Review

Author(s): Zvi Uri Ma'oz

Review by: Zvi Uri Ma'oz
Source: Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 47, No. 3/4 (1997), pp. 279-283
Published by: Israel Exploration Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27926486
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 REVIEWS
Shimon Dar: Settlements and Cult Sites additional templesat QaPat Bustra and Kafr
on Mount Hermon, Israel: Ituraean Dura (Chapters IV-V, pp. 93-113) and of
Culture in the Hellenistic and Roman various other sites: settlements, ore mines,
Periods (BAR International Series 589), military enclosures and those of indefinite
Tempvs Repartvm, Oxford, 1993. 325 pages, function (Chapters VI-XIV, pp. 114-170).
89 plans and drawings, 136photographs, 20 Various other remains with possible cultic
potteryplates. ISBN 0-86054-756-6. significance are discussed in Chapter XV
(pp. 171-179). The book concludes with
Shimon Dar presentsus with the final report three very useful sections: two lists
?
one
of his survey, excavations and research in short and the other annotated ? of all the
the Israeli part of Mount Hermon ? no sites (Chapter XVI, pp. 180-199); pottery
minor achievement as Mount Hermon is the plates (Chapter XVII, pp. 200-241); and an
most rugged and untraversable terrain in our index.

region,with high rockypeaks, deep ravines, As the subtitle proclaims, Dar tries to
steep slopes and often the thick cover of a integrate the results of his survey and
Mediterranean forest.No wonder that the excavations into a coherent picture of
remainingpart ofMount Hermon was, and the hitherto largely unknown 'Ituraean
to a large extent remains, terra incognita. Of culture'. There in
is, however, nothing
the 55 km. long, 35 km. wide (1,500-1,800 the archaeology of Mount Hermon which
sq.km.) mountain range, Dar investigated carries an unequivocal his
stamp 'Ituraean';
approximately 10 per cent, which must definitionof theHermon settlementas such
be considered representative of the entire rests, therefore, on a chain of historical
range. Since 1969,when firstattached to the assumptions which, although based on
mountain during his military service,Dar previous scholarship, isby no means beyond
discovered 64 sites, including settlements, doubt. The Ituraeans are mentioned as
cult sites and field installations (35 of these an ethnic group residing in themountains
were first published in S. Appelbaum et al. around the northern Lebanon in
Beqa',
[eds.]: Mt. Hermon and its Foothills, A the Lebanese Galilee and in the Trachons
Collection of Papers, Tel Aviv, 1978, pp. south of Damascus in the late second and
52-165 [Hebrew]). Since that publication first centuries B.C.E. (Strabo, Geographica,
the number of sites discovered has almost XVI, 2, 10, 18-19 [753, 755-756]; Josephus,
doubled, some of theadditional sitesare cult Ant. XIII 318-319). The notion that they
places, and therebymore significant,and a originated inArabia cannot be considered
much finer tool of research has now been valid, since theverse upon which it is based,
applied: archaeological excavation. 1Chron. 5:19, shows signs of having been
The book is well arranged, with composed as Hasmonaean propaganda.
two introductory chapters concerning the The few personal names attributed to
geography of themountain and the history the Ituraeans are of Aramean, rather
of settlement (Chapters I?II, pp. 1-27) than Arabian, stock (G. Beer: Ituraea,
followed by the main chapter, which PWRE 18/1, 1916, Cols. 2377-2380. Dar
describes the excavations in the sanctuaries himself proclaims [p. 78] that the names
of Har Senaim (Chapter III, pp. 28-92). in theGreek inscriptionsfromHar Senaim
This is followed by the study of two are of Ituraeanf?],Aramean and Phoenician

279

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280 REVIEWS

Recent research thus tends to sites excavated there... may not reflect
extraction).

place Ituraean origins at Mount Lebanon the complete historical process, but only
(J.D. Grainger: Hellenistic Phoenicia, one of its segments, perhaps the final
Oxford, 1991,p. 19).The Ituraean expansion stages of Ituraean settlement' (pp. 18-19).
into the Panias (Hermon) area is surmised Dar's arguments for a third-century B.C.E.

from two assumptions: 1) all themountains settlementincludeArrian 's (Anabasis II, 20,
linkingMount Lebanon, Northern Galilee 4-5) reference to Arabs in the Lebanon
and the Damascus Trachons were populated mountains during Alexander the Great's
? ?
by and only by? Ituraeans; and 2) the siege of Tyre and the datable finds coins
?
kingdom of Ptolemy, son ofMennaeus, and and ceramics from his excavations. A

his descendants, such as Zenodorus ruler of close scrutiny of these finds, however, raises

