Engineering Physics

Lecture Notes
Module 1
QUANTUM MECHANICS, PHYSICS OF
VIBRATIONS AND ELASTICITY

B.Tech ( I YEAR - I SEM)

(2022-23)
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Module 1

Quantum Mechanics, Physics of vibrations and Elasticity

Quantum Mechanics: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, blackbody radiation, Planck’s law of

radiation. De-Broglie Hypothesis, Expression for de-Broglie wavelength, Heisenberg’s uncertain-
ty principle, Physical significance of wave function, Time-independent one dimensional
Schrodinger’s wave Equation-Particle in one dimensional potential box.

Physics of Vibrations: Free oscillations-differential equation and solution, Damped vibrations-

differential equation and solution-critical, over and under damping, Forced vibrations-
differential equation and solution,
Elasticity: Introduction, Elastic moduli, Poisson's ratio, Hook's law, problems.

Lecture 1: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Blackbody radiation

Lecture 2: Plank quantum theory, derivation of Planck’s law of radiation

Lecture 3: De-Broglie Hypothesis, Expression for de-Broglie wavelength, Heisen-

berg’s uncertainty principle

Lecture 4: Physical significance of wave function, Time-independent one dimensional

Schrodinger’s wave Equation.

Lecture 5: Particle in one dimensional potential box.

Lecture 6: Free oscillations-differential equation of simple harmonic motion and so-

lution

Lecture 7: Damped vibrations-differential equation and solution-critical, over and

under damping

Lecture 8: Forced vibrations-differential equation and solution

Lecture 9: Elastic moduli, Poisson's ratio, Hook's law, problems.

SYLLABUS
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-1
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Blackbody radiation

Introduction
The discovery of microscopic sub atomic particles (electron, proton, neutron etc...) and their
experimental observations could not be explained by Newtonian mechanics (classical
mechanics). The attempts made to explain the experimental results like black body radiation
spectrum, specific heat of solids at low temperatures, photoelectric effect, Compton effect,
atomic spectra etc., led to the development of quantum mechanics. The interaction of light
with matter gave birth to quantum theory of light. Quantum theory of light was first
introduced by Max Planck in the year 1900. In 1924 de Broglie extended wave particle
duality to matter particles (microscopic particles), which says that particles in motion
possess wave nature along with particle nature. In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger developed an
equation for the waves associated with these elementary particles which would describe
the behaviour of particles. The Schrodinger equation plays the same role in quantum
mechanics as that played by Newton’s laws and conservation laws in classical mechanics.

Black body

The body which completely absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident on it is known
as Black body. Black body is an idealised concept. No perfect black body exists in uni-
verse. But lamp black is considered as nearly blackbody.

1. The black body radiates energy when it get heated to a temperature ‘T’.
2. The emitted radiation is independent of the nature of the body and depend only on
the temperature of the black body. The radiating energy and its relation to the
temperature is formulated by Stefan in the year 1989. Later, Boltzmann has derived
the Stefan formula.

The Stefan law or Stefan-Boltzmann law is given by

where T= absolute temperature (Kelvin's) and = Stefans-Boltzmann’s constants

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS, BLACKBODY RADIATION MODULE-1 L-1

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

3. According to Kirchhoff’s radiation law, the radiating power of a black body is

proportional to its absorbing power i.e. emissivity is equals to absorbivity.

The black body is a one, which completely absorb radiation of all the wavelengths in-
cident on it and emits all wavelengths when it heated to a temperature.

Energy Spectrum of a Black body (or) Black body Radiation Spectrum:

The distribution of energy in the radiation spectrum of black body is of the form of the
curves as shown in figure.
The different curves correspond to different temperatures of the black body.
The following are the conclusions obtained
from the above graph.
1. The distribution of energy is not uniform.
2. For a particular temperature, the intensity of radia-
tion increases upto a particular wavelength and then it is
found to decrease with increase in wavelength.
3. As the temperature increases, the peak energy shifts
towards shorter wavelength.
4. As the temperature increases, the area under each curve increases. It shows that, the
rate of emission increases very rapidly as the temperature rises.

