Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nature of Light
Nature of Light
Systems
Professor Z Ghassemlooy
Northumbria Communications Laboratory
School of Informatics, Engineering and
Technology
The University of Northumbria
U.K.
http://soe.unn.ac.uk/ocr
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 1
Contents
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 2
Wave Nature of Light
• Newton believed in the particle theory of light. He explained the
straight-line casting of sharp shadows of objects placed in a light
beam. but he could not explain the textures of shadows
• Wave theory: Explains the
interference where the light intensity
can be enhanced in some places and
diminished in other places behind a
screen with a slit or several slits. The
wave theory is also able to account for
the fact that the edges of a shadow are
not quite sharp.
This theory describes: Propagation,
G Ekspong, Stockholm University,
reflection, refraction and attenuation Sweden, 1999.
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 3
Wave Nature of Light - contd.
1864 James Clerk Maxwell
His mathematical theory of electromagnetism led to the view that
light is of electromagnetic nature, propagating as a wave from the
source to the receiver.
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 6
Electromagnetic Radiation
• Carries energy through space (includes visible light, dental x-rays,
radio waves, heat radiation from a fireplace)
• The wave is composed of a combination of mutually perpendicular
electric and magnetic fields the direction of propagation of the wave
is at right angles to both field directions, this is known as an
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
EM wave move through a vacuum at 3.0 x 108 m/s ("speed of light")
E = E (r , φ)e j ( ωt −βz )
H = H (r , φ)e j ( ωt −βz )
Speed of light
c = f ×λ
in a vacuum
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 7
The Wave Equation
Solutions to Maxwell’s equations:
phase fronts
λ λ
− jk ⋅r e − jk⋅R
Plane wave: E∝e Spherical wave: E∝
R
2π k = n ⋅ k0 k = ω εµ0 = ε r ⋅ ω ε 0 µ 0 = ε r ⋅ k0
k=
λ λ = λ0 / n n = εr
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 8
One Dimensional EM Wave
• For most purposes, a travelling light wave can be presented as a
one-dimensional, scalar wave provided it has a direction of
propagation.
• Such a wave is usually described in terms of the electric field E.
Wavelength λ
Eo A plane wave propagating
in the direction of z is:
z
E ( z , t ) = Eo sin(ωt − βz )
Phase
2π ω
The propagation constant (or wave number) β = =
λ vp
Phase velocity v p = c / n n = Propagation medium refractive index
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 9
Polarization
Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave, where the transverse nature of it
can be demonstrated through polarization.
Unpolarized light source: The electric field is vibrating in many directions; all
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Polarized light source: The vibration of the electric field is mostly in one
direction. Any direction is possible as long as it's perpendicular to the
propagation.
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 10
Group Velocity
• A pure single frequency EM wave propagate through a wave guide
at a
Phase velocity v p = c / n
ng
dn 1.46
ng = n − λ
dλ n
1.44
500 λ (nm)1700 1900
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 11
Reflection and Refraction of Light
Medium 1
φ1 φ1 φ2 Refracted
n1 n2 ray
Boundary θ2
θ1 θ1
n2 n1
Incident φ1 φ1
φ2 ray
Reflected
Medium 2 ray
n1 < n2 n1 > n2
Using the Snell's law at the boundary we have:
φ1 = φ c = Critical Angle φc
n1
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 13
Ray Propagation in Fibre - Bound
Rays
φ > φc, α > αmax
5
φc
3 a
2
α 1
4
Core n1
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 14
Ray Propagation in Fibre - contd.
−1 n2
Since φc = sin
n1
0.5
n 2
Then n0 sin α max = n1 1 − 2 = [ n12 − n2]
2 0.5
n1
[ n12 − n2]
2 0.5
= Numerical Aperture ( NA)
NA
Fibre acceptance angle α max = sin −1
n0
0.5
Thus NA = n1 (2∆) 0.14< NA < 1
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 16
Modes in Fibre
A fiber can support:
– many modes (multi-mode fibre).
– a single mode (single mode fiber).
The number of modes (V) supported in a fiber is
determined by the indices, operating wavelength and the
diameter of the core, given as.
2πa
V = 2π a nc2 − ncl
2
or V= NA
λ λ
V<2.405 corresponds to a single mode fiber.
By reducing the radius of the fiber, V goes down, and it becomes
impossible to reach a point when only a single mode can be
supported.
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 17
Basic Fibre Properties
Cylindrical
Dielectric
Core Cladding Buffer coating
Waveguide
Low loss
Usually fused silica
Core refractive index > cladding refractive index
Operation is based on total internal reflection
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 18
Types of Fibre
There are two main fibre types:
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 19
Step-index Multi-mode Fibre
50-100 µm
Input Output
pulse 120-140µm pulse
n2 n1
Advantages: dn = 0.04,1ns/km
• Allows the use of non-coherent optical light source, e.g. LED's
• Facilitates connecting together similar fibres
• Imposes lower tolerance requirements on fibre connectors.