Panias (Ant.XIV 38-40; XV 344, 359-360), severe doubts regarding his conclusions.

was an Ituraean kingdom composed mainly None of the evidence presented derives
of ethnic Ituraeans. Both may from clear stratigraphie contexts. This is due
assumptions
be partly or wholly incorrect.The second in part to the very nature of these sites; and
centuryB.C.E. DANOIS inscription found the earliest finds are in no way connected
by A. Biran at Tel Dan and theZaibadaeans to the date when the various structures were

(1 Mace. 12:31-32) indicate that there built. One example will suffice here. Har
were other ethnic groups (descendants Senaim is the most extensively excavated

of Israelites, Phoenicians, Arameans and and best illustrated site (pp. 28-92, Figs.
Arabs) in theHellenistic period in theHuleh, 8-40, Pis. 1-10, photographs 10-59). Its
Hermon and Trachon earliest is the cult
Panias, regions (a fact part upper enclosure,
thatDar admits for theRoman period, pp. a rustic, partly natural rock sanctuary,

24, 26). How can archaeology distinguish enclosed in crude walls that form courts

between thevarious ethnic groups?Nothing, and rooms. A preliminary survey with

us to Dar's a metal detector produced 12 coins, the
perforce, compels accept
definition of the archaeological remains on earliest of which are three Seleucid coins
Mount Hermon as Ituraean. Although he dating roughly from the second century
may be right in defining them as Ituraean, B.C.E., and one coin of John Hyrcanus
one should caution against such hasty (135-104 B.C.E.). The rest are coins from
the first B.C.E. and the first
labelling. century
No Bronze or Iron Age siteswere found centuryC.E. issued inTyre and Sidon (pp.
on themountain itself,but only on itsborder 39, 82-83). Most of the 'Hellenistic' (and
with the Golan (M. Hartal: The Northern 'Hellenistic-Early Roman') pottery sherds
Golan Heights, Qas.rin, 1989, pp. 21-22, published from this enclosure (Pis. 1-5) are
29, 117-119). In Dar's opinion, many of fromLocus 1,a room partly carved into the
the 37 villages, farmsteads and sanctuaries rock crest (p. 33, Fig. 10). However, none
(not taking into consideration installations), of the sherds from this assemblage predate
found on the higher ranges, date from the thefirstcenturyB.C.E.; a few itemsmay be
Hellenistic period (third century B.C.E.). late first century B.C.E. or first century C.E.

He disagrees with Hartal, who dates the (Pis. 1:25; 3:4, 20; 4:20, 24; 5:1), whereas the
beginning of Ituraean settlement to the majority date from the second, third and
second half of the second century B.C.E. fourthcenturiesC.E. (Pis. 1:5, 11, 23; 2:21;
The archaeological finds on Mt. Hermon 3:30, 31; 4:6, 8, 10,21-24; 5:7, 12).
predate the finds in Northern Golan. The Based on an overall comparison of

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 REVIEWS 281

the ceramics of the Hermon with the a natural a

rocky outcrop overlooking
assemblage from Kh. Zemel (Hartal, op. view. What is significant here
spectacular
cit., Pis. 8-9), or the Hellenistic pottery is the presence of a dozen 'round pillars'
from the Panion at Banyas (A. Berlin, in 1m. in height and 0.50-0.60
(approximately
Z.U. Ma'oz et al: Paneion I, Excavations m. in diameter), which were no doubt used
at the Sanctuary of Pan at Caesarea as cult objects. They generally come inpairs,
Philippi-Banyas 1988-1993 [IAA Reports], while dispersed pillars were found in other
Jerusalem [in press]), it is evident that cult sites throughout the Hermon. At Har
there are no Hellenistic ceramics in the Senaim, a pair was excavated in situ in
Hermon. Furthermore, only six Ptolemaic Structure 7, Locus 17 (p. 37, Fig. 11,PI. 14),
and Seleucid coins were found in the found upright along the centre of a room
Mount Hermon survey: one of Antiochus (3.4 4 m.; one pillar was 0.9 m. high and
III at Har Senaim (223-187 B.C.E.); one 0.6 m. indiameter; the other only 0.7 m high
each of Seleucus III (225-223 B.C.E.) and and 0.57 m. in diameter; they stood 0.65 m.
Demetrius I (162-150 B.C.E.) at Kal'at apart on a north-south axis). Adjacent to