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS, BLACKBODY RADIATION MODULE-1 L-1

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-2

Plank quantum theory, derivation of Planck’s law of radiation

Planck’s Quantum Theory

The classical theory failed to explain the energy spectrum of a black body. According to classical
theory, an oscillating particles can have any value of frequency and emits continuous energy.
But, Planck's was successful in explaining the energy spectrum of a black body with the following
assumptions.
1. The black body is composed of large number of oscillating particles(oscillators), which can vi-
brate with all possible frequencies.
The Energy of oscillating particles is quantized.

i.e E = nhν

Where ‘h’ is the Planck's constant h= 6.626×10−34 Js, ν is the frequency of radiation and n is a
number which can take values 0,1,2,3…etc
2. The energy of a single photon of frequency ν is given by
E = hν
3. A vibrating particle can emit energy only when it moves from one quantized state to another
quantized state .
4. A oscillating particle can emit or absorb energy only in discrete amounts of hν.
i.e The exchange of energy between radiation and matter is not continuous . But , it is in small
packets of quanta of definite energy. These small packets of energy are called as photons.
Based on the above assumptions, Planck derived a radiation law governing the entire spectrum of
the black body.

PLANK QUANTUM THEORY, DERIVATION OF PLANCK’S LAW OF RADIATION MODULE-1 L-2

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Planck’s Law of radiation

Let ‘N’ be the total number of Planck’s oscillators and ‘E’ be their total energy.

Then the average energy per oscillator is given by

̅ ----------- (1)

Let No, N1, N2, -----------Nr be the number of oscillators having energies
0, hϑ, 2hϑ,3hϑ ----- rhϑ respectively.

Therefore, the total number of oscillators is

N= No+ N1+ N2+ .............. + Nn ----------- (2)

and total energy is given by

E = 0 + hv + 2hv +............... nhv -------------(3)

According to Maxwell's distribution law, the number of oscillators having energy 'nhv' is given by

Nr=N0 exp(-nhv /kT ) ------------- (4)

Nr is the number density of molecules in nth state (i.e., the number of molecules per unit volume). T
is the temperature, and kB is Boltzmann’s constant.1.38 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1.

Substituting the values of N1, N2, N3…………by substituting n = 1,2,3........ from equation (4) in equation
(2) We get

N = N0 + N0exp(- )+ N0exp(- )+…………

= N0(1+exp(- ) + exp(- )+……………….

N = N0 /(1-exp (- ) -------- (5) (since 1+x+x2+……=1/1-x)

Similarly in equation (3) substituting the values of N1, N2, ........... we get

E= (0 ) + hv N0exp(- )+ N0exp(- ) +……..

PLANK QUANTUM THEORY, DERIVATION OF PLANCK’S LAW OF RADIATION MODULE-1 L-2

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

E = N0hv exp(- ) [1+2exp(- )+3exp(- )+…………]

E= N0 exp(- )[hv/{(1-exp(- )}2] (Since 1+2x+3x2+……. = 1/(1-x)2 )

Substituting the values of N and E in equation (1) we get the average energy of the oscillator.

̅ = N0exp(- )[hv/{(1-exp (- )}2]/ N0 /(1-exp(- )

̅ = hv exp(- )/(1-exp(- )

̅= ----------- (6)
( )

This is the expression for average energy of a Planck's oscillator

The no. of oscillators per unit volume in the frequency range of v and v+dv are given by

N= ----------(7)

The energy density of radiation (Ev) in the frequency range v and v+dv of oscillator is given by

Ev dv =
( )

Ev dv = ---------(8)
( )

This is the Planck’s radiation law in terms of frequency.

This can also be expressed in terms of wavelength(λ)

Eλ dλ = ---------(9) ( , | | )
( )

PLANK QUANTUM THEORY, DERIVATION OF PLANCK’S LAW OF RADIATION MODULE-1 L-2

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Different Laws of from Planck's Formula:

i) Wien's Law : When λ is very small, then ( ) So neglected 1 in the denominator from

Planck’s formula (9) we have

Eλ dλ = ---------(10)
( )

This is Wien's law.

ii) Rayleigh-Jeans Law: When λ is very large, then ( ) . From Planck's formula (9)

we have

Eλ dλ =
( )

Eλ dλ = -----------------(11) This is Rayleigh-Jeans Law .

