrees.
y
76. The complex square roots of 49(cos 50⬚ + i sin 50⬚) Boat’s speed: Water’s
77. The complex cube roots of 125(cos 165⬚ + i sin 165⬚) 15 miles per hour speed:
v w 4 miles
per hour
In Exercises 78–81, find all the complex roots. Write roots in
rectangular form. Boat’s velocity
2p 2p relative to the ground
78. The complex fourth roots of 16 acos + i sin b 25°
3 3 x
79. The complex cube roots of 8i
80. The complex cube roots of -1
81. The complex fifth roots of -1 - i a. Find the vector representing your boat’s velocity relative
to the ground.
b. What is the speed of your boat, to the nearest mile per
6.6 hour, relative to the ground?
In Exercises 82–84, sketch each vector as a position vector and find c. What is the boat’s direction angle, to the nearest tenth of
its magnitude. a degree, relative to the ground?
82. v = - 3i - 4j
83. v = 5i - 2j
84. v = -3j 6.7
96. If u = 5i + 2j, v = i - j, and w = 3i - 7j, find u # (v + w).
In Exercises 85–86, let v be the vector from initial point P1 to
terminal point P2. Write v in terms of i and j. In Exercises 97–99, find the dot product v # w. Then find the angle
85. P1 = (2, - 1), P2 = (5, - 3) between v and w to the nearest tenth of a degree.
86. P1 = (-3, 0), P2 = (- 2,-2) 97. v = 2i + 3j, w = 7i - 4j
98. v = 2i + 4j, w = 6i - 11j
In Exercises 87–90, let 99. v = 2i + j, w = i - j
v = i - 5j and w = -2i + 7j.
Find each specified vector or scalar. In Exercises 100–101, use the dot product to determine whether v
and w are orthogonal.
87. v + w 100. v = 12i - 8j, w = 2i + 3j
88. w - v 101. v = i + 3j, w = -3i - j
89. 6v - 3w
90. 7 -2v 7 In Exercises 102–103, find projwv. Then decompose v into two
vectors, v1 and v2, where v1 is parallel to w and v2 is orthogonal to w.
In Exercises 91–92, find the unit vector that has the same direction 102. v = -2i + 5j, w = 5i + 4j
as the vector v. 103. v = - i + 2j, w = 3i - j
91. v = 8i - 6j 104. A heavy crate is dragged 50 feet along a level floor. Find the
92. v = -i + 2j work done if a force of 30 pounds at an angle of 42⬚ is used.
 Section
Summary,
6.7 Review,
The Dotand
Product
Test 769

CHAPTER 6 TEST
1. In oblique triangle ABC, A = 34⬚, B = 68⬚, and a = 4.8. 13. [2(cos 10⬚ + i sin 10⬚)]5
Find b to the nearest tenth. 14. Find the three cube roots of 27. Write roots in rectangular
2. In oblique triangle ABC, C = 68⬚, a = 5, and b = 6. Find c form.
to the nearest tenth. 15. If P1 = (-2, 3), P2 = (- 1, 5), and v is the vector from P1 to P2,
3. In oblique triangle ABC, a = 17 inches, b = 45 inches, and a. Write v in terms of i and j.
c = 32 inches. Find the area of the triangle to the nearest b. Find 7 v 7 .
square inch.
5p In Exercises 16–19, let
4. Plot a4, b in the polar coordinate system. Then write two
4 v = -5i + 2j and w = 2i - 4j.
other ordered pairs (r, u) that name this point.
Find the specified vector, scalar, or angle.
5. If the rectangular coordinates of a point are (1, - 1), find
polar coordinates of the point. 16. 3v - 4w 17. v # w
6. Convert x + (y + 8) = 64 to a polar equation that
2 2 18. the angle between v and w, to the nearest degree
expresses r in terms of u. 19. projw v
7. Convert to a rectangular equation and then graph: 20. A small fire is sighted from ranger stations A and B. Station B
r = -4 sec u. is 1.6 miles due east of station A. The bearing of the fire from
In Exercises 8–9, graph each polar equation. station A is N35⬚E and the bearing of the fire from station B
is N50⬚W. How far, to the nearest tenth of a mile, is the fire
8. r = 1 + sin u 9. r = 1 + 3 cos u from station A?
10. Write - 23 + i in polar form. 21. The magnitude and direction of two forces acting on an
In Exercises 11–13, perform the indicated operation. Leave answers object are 250 pounds, N60⬚E, and 150 pounds, S45⬚E. Find
in polar form. the magnitude, to the nearest pound, and the direction angle,
11. 5(cos 15⬚ + i sin 15⬚) # 10(cos 5⬚ + i sin 5⬚)
to the nearest tenth of a degree, of the resultant force.
p p 22. A child is pulling a wagon with a force of 40 pounds. How
2 acos + i sin b much work is done in moving the wagon 60 feet if the handle
2 2
12. makes an angle of 35⬚ with the ground? Round to the nearest
p p foot-pound.
4 acos + i sin b
3 3

CUMULATIVE REVIEW EXERCISES (CHAPTERS P–6)

Solve each equation or inequality in Exercises 1–4. In Exercises 10–11, find the exact value of each expression.
1. x - x - x - x - 2 = 0
4 3 2
p p
10. 2 sin - 3 tan
3 6
2. 2 sin2 u - 3 sin u + 1 = 0, 0 … u 6 2p
11. sin 1 tan-1 12 2
3. x 2 + 2x + 3 7 11
In Exercises 12–13, find the domain of the function whose equation
4. sin u cos u = - 12, 0 … u 6 2p is given.
12. f(x) = 25 - x
In Exercises 5–6, graph one complete cycle.
x - 3
5. y = 3 sin(2x - p) 13. g(x) = 2
x - 9
6. y = - 4 cos px 14. A ball is thrown vertically upward from a height of 8 feet with
In Exercises 7–8, verify each identity. an initial velocity of 48 feet per second. The ball’s height, s(t),
in feet, after t seconds is given by
7. sin u csc u - cos2 u = sin2 u
3p s(t) = -16t 2 + 48t + 8.
8. cos au + b = sin u
2 After how many seconds does the ball reach its maximum
9. Find the slope and y@intercept of the line whose equation is height? What is the maximum height?
2x + 4y - 8 = 0.
770 Chapter 6 Additional Topics in Trigonometry

15. An object moves in simple harmonic motion described by 20. Psychologists can measure the amount learned, L, at time t
d = 4 sin 5t, where t is measured in seconds and d in meters. using the model L = A(1 - e -kt). The variable A represents
Find a. the maximum displacement; b. the frequency; and the total amount to be learned and k is the learning rate.
c. the time required for one cycle. A student preparing for the SAT has 300 new vocabulary
words to learn: A = 300. This particular student can learn
16. Use a half-angle formula to find the exact value of cos 22.5⬚.
20 vocabulary words after 5 minutes: If t = 5, L = 20.
17. If v = 2i + 7j and w = i - 2j, find a. 3v - w and b. v # w.
a. Find k, the learning rate, correct to three decimal places.
18. Express as a single logarithm with a coefficient of 1:
1 b. Approximately how many words will the student have
2 log b x - log b(x + 1).
2
learned after 20 minutes?
19. Write the slope-intercept form of the line passing through c. How long will it take for the student to learn 260 words?
(4, - 1) and (-8, 5).