Bustra; one each of Ptolemy I (305-287 the south pillar there was a plastered basin

B.C.E.) and II (287-247 B.C.E.) at Jabel full of ashes (and not a stove, ordinarily
Siri; and one of Ptolemy II at Nebi Hazuri made of clay). The half of the room to the
(pp. 83, 103, 153, 161). Most coins from west of the pillars had a white plaster floor
these and other sites date from the Late (adapted for libations?),while the other half
Roman or Mamluk periods. The sporadic was with stones. the south
paved Beyond
early coinsmay suggestactivityof shepherds wall there was a flat stone, possibly an altar
or hunters, or may be residuals from later (which the author calls a 'table') with a
periods, but are in no way proof of early drainage channel cut into it.The finds from
settlement. Dar gives a similar interpretation this room leave no doubt that the squatty
to thefewByzantine andMamluk coins from 'round pillars' of the Hermon were cultic in
Har Senaim, since he does not postulate nature. Locus 17 is perhaps the best example

occupation of themountain in those later showing the physical arrangement of such

periods (p. 84). Thus, the construction of practice.
permanent edifices on Mount Hermon is Dar adduces for the pillars comparative
essentially Roman (Dar therefore argues [p. material from far and wide (pp. 40-46),
24] that the road network is a Herodian ranging from the EB 'standing stones' in

again with no solid evidence). the Negev, Nabataean aniconic

enterprise, through
Apparently, it would have begun in the stelae to the Phoenician betyls. As a wider
firstcenturyCE. and reached its peak in background for the cult of stones, this
the third-fourth centuries. The mountain may be legitimate, but none of these even
was uninhabited during Hellenistic times, remotely resembles the pairs of flat-topped
with the exception of occasional shepherds round pillars of theHermon in size, shape,
and hunters. Even if the first settlerswere or function. Based on the cult of stones,
Ituraeans, did they preserve their singular Dar postulates a common origin for the
ethnic culturewell intoRoman times? Ituraeans and the earlier Nabataeans (p. 42),
A possible answer arises from the unique although the lattergenerally have a triad of
cult enclosure unearthed at Har Senaim, cult figures, rather than a pair. Dar's notion
is virtually a ? an
which 'high place' is no doubt influencedby his beliefs that the
of rooms clustered against Ituraeans originated in Arabia.
agglomeration

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282 REVIEWS

Do the Phoenician parallels also indicate tables, conches, sculptures of eagles and
a common originwith theHermon settlers? architectural fragments (photograph 26).
Without sufficient comparative evidence, an This isperhaps one of thebest examples of a
investigation in this direction appears to court before a templewith all itsaccessories
be fruitless.The local cult practices in the ever to have been found in classical Near

Hermon ? which may be interpreted as Eastern sanctuaries. Thus, it is all the more

the worship of a male and a female deity regrettable that Dar did not publish a
in the form of round pillars of unequal detailed plan of the lower temple and its
?
height are, as yet, unique, although they pavement. The only plan provided in Fig.
mesh well in the religious background of 13 is too schematic; some of thenumbers are
the Levant from Canaanite through Roman illegible.Had the find-spots of the various
times. This cult of Mount Hermon is, in cult objects and architectural details been
Dar's words, 'An ancient, deep-rooted ritual plotted, itwould have been insightfulas to
tradition perhaps Canaanite in origin' (p. the spatial arrangement of a sanctuary court.

85), and 'traditional local Canaanite and Dar alludes to the effectsof an earthquake
Aramean' (p. 86). I would rather look in the (p. 84,without any documentation). Further,
direction of the pillars of Ugarit and toward without the exact loci of thevarious cornices
Mount Lebanon as the ultimate origin of and conches there is no way to determine

thepillars in theHermon. the accuracy of the suggested reconstruction

Whereas the upper cult enclosure at of the temple fa?ade (Figs. 14, 22). The
Har Senaim demonstrates local, rustic
fa?ade of the lower temple is drawn as a
('primitive'), perhaps ancestral worship, the Classical Roman temple fa?ade: a distylos
lower cult enclosure portrays the impact in antis with a gabled roof, pierced by a
of Greece and Rome on these mountain conch, and with twomore conches high up
dwellers. This t?menos consists of a large, on thewall on each side of the portal. The
court below a rocky accuracy of this reconstruction
closed-off, irregular is, however,