PLANK QUANTUM THEORY, DERIVATION OF PLANCK’S LAW OF RADIATION MODULE-1 L-2

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-3
De-Broglie Hypothesis, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

de-Broglie Hypothesis –Matter waves:

As like light, matter exhibits both particle and wave nature . The waves associated with moving ma-
terial particles (like electrons, protons, and neutrons) are called matter waves or de-Broglie waves.
The wave length of matter waves is derived based on radiation.
Equation of matter waves:
According to Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon is given by

….. (1)

is wavelength of the photon, h= Planck’s constant

According to Einstein’s mass energy relation,
E = mc2--------- (2)
Where m= mass of the photon
Equating equations (1) and (2),

…… (3),
where P = momentum of photon
This is known as de-Broglie general wave equation. It can be applicable to material particles as
well as light waves.
If m is mass of the material particle and v is the velocity, then the momentum associated with mov-
ing particle is p= mv.
From equation (3), we get

-------- (4)

This is called de-Broglie’s wave equation.

DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS, HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE MODULE-1 L-3

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

de-Broglie wavelength in terms of Energy(E):

If E is kinetic energy of the material particle, then

E= mv2 ---------------(5)

Multiply Eq (5) by ‘m’ on both sides, we get

E= mv2 *

2Em=m2v2
mv √
p =√

hence de=Broglie wave length

λ ---------------(6)
√

ii) de-Broglie wavelength associated with electron

If a charged particle (like electron) is accelerated through a potential difference(V),then

the kinetic energy of the particle is given as
E = eV
2
But we have kinetic energy (E) of particle =

2eV = mv2
Multiply by ‘m’ on both sides we get
2 2
2meV=
mv =√
From de-Broglie general equation

λ
√

Where h is planks constant, h = 6.625 ×10−34J-S , mo is rest mass of the electron

DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS, HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE MODULE-1 L-3

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

o= 9.1×10−31 𝑔 and e is the charge of electron e = 1.6×10−19

Substitute above values in eq (7), we get

λ or λ √
√

Ex. If the voltage applied to accelerate the electron is V = 100 volts then

λ = 1.227
√

Characteristics of Matter waves:

1. Lesser the mass of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
2. Smaller the velocity of the particle, longer is the wav-length associated with the particle.
3. When V = 0, = ∞ & = ∞, = 0.
4. Matter waves produced when the particles in motion are charged or uncharged.
5. Matter wave are not electro-magnetic waves.
6. Matter waves travel faster than the velocity of light.

E = h and E= mc2

h = mc2

The wave velocity (w) is given by

substituting for we get

As particle velocity (v) cannot exceed velocity of light (c) , is greater than velocity of light.

DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS, HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE MODULE-1 L-3

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

7. According to Schrodinger, a material particle in motion is equivalent to a wave packet rather

than a single wave. Wave nature of matter gives an uncertainty in the position of the particle
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
From the de-Broglie hypothesis, we can confirm that the electron can behave both as a particle
and as a wave.
This dual behaviour of electron makes difficult in locating the exact position and momentum of
the electrons, simultaneously. This is called uncertainty.

Statement 1: According to which “ It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position

and momentum of a particle accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the
position of a particle, it leads to large uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice
versa.

If ∆x and are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the particle
then the uncertainty can be written as

--------------- (1)

The product of uncertainties determination of the position and momentum of the particle is
equal to or greater than h/4π.

Statement 2: It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the energy and time of a particle
accurately.

The product of uncertainties in energy and time is always greater than or equal to .

--------------- (2)

DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS, HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE MODULE-1 L-3

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Where ΔE is the uncertainty in energy and Δt is the uncertainty in time

Statement 3: Similarly, It is impossible to measure simultaneously both angular position ( and

angular momentum ( ) of a particle accurately.

The product of uncertainties in angular position and angular momentum is always greater

than or equal to .

-------------------(3)

Where ΔL is the uncertainty in angular momentum and Δθ is the uncertainty in angular

position.