• Reduced dispersion compared with STMMF
Disadvantages:
• Lower bandwidth compared with STSMF
• High power loss compared with the STSMF
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 21
Step-index Single-mode Fibre
Evanescent
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 23
Fibre Characteristics
• The most important characteristics that limit the
transmission capabilities are:
• Attenuation (loss)
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 24
Attenuation - Standard Fibre
SM-fiber, InGaAsP DFB-laser,
InGaAsP FP-laser or LED ~ 1990 Optical amplifiers
10 MM-fibre, GaAs-laser 80nm 180 nm
or LED
3rd window
2nd window
5
Attenuation (dB/km)
1985
1980
2.0 1st window-
Fourth Generation,
1.0 1996, 1.55 µm
1975
WDM-systems
0.5
0.2 1300
nm 1550
nm
0.1
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Wavelength (nm)
c
Bandwidth ∆f = 2 ∆λ = 1.142 x 1014 Hz |λ1300 nm + 2.2475 1014 Hz |λ1550 nm
λ
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 25
Attenuation (Loss α) - contd.
Fibre
Pi Po
α
L
1 Po
Or in dB/km, fibre attenuation α = log = 4.343α p (km −1 )
L Pi
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 26
Fibre Attenuation - contd.
• In a typical system, the total loss could bas 20-30 dB, before it
needs amplification.
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 27
Fibre Dispersion
• Data carried in an optical fibre consists of pulses of light energy
consists of a large number of frequencies travelling at a given rate.
• There is a limit to the highest data rate (frequency) that can be
sent down a fibre and be expected to emerge intact at the output.
• This is because of a phenomenon known as Dispersion (pulse
spreading), which limits the "Bandwidth” of the fibre.
T
τ
si(t) Many modes so(t)
Output
L pulse
Cause of Dispersion:
• Chromatic (Intramodal) Dispersion
• Modal (Intermodal) Dispersion
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 28
Chromatic Dispersion
• It is a result of group velocity being a function of wavelength.
In any given mode different spectral components of a pulse traveling
through the fibre at different speed.
• It depends on the light Laser δλ = 1-2 nm
δλ = R.M.S Spectral
source spectral characteristics. width
LED δλ = 40 nm
(many modes)
wavelength
• May occur in all fibre, but is the dominant in single mode fibre
• Main causes:
• Material dispersion - different wavelengths => different speeds
• Waveguide dispersion: different wavelengths => different angles
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 29
Material Dispersion
Refractive index of silica is frequency dependent. Thus different
frequency (wavelength) components travel at different speed
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 30
Waveguide Dispersion
• This results from variation of the group velocity with wavelength for
a particular mode. Depends on the size of the fibre.
• This can usually be ignored in multimode fibres, since it is very
small compared with material dispersion.
• However it is significant in monomode fibres.
175
Waveguide dispersion
100
Dmat 0
Total dispersion
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 32
Modal Dispersion - SIMMF
The time taken for ray 1 to propagate a length Ln1
of fibre L gives the minimum delay time:
t min =
c
The time taken for the ray to propagate a length L cos θ
t max =
of fibre L gives the maximum delay time: c n1
n2
Since sin φ c = = cosθ
n1
The delay difference δTs = t max − t min
Since relative refractive index (n −n )
∆= 1 2
difference n 1
Ln12
Thus δTs ≈ ∆
cn2
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 33
Modal Dispersion - SIMMF
(n1 −n2 )
For ∆<< 1, ∆= and NA = n1 (2∆) 0.5
n2
L( NA) 2
δTs ≈
2cn1
τT =[τchrom 2 +τmodal 2 ]1 / 2
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 34
Modal Dispersion - GIMMF
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 35
Dispersion - Consequences
I- Frequency Limitation (Bandwidth) L = L1
T
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 B
L L = L 2 > L1
• Maximum frequency limitation of
signal, which can be sent along a fibre 1 0 1 0 0 1
• Intersymbol interference (ISI), which
is unacceptable in digital systems which
depend on the precise sequence of pulses. Intersymbol interference
• Multimode 6 - 25 MHz.km
• Single Mode 500 - 1500 MHz.km
• Graded Index 100 - 1000 MHZ.km
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 38
Bandwidth Distance Product
100
Source spectral width < 1 nm
Bit rate B (Gbps)
10
Distance L (km)
Dmat = 17 ps/km.nm
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 39
Controlling Dispersion
For single mode fibre:
• Wavelength 1300:
- Dispersion is very small
- Loss is high compared to 1550 nm wavelength
• Wavelength 1550:
- Dispersion is high compared with 1300 nm
- Loss is low
Dispersion
10
shifted
0
Dispersion
Standard flattened
-10
-20
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Wavelength ( µm)
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 41
Summary
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 42