outcrop (58 38 m.), entered through a in doubt. J.J. Coulton (quoted inn. 57) had
single portal, with three outlying service already commented that the raking cornices
rooms. Against the outcrop two rooms are more likely to have belonged to a small
were built, with a 45? angle between structure(shrine) standing in the court, since
them, the upper and the lower temples there are not enough cornices in the area to
c. 10 m.; 6.45 c. 6.5 m. respectively; assemble a full temple Further, bases,
(8.4 gable.
with a differenceof 2.2m. in their levels).At column drums and capitals for the portico
least a quarter of their interiorspace is taken reconstruction (Fig. 32), as well as the three
up by the natural rock at the back, and the conches and two antae, do not appear
floor is also mostly rock. Each temple was anywhere on the plan (Fig. 13).Moreover,
entered by way of a single portal, placed the other fragmentswhich were ascribed to
roughly in the centre of the south wall. A the fa?ade could equally well have belonged
monumental approach in frontof the lower to thecourtyard.That being the case, almost
templeconsists of a largeashlar-paved court, nothing is left for the postulated Classical
a staircase and an upper paved terrace, all Roman temple, since Dar suggests that the
forming a continuity (the rest of the court upper temple was unroofed (the existence
was left in its natural state). The paved of a gabled fa?ade is unlikely). Apparently,
zone was virtually strewn with fragments both upper and lower templeswere humble
of rectangular (cult?) pillars, altars, offering structures, built of undressed stones and re

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 REVIEWS 283

used material and poorly roofed (the few I. Eph'al and J. Naveh: Aramaic Ostraca of
rooftiles found do not justify the notion of the Fourth Century B. C.from Idumaea, The
an overall cover of roof tiles for the lower ?
Magnes Press Israel Exploration Society,
temple). Jerusalem, 1996.* 100 pages (including
In contrast to the temples themselves, ISBN 965-223-958-5.
plates).
wealth and prestige were directed toward
the paved court which people could see The book under review,which contains 200
and use. However, were these wealthy items new texts, adds considerably to the small
locally produced? The many pillars, shrines, number of previously published Aramaic
altars, sculptures, offering tables and the ostraca from the Persian and Hellenistic
like would have been produced elsewhere. periods.1 These texts, which throw light
Basalt itemsare no doubt imports;theothers upon an agrarian society inhabitingIdumaea
were probably bought from workshops in the fourth century B.C.E.,2 were all
below themountain (at Panias or further discovered in recent years in clandestine

afield), and would have been offered to the excavations. Since most of the originals
sanctuary. The finds from the sanctuary at remain in private hands,3 the authors were

Har Senaim, therefore, constitute evidence not able to view them, but studiedmost of
that its operators, supplicants and visitors themwith the aid of photographs provided
were connected, in a modest way, to the by Mr. Lenny Wolfe. These are given
Greco-Roman world below. However, the opposite their transcriptions. The authors
local culture evident on the mountain was have wisely refrainedfrompublishing about
poor and unsophisticated in comparison to a hundred of the texts in this collection,
the cities of the Roman period, such as
Panias, at the foot of the mountain.

Despite these comments, Shimon Dar's

laborious and scholarly effort is an * A list of the abbreviations used in this review
outstanding achievement, turning the terra appears on p. 286.

incognita into familiar territory.The many 1 For the previously known ostraca, see J.A.

architectural, ceramic, numismatic and other Fitzmyer and S.A. Kaufman: An Aramaic
Part
finds, their interpretation and broader Bibliography, /, Baltimore, 1992, pp.
are presented 27-30. Note that the title of the book under
context, and discussed in great
review is inexact, since it includes two ostraca
detail. The book is lavishly illustratedwith
dating from the fifth century B.C.E. (Nos.
drawings and photographs; thedivision into
200, 201), and the vocabulary of these texts
chapters, sections and paragraphs facilitates
is even listed separately in the glossary.
the reading. All these factors contribute to
2 Shortly before the publication of the present
making the book a basic textbook dealing work, another group of 218 ostraca from
with the culture of Mount Hermon in the same area was published by A. Lemaire:

particular and themountainous cultures of Nouvelles inscriptions aram?ennes d'Idum?e

theCentral Levant in general. Indeed Dar au Mus?e d'Isra?l, Paris, 1996. Recently,

has given us food for thought for future nine more ostraca have been published by
H. Lozachmeur and A. Lemaire: Nouveaux
years.
ostraca aram?ens d'Idum?e (Collection Sh.

Moussa?eff), Semitica 46 (1996), pp. 123-142.

Zvi Uri a
3 Some have been purchased by the Bible Lands
Museum, Jerusalem, and others by the Hecht

Museum, Haifa.

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