ECHO SOUNDER

Q-1. What is Echo Sounder? Describe its working principle.

Answer: Echo Sounder is an Electronic Equipment which measure the depth of seabed. As well
as an aid to navigation Echo Sounder is commonly used for Hydrography and fishing.

Principle: In the water beneath the ship, short pulses of sound vibrations are transmitted at the
rate of 5 to 600 per minute to the bottom of the sea. The sea bed reflects these pulses and after
a time which depends on the depth, the echo pulse is received back at the ship. During this
time, the pulses has travelled a path equal to twice the distance between the keel of the ship
and the sea bed. The depth can now be measured by the following formula:

d= v x t/2 [where d= depth of sea bed, v= velocity of sound wave in water, t= time taken for
sound wave to travel to seabed and return]

Q-2. Draw a block diagram of Echo sounder and describe in brief How a Echo Sounder
Works.

Answer:

There are 6 units of an Echo Sounder. They are:

Recorder, Pulse Generator, Transmitter, Transducer, Receiver & Amplifier.

Within the recorder unit, a stylus is mounted on a continuous circular belt which is driven at a
constant speed by the stylus motor. A magnet fixed on the belt triggers the transmitter to
transmit a pulse every rotation of the belt when the stylus is at the zero mark on the paper scale.
Tranmission of the sound pulse from the transducer on the ship’s bottom is synchronized with
the stylus at the zero mark.

The pulse of energy is beamed towards the sea bed but some energy leaks back to the receiver
through the water and shiop’s plating and the stylus makes a mark at the zero position . This
line formed is called the zero line or transmission line. This zero line is a good indication that the
echo sounder is transmitting singnals.

The echo from the sea bed is received at the receiver and after being converted to an electric
pulse is fed to the stylus. During the time taken for the echo to return from the sea bed, the
stylus has moved down away from the zero mark and hence makes a mark on the paper at a
distance proportionate to the depth. A marked scale is provided on the side in meters, fathoms
or feet to read the depth.

This cycle is repeated for every rotation of the stylus and so as the paper is pulled across the
display, the profile of the sea bed is obtained.

The speed of the stylus must be maintianed constant otherwise the depths recorded will be
incorrect.

The speed of sound in salt water is approximately 1500 m/sec.

Q-3. What are the controls found in the Echo Sounder?

Answer:

1. Range Swith - This swithch is used to select the approprate range scale where the ship
is navigating. For example 0 to 50 m, 50 to 100 m, 100 to 200 m etc. The set must
always be started on the lowest range and examine for echoes before swithcing to
higher ranges.
2. Feet/Fathoms/Meters selector switch - The appropriate scale is to be used according to
the position of the switch.
3. Fix Marker – A button which when pressed will cause the stylus to mark the paper. This
may be used to mark a certain time for example when the ship is passing fair-way buoy
or entering harbour etc.
4. Paper speed control – To select the sped of the paper, usually Fast or Slow.
5. Draught Setting – The transducer is usually fitted on the keel plating and so the depth
recorded will be the depth below the keel. If the actual depth of the water is required
then the draught if the ship must be added to the recorded depth. If the Echo Sounder
has a draught setting control then it can be adjusted so the the zero line is shifted down
 the scale to the draught of the ship. This way the displayed detphs will be actual depths
which can be read off directly from the recorder.
6. Transducer selector Switch – On large ships there may be two transducers, therefoere,
by means of this switch the operator can switch from forward to aft transducer and vice
versa.
7. Gain and Sensitivity – To make the echoes darker on the paper in case they are weak.
8. Dimmer – To adjust the illumination of the display.

Q-4. Describe Transmission Frequency of Echo Sounder and how the appropraite
frequency is chosen.

Answer: The Frequency of Sound Wave (Acoustic Wave) transmitted in an echo sounder is of
great importance. The choice of frequency is a compromise between the size of transducer, free
from external noise and minimum attenuation.

Situation 1: If the transmission frequency is within the audio frequency range, then receiving
transducer will pick up other audible noise from other sources such as

i) Vibration of the ship’s propeller.

ii) The noise due to ship’s engine
iii) Noise due to seawater hitting the hull of the moving ship with strong force.

These noises will affect the weak echoes returning from the seabed.

Situation 2: If the transmission frequency is high then

i) Attenuation is high
ii) Higher the frequency, smaller the wave length and smaller the size of transducer
which cannot produce sufficient power and
iii) Higher the frequency more is the diffused reflection, which is not desirable.

Considering the above factors, the transmission frequency should not be within audio frequency
range and also it should not be very high. Hence to compromise between the two, the
transmission frequency used in echo sounding system is generally between 30 kHz and 55 kHz,
which is termed as ultra sonic frequency or super sonic frequency.

Q-5. How Echo sounding equipments are divided into two classes? What is the
advantage & disadvantage of each class?

Answer:

Echo sounding equipments may be divided into two main classes:

1 Those that transmit and receive sound vibration through the shell plating of a ship,
referred to as “Internal installation” class.

In the internal installation class, because of the shell plating, energy is wasted during
transmission and reception. For a shell plating thickness of 9.5 mm, about 15 percent of the
energy gets through the plate and only 2 percent gets through when the shell plating is 31.8 cm
thick.