Applications: -

1. It explains the non-existence of electrons in the nucleus.

2. It explains the existence of protons neutrons in the nucleus.

3. It gives the binding energy of an e-in atom.

4. It calculates the radius of Bohr’s first orbit.

DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS, HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE MODULE-1 L-3

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-4

Physical significance of wave function, Time-independent one dimensional

Schrodinger’s wave Equation

Physical significance of wave-function (𝛙) :

It is a variable or complex quantity that is associated with a moving particle at any position (x,y, z)
and at any time ‘t’.
(i) The wave function(ψ) relates the particle and wave nature of microscopic particles.
(ii) It is a complex quantity and hence we cannot measure it .
(iii) The probability density is given by square of its magnitude.
i.e., P = |ψ|2= ψ ψ∗ is real and positive, it has physical meaning.
where ψ∗ is the complex conjugate of ψ
(iv) The probability of finding the particle in a volume dx dy dz is P = |ψ| 2 dxdydz.
It cannot predict the exact location of the particle.
(v) If the particle is certainly somewhere in space then, the probability value is
equal to one.
i.e., probability density (P) =∭|ψ|2 dx dy dz = 1 where dτ = dx dy dz
This condition is known as normalized wave function.
Schrodinger Wave Equation:

Schrodinger describes the wave nature of a particle in mathematical form and is known as Schrodinger
wave equation.

These are of 2 types:

1) Time independent wave equation

2) Time dependent wave equation

Schrodinger Time Independent Wave Equation

Schrödinger equation is a mathematical differential equation for the matter waves associated with
moving material particles.

SCHRODINGER'S WAVE EQUATION MODULE-1 L-4

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Let a particle of mass 'm' moving with velocity 'v' along X-axis. Then according to de-Broglie's
hypothesis a particle can have a wave nature.

So its motion can be represented as wave function ()

= 0 sin (t - k x) ------------------ (1)

Where = (x, t) and 0 is the amplitude

Differentiating  partially w.r.to x,

= 0cos (t -k x) (-k) = -k 0cos (t - k x)

Once again differentiate w.r.to x,

= (-k) 0(-sin (t - k x)) (-k)

= - k20 sin (t- kx)

= - k2 (from Eq (1))

+ k2= 0

+( ) = 0 ---------(2) (since k = )

This is differential form of the classical wave equation.

Now, incorporate de-Broglie wavelength expression = h/mv.

Thus, we obtain, + =0

+ = 0 -------------- (3)

The total energy E of the particle is the sum of its kinetic energy K.E and potential energy (V)
Total energy (E) = K.E + P.E

E= v2 + V

v2 = ( E-V )

mv2 = 2( E-V )

SCHRODINGER'S WAVE EQUATION MODULE-1 L-4

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Multiplying by 'm' on both sides in the above equation

Therefore m2v2= 2 m (E -V) ------------(4)

Substitute equation (4) in (3), we get

+ [E-V] = 0 ------------(5)

In quantum mechanics, ђ=h/2

+ [E -V]= 0 ------------(6)
This is known as one -dimensional Schrodinger's time independent wave equation.
For a three -dimensional space, the equation becomes

+ + + (E -V) = 0 ------------(7)

𝛙 𝛙
This is known as three dimensional Schrodinger wave equation.

( + + )

SCHRODINGER'S WAVE EQUATION MODULE-1 L-4

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-5

Particle in one dimensional potential box

Applications of Schrodinger's wave equation

1. Particle in one dimensional potential box
Consider a particle of mass 'm' bouncing back and forth in X-direction
between the walls of a box as shown in fig.
Let the potential energy of the particle is zero inside of the box
and infinite outside of the box.
i.e. V=0 for
V= for
Apply the Schrodinger's equation to describe the motion
of the particle inside the box (V=0).

-------------- (1) as V=0 for a free particle

Taking ------------------- (2)

The equation becomes

+  = 0 ------------------- (3)

The general solution of this differential equation can be written

------------ (4)

Where A and B are arbitrary constants, and the value of these constant can be obtained by
applying the boundary conditions.

The boundary condition is

at x = 0
at x =
Apply the boundary condition at x = 0 to the equation (4)

PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL BOX MODULE-1 L-5

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

B=0
Equation (4) becomes

Apply the second boundary condition at x = L , we have

As A 0,

π
…………………. (5)

Where n = 1,2,3,4, and n≠0, because if n=0, k=0, E=0

everywhere inside the box and the moving particle cannot
have zero energy.
From equations (2) and (5), we have

....................... (6)

This equation gives the allowed energy values for the particle in the potential box.

For n =1,

For n =2, ,

For n =3, ------ etc.

The allowed energy values are quantized and these are known as energy Eigen values.
The allowed wave function of the particle is
……… (7)

PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL BOX MODULE-1 L-5

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Calculation of A:
According to normalization condition, the total probability that the particle is somewhere in the
box must be unity.

∫ ∫ | | dx=1

From equation (10)

∫ * +

* +

The second term of the integrand expression becomes zero at both the limits.

Therefore the wave function is √ ---------------- (10)

Fig. Energy level diagram corresponding to the normalized wave functions of the particle

PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL BOX MODULE-1 L-5

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Problems
1. An electron is moving under a potential field of 15kV. Calculate the wavelength of the electron
waves.

Sol: de-Broglie wavelength λ

√

λ
√

The wavelength of the electron waves =

2. Electrons are accelerated by 344 volts and are reflected from a crystal. The first reflection
maximum occurs when the glancing angle is 60o. Determine the spacing of the crystal.

Sol: de-Broglie wavelength λ

√

λ
√

λ
According to Bragg's law
2dsin =
For first reflection maximum n=1
sin60o = 0.866
Inter atomic spacing of the crystal

PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL BOX MODULE-1 L-5

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-6

Free oscillations-differential equation of S.H.M and its solution

Introduction to harmonic oscillators

Oscillations: To and pro motion of a particle about the equilibrium position is known as
oscillations.
Periodic Motion: Any motion which repeats itself after equal intervals of time is called a
periodic motion or harmonic motion.
Ex: Spin of earth, the motion of a satellite around a planet, moon around the earth
etc.
Types of Oscillations (or) Vibrations
1. Free Oscillations
When the object is allowed to vibrate (or) oscillate on its own, the types of
oscillations are called free oscillations. In this case , the object is not subjected to
any external force.
2. Damped Oscillations
If an object that is set to oscillate comes at rest after some time , i.e there is some
loss of energy during oscillations. These type of oscillations are known as damped
oscillations.
3. Forced Oscillations
When object is subjected to a periodic external force, the resulting oscillations are
known as forced oscillations.
Simple harmonic motion
Simple harmonic motion is the periodic motion that occurs in a body displaced from
its equilibrium position and the restoring force acting on the body is directly
proportional to the displacement and is always directed towards the fixed point.

FREE OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-6
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

The particle or body executing simple harmonic motion is called a simple oscillator.
Ex: Motion of a pendulum
Motion of mass attached to a suspended spring.
Differential equation of Simple harmonic motion(SHM)
Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ be executing S.H.M along a straight line. Let x
be the displacement of the particle from mean position at any time t.
Then, the restoring force will be
F α –x
F = −kx ------(1)

Where ‘k’ is proportionality constant and is also known as force constant. It is defined
as the force per unit displacement, –ve sign indicates force F is opposite to the
displacement.
According to Newton second law of motion

F= m -----------------(2)

From equation (1) and (2)

------ (3) , where

This is known as the differential equation of simple harmonic oscillation.

Solution of the equation:

Let us assume a trail solution of the form

=𝐶 𝛼 -------- (2)

FREE OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-6
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Where ‘C’ and ‘α’ are arbitrary constants.By differentiating we get

= 𝐶𝛼 𝛼

α
α --------- (3)

Sub (2),(3) in (1), we get

C𝛼2 𝛼 + 2
𝐶 𝛼 =0

𝐶 𝛼(𝛼2 + 2
)=0

(𝛼2 + 2
)=0

𝛼2 = - 2

From equation (2)

= 𝐶1 + t+ 𝐶2 − t

Where 𝐶1 𝐶2 are arbitrary constants

= 𝐶1[cos + sin ] + 𝐶2[cos − sin ]

= (𝐶1 + 𝐶2) cos + (𝐶1 − 𝐶2) sin

Let us put 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = sin 𝜙 and (𝐶1 − 𝐶2) = cos 𝜙

Where 'a' and ϕ are constants

= sin 𝜙 cos + cos 𝜙 sin

= sin( + 𝜙 ) ------------------(4)

Equation (4) is the solution of simple harmonic motion.

FREE OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-6
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-7

Damped vibrations-differential equation and solution-critical, over and under

damping

Damped harmonic oscillator

Definition: Damped harmonic motion is defined as decay or decrease of amplitude of

motion with respect to time in presence of air or other medium. The oscillator which
performs such type of motion is known as damped harmonic oscillator.
Ex: Motion of tuning fork, Motion of simple pendulum. etc.