The advantages of having an internal installation are:

i) Equipment may be fitted without dry-docking the ship.

ii) Projectors or oscillators may be serviced or changed while the ship is afloat.

Sound wave energy is wasted if it is required to pass through a plate. The plate will prevent
sound waves to pass through, if the thickness of the plate is close to a quarter wavelength of the
sound wave; but if thickness of the plate is about a half wavelength then the steel plate
becomes transparent to the sound wave.

2 Those that are in direct contact with the sea generally referred to as "pierced-hull
installation" class.

For a pierced-hull installation, the shell plating of the ship is first pierced and the gap filled in by
a thinner plate. If a steel plate is to be fitted, then the physical dimensions of the steel plate
needs to be small and the plating will have to vary in thickness from ship to ship because of
different frequencies used.

Thus for pierced hull installation the problem of using a frequency suitable for reasonable
penetration no longer applies and higher frequencies can be used. With a very low frequency,
the size of the oscillator becomes inconveniently large; secondly, there is lack of selectivity from
water and other noises within the audible range and finally, less directivity.

The higher frequencies gives more improved selectivity from noise and better directivity is
possible, but there is less penetration.

Q-6. Why siting of transducer is important? How the transducer is fitted in different
ships?
Answer: For optimum performance of an echo sounder, the position in which a transducer is
situated is of great importance and it must be away from areas close to noise source. The main
problem encountered is the aeration (Air bubbles which pass close to the transducer and act as
large reflectors of the trasmitted sound wave). Hence it is necessary to choose a site where the
bubble stream is negligible or non-existent. The appropriate position varies from ship to ship
and are mentioned below:

i) On large, fast, deep draft ships the best position is the forward end between 1/8 and
1/4 of the ship’s length
ii) On medium speed ships, the forward most position is usually the best unless the
vessel has a light draught in which case 3/4 length from the bow is preferred
iii) In case of slow cargo vessel of light draught, the best position is 3/4 length from the
bow.
iv) On oil tankers, the transducer should be fitted at the forward end of the engine room.
v) On very large size ships, two tranducers are fitted – One at the forwardend and other
well aft. The choice of transducer to be used can be selected from the bridge.
vi) In case of pierced hull, the transducer is fitted near the centre line and flush with the
keel plate.

Q-7. Describe the errors that effect the performance of an Echo Sounder.

Answer:

Velocity Error: The velocity of sound increases when temperature, pressure and salinity
increases. This change in velocity will cause incorrect readings to be displayed. For example at
a temp of 16°C & Salinity of 3.4% the velocity of Sound Wave in the water is 1505m/sec, and it
varies from 1445 m/sec to 1535 m/sec. But most echo sounders calculates the depth of water
using the velocity 1500m/sec. This is why in Red sea due to high salinity and high temparature,
displayed depth must be increased by 5%. Again if the echo sounder is calibrated for sea-water,
it will indicate the depth of fresh water about 3% higher than the actual depth. The depth can be
corrected to true depthfrom Tables of the velocity of sound in pure water and seawater (Refer to
NP 139)

Aeration: This is caused by air bubbles in the water under the transducers usually while going
asterrn. The air bubbles reflect the sound waves and in correct echoes will be received at the
transducer. In such a case the echoes from the sea bed may disappear altogether. Other
causes of Aeration are:

i) Turbulence by putting rudder hard over.

ii) Pitching Heavily in Light Condition.
iii) Breaking water over shoals.
iv) Sailing through water where bad weather has left pockedt of air bubbles.

Multiple Echoes: In shallow waters, echoes may be received from first, second, or third
reflections of the sea bed. These will be displayed as second and third echoes. In case of such
an occurance, the first echo is always the correct one. The second and third echoes will usually
be weaker.

Pythagoras Error: This occurs if the ship has two transducers, one acting as transmitter and
the other as receiver separated by some distance. In shallow waters, the distance travelled by
the pulse will be greater than the depth of the sea bed below the plating.

False Bottom Echoes: This usually occurs in deep water when an echo may be received after
the stylus has completed one rotation and begun the next cycle.

Stylus Speed Error: The stylus is rotating with a certain constant speed and the speed of the
stylus is such that the time taken for the stylus to travel from top to bottom is exactly equal to
that for a acoustic pulse to travel twice the distance of the range selected. Due to the fluctuation
in the supply voltage, the speed of the stylus motor changes hence the depth recorded will be
inaccurate. It should be checked periodically and adjustted as per the instruction given in the
manual.

Q. Describe maintenance of Echo Sounder.

Answer: The routine maintenance to be carried out is different for each model and the
respective manual should be consulted.

Following is general maintenance that should be carried out regularly to maintain the equipment
in efficient working condition.

i) Stylus speed is to be checked often and must be adjusted as per the manual. The
speed of the stylus motor is very important to indicate the correct depth.
ii) Prior to leave the dry dock, it is necessary to check the transducer to ensure that
they have not been painted and it should be free from grease.
iii) Carbon dust must be cleared regularly while using the dry paper.
iv) Accuracy must be checked with lead line whenever an opportunity arises, like when
at anchor or at berth.