Differential equation of damped harmonic oscillator:

Consider a particle of mass 'm' is executing damped harmonic oscillations. Let x be the
displacement of the body from its mean position at an instant of time t.
The total forces are acting on the oscillating body is
1) Restoring force (Fr): According to Hook's law, the restoring force acting on the oscillator is
directly proportional to its displacement but in opposite direction.
i.e
𝐹 = − x ---------(1) where k is the constant of proportionality.
2) The damping (frictional) force: The damping force acting on the oscillator is proportional to
its velocity but in opposite direction

i.e 𝐹d

𝐹d ------------(2)

where 'r' is the constant of proportionality called damping coefficient.

The total force acting on the body is = 𝐹 + 𝐹d

---------------(3)

But according to Newton’s second law of motion, the total force acting on the
oscillator is

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-7
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

𝐹=

F= -----------------(4)

Equating equations (3) and (4), we have

------------(5)

This is known as differential equation of damped harmonic motion.

Solution of the equation:

Let the trial solution of differential equation is

----(6)
where A and α arbitrary constants.
Differentiating equation (6) with respect to t, we get

𝛼 and 𝛼 --------(7)

Substitute equations (6) & (7) these values in eq.(5),we have

𝛼 𝛼 𝛼

𝛼 α

As 𝛼 α
This gives 𝛼 √
The general solution of eq. (1) is given by

[ √ ] [ √ ]
------------(3)

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-7
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Where 1and 2are arbritrary constants.

Different damping conditions:
Case – I, Over damped motion:
2 2
When > the condition is called over damping. Under this condition, the body that is
displaced from equilibrium position comes back to its initial position slowly without oscillating.
This type of motion is called as over damped or dead beat. Here b is large. There are no
oscillations, but the decay can be quite slow because the friction is so high that it's hard for the
mass to move (curve 1).
Ex: Motion of simple pendulum moving in
thick oil
A dead beat moving coil galvanometer.

Case II. Critical damping:

2 2
When = , This is the condition for critically damped case. Here the body comes back to the
initial state more rapidly than the over damped condition. Here b is optimum where the body
does not oscillate but comes to mean position quickly (curve 2).
Thus in the case of critical damping, the motion just becomes a periodic or non oscillatory.
Ex: This type of motion is exhibited by many pointer instruments such as Ammeter,
voltmeter, etc, in which the pointer moves to the correct position and comes to rest
much rapidly without any oscillations.

Case III. Under –damped motion:

When 2 < 2. the condition is called under damping. In this case the body continues to
oscillate with decreasing amplitude and finally comes to initial state (curve 3).

In this case √ is imaginary.

Let us write √ = i√ = iβ
where 𝛽 = √(w2 − b2) and = √
(− + 𝛽) (− − 𝛽)
Now eq.(3) becomes = 1 + 2

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-7
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

x= − ( 1 𝛽 + 2 − 𝛽)
−
= (( 1 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛽 ) + 2(cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛽 ))
−
= (( 1 + 2) cos 𝛽 + ( 1 − 2) 𝛽)
−
= ( sin ∅ cos 𝛽 + ∅ sin 𝛽 )

Where ∅=( 1 + 2) cos ∅ = ( 1 − 2)

−
= sin(𝛽 + ∅)
−
= sin(√ ) + ∅)
The above expression is the equation of motion of damped harmonic oscillator. The amplitude
−
of the motion continuously decreasing owing to the factor which is calleddamping factor.

Ex: Motion of a pendulum in air, the electric oscillations of LCR circuit.

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-7
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-8

Forced vibrations-differential equation and solution

Forced harmonic Oscillations

The oscillations produced in a body with help of an external periodic force are known as
forced harmonic oscillations (F.H.O).
In which the body vibrates with a frequency other than its natural frequency.
Ex: 1.The vibrations of bridge under the influence of marching solders,
2. Vibrations of a tuning fork when exposed to the periodic force of sound waves.
Differential equation of forced harmonic motion:
Let us consider a particle of mass 'm' is executing forced harmonic oscillations with help of an
external periodic force (Fe).

The total forces acting on the oscillator can be divided into three parts.

i) Restoring force( :

Restoring force is proportional to the displacement but oppositely directed, given by

𝐹 − -------(1) where k is force constant.

ii) Damping (Frictional) force (Fd): Frictional force is proportional to velocity but oppositely
directed, givenby

𝐹 𝛼

𝐹 ------------(2)

Where ‘r’ is frictional force per unit velocity

iii) The external periodic force
It is represented by 𝐹 𝐹 ...............(3)
Where 𝐹 is the maximum value of this force
So the total force acting on the particle is given by

FORCED OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-8
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Total force F = Fr + Fd + Fe
From (1), (2) and (3)

𝐹 𝐹 .................(4)

But according to Newton second law of motion, the total force acting on the oscillator is
F= ma

𝐹 -------------(5)

Equating equations (4) and (5), we get

.....................(6)

This is known as differential equation of forced harmonic oscillator.

Solution of equation of forced oscillations

In this case, when the steady state is setup, the particle vibrates with the frequency of applied force
and not with its own natural frequency.
The solution of differential equation (6) must be of the type
= sin( − )..............(7)
Where A is the steady amplitude of vibration and θ is the angle by which the displacement x lags
behind the applied force 𝐹 sin . A and θ are arbitrary constants.
Differentiating equation (6) we get

θ ...................(8) and

FORCED OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-8
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

θ ................(9)

Substitute equations (7),(8) and (9) in equation (5), we get

2
− sin( − ) + 2b cos( − ) + 2 sin( − ) = f sin
sin( − ) ( 2 − 2) + 2 cos( − ) = sin( − + )
2 2
sin( − )( − )+2 cos( − ) = sin{( − )+ }
2 2
sin( − )( − )+2 cos( − ) = sin( − ) cos + cos( − ) sin

Comparing the coefficients of sin( − ) and cos( − ) on both sides, we get

2 2
( − )= cos -------------- (10)

2bAp = f sin ----------(11)

Square and add equations (8) and (9), we get

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
[( − ) + 4 ] =

---------------(12)
√

This is amplitude of force oscillations.

Therefore the solution of differential equation is

FORCED OSCILLATIONS-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND SOLUTION MODULE-1 L-8
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-9
Elastic Properties of Materials
Introduction

Elasticity is an elegant and fascinating subject that deals with determination of the stress, strain and
displacement distribution in an elastic solid under the influences of external forces.

Elasticity:

It is a property of material bodies by virtue of which they regain their original shape and size after
the deforming forces are removed.

Ex: Spider web, Steel, Graphene

Stress :

When a force acts on a body producing deformation, the internal reactional force which tries to
restore the original condition is called stress.
It is measured in terms of force per unit area. Its unit is Nm-2.
Types of stress
(i) longitudinal : force acting along one direction such as length.

(ii) tangential : force acting along the surface and

(iii) normal : force acting perpendicular to the surface.

Strain: When a deforming force acts on a body, the dimensions of the body such as length, shape or
volume undergoes a change. The ratio of change in dimension to its original dimension is called
strain. It has no unit and is a dimensionless quantity.

Types of strain

1. Longitudinal strain:

If a force acting on the body results in change of length, then the strain is longitudinal. The
longitudinal strain is the ratio of change in length to the original length.

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MODULE-1 L-9

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

2. Shearing strain:

If a tangential force is applied on a body, there is a shearing strain. The body is sheared
through an angle . This shearing angle is called shearing strain.

3. Volume strain :

If a normal force (force acting perpendicular to the surface of the body) is applied on the
body which changes its volume, then the ratio of change in volume to the original volume is
called volume strain.

Hooke’s Law: For sufficiently small stresses, strain is proportional to stress; the constant of
proportionality known as modulus of elasticity depends on the material being deformed and
on the nature of the deformation. Within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional
to strain.
Stress α strain
Stress = E Strain

Modulus of Elasticity (E) =

Modulus of Elasticity (E) depends on the nature of the material and its unit is Nm-2.

Moduli of elasticity

According to Hook's law , within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain
i.e stress α strain
stress =E x strain
where E is known as the modulus of elasticity

Types of Modulus of Elasticity:

Depending on the type of stress applied and corresponding strain produced in the body, the
modulus of elasticity can be divided into three types.
1. Young's modulus of elasticity
2. Bulk modulus of elasticity
3. Rigidity (or) shear modulus of elasticity

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MODULE-1 L-9

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Young’s modulus (Y): It is defined as the ratio of normal stress applied to the corresponding
longitudinal strain produced within the elastic limits.

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y) =

Consider a metal wire of length (l) , radius 'r' and having uniform area of cross-section 'A'.

Let it be suspended from a rigid support. Let a normal force 'F' be applied at its other
end and its length increases by

Longitudinal strain

Normal stress

Y=

where F is the force or the load applied to a wire, A is its area of cross section, Δl is the change in
length and l is the original length of a wire.
The SI units are N/m2 (or) Pascal(Pa)

Young's modulus of elasticity is involved in solids only.

Rigidity modulus: The ratio of tangential stress applied to the corresponding shearing strain
produced in the body, within the elastic limit.

Rigidity Modulus of Elasticity( --------(1)

Let us consider a solid metal cube EFGHABCD whose each side is of

length(l).

Let its lower face CDHG be fixed and a tangential force is applied on
the top face ABEF and an equal and opposite force 'F' will be set up
on the lower face and a couple is formed by these forces.

Thus , the body will not change its volume but suffers a change in its

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MODULE-1 L-9

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

shape. Due to this , the vertical planes ADEH and BCGF be shifted laterally to positions A'E'DH and
B'F'CG through an angle .

------------(2)

-------------(3)

From equations (1), (2) and (3).

Rigidity Modulus of Elasticity (or) Shear modulus (

------------(4)

The shear modulus of elasticity is involved in solids only.

Bulk modulus (k): It is the ratio of normal stress applied to the corresponding volumetric strain
produced in the body, within the elastic limit.

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) =

Let us consider a spherical solid body, having volume 'V' and surface area 'A' . Let a force 'F' be
applied normally on the surface of the body in order to compress it and its volume 'V' decreases by

Volume strain =

Normal stress =

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (B) =

If P denotes the increase in pressure applied on the body, then

Compressibility: Here is the compressibility of the material.

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MODULE-1 L-9

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

It is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity(B). Its SI unit is N-1m2

Bulk modulus is involved in solids, liquids and gases.

For a perfectly rigid body ' Young's modulus and bulk modulus of elasticity are infinity.

Stress - Strain Diagram

Consider a wire stretched by applying load (weight). As the stress is increased, the strain (extension
of length) also increases linearly obeying Hooke’s law. This is indicated by the straight line OA. The
point A indicates the elastic limit i.e. within this limit of stress the wire will regain its original length
if the load is removed.

When the load is further increased beyond elastic limit, the

extension of wire is such that, it will not regain its original length if
the load is removed. Here Hooke’s law is not obeyed. The variation
is nonlinear as shown by the path A to B. Point B is yield point.
If the load is further increased, the extension increases drastically.
Also area of cross section of the wire (thickness of the wire)
decreases drastically. This is called necking. The extension increases until the wire breaks. This point
is called the breaking point i.e. C.
The stress required to break the wire is called the breaking load. The ratio of the breaking load to
the original area of cross section of the wire is called the breaking stress or ultimate strength of the
material.

It is observed that even within the elastic limit, the material takes some time to regain its original
dimension after the load is removed. This delay is called elastic after effect. In the design of
structures, care should be taken to see that material is well within the breaking stress. The fraction
of the breaking stress to be maintained is called working stress.

The ratio of the ultimate strength to working stress is called the factor of safety. For most of the
materials this factor is between 5 and 10.

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MODULE-1 L-9

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

POISSON’S RATIO (𝝈) :

The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain within the elastic limits is called Poisson's ratio of
the material.

When a force acts on a wire along its length, then its length increases by but its diameter (or)
radius decreases by By this single applied force, two types of strains are produced in the wire.

i) Longitudinal strain (α)

ii) Lateral strain (β)

The negative sign shows that, if the length increases, the radius of wire will decrease.
The Poisson's ratio is a dimensionless and unit less quantity.
Poisson's ratio for all substances lies in between -1 and +0.5. It is a measure of Poisson's effect in
which a material tends to expand in a direction perpendicular to the direction of compression.

Limits of (σ)

1.If be a positive quantity, (1-2 ) should be positive 2 <1

< 0.5
When = 0.5, the material is said to be in compressible
2. If be a negative quantity,(1+ ) should be positive
< -1

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MODULE-1 L-9