ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

THE AMERICAI•I GEOLOGIST

VoL. XIV JANUARY-FEBRUARY, i9i 9 No. I

THE VEINS OF CHAi{IARCILLO,

CHILE.•
W. L. W•IT•-a•-.•D.

CONTENTS.
PATE.
Introduction .......................................................... i
The Region of North Chile ........................................... 4
The Chafiarcillo Dis,trict .............................................. 12
Introductory Stat'ement ........................................... 12
Stratigraphic Geology ............................................. I3
Igneous Geology .................................................. I6
Structural Geology ................................................ 18
Mineralization .................................................... I8
The Veins' ............................................................ I9
Direction and Loci of Veins ....................................... I9
The Fissures ..................................................... 20
Primary Mineralization ........................................... 23
Faulting .......................................................... 3I
Erosion .......................................................... 32
Enrichment ....................................................... 3:t
Oxidation ........................................................
Chemistryof the Vein Processes.................................. 4•
EconomicImportanceof SupergeneProcesses..................... 43'
The Future of Mining in the District .................................. 44-
Bibliography......................................................... 45•

INTRODUCTION. '

General.--Spanish
adventurers,comingir• the sixteenthcen-
tury from the mountainsof Peru and Bolivia in the searchfor
• Communication
from the laboratoryof EconomicGeologyof Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
i
 l&'. L. WHITEHEAD.

gold, were disappointed in the regionof Atacama;but, upon

findinggold in the rich veinsof Malga-Malgaat Quillota, of
Madre de Dios at Valdivi'aand of Culacoyanear Concepcion
(I., pp. 21-26), 9'they settledin the fertile countryof the south.
Many years elapsedbefore careful prospectors, combingthe
northern barren deserts,were successful, but early in the nine-
teenth century the preciousmetals were c•iscovered.Gold was
foundat Guanaco,a't Cerro Blancoand in many other localities;
silver was encounteredat Huantajaya, Caracoles, Ladrillos,
Tres Puntas, Arqueros and at Chafiarcillo. The silver veins of
these celebratedc•istrictsproved exceedinglyrich in bonanza,
and dur.ing their maximum exploitation, from about •86o to
x88o, Chile enjoyeda period of mining prosperitylong to be
remembered.
Of these districts that of Chafiarcillo, situated 50 kilometers
southof Copiap6at a positionapproximatelyof latitude S. 27ø
49' and of longitudeW. 7ø0 2o', was richest and perhapsbest
known. After the discoveryof its Veta Des.cubridora, during
the period of the gold finds in California, the great richnessof
the superficialportionsof the veins causedrapid developmere.
Over one hundred cla,ims varying in size from x,ooo to about
50,000 squaremeters,were stakedand the town of Juan Godoy
attaineda populationof ten thousandor more. Mining was im-
proved'bythe driving of vertical shaftsthroughwhich ore was
hoisted in leathern bucketsby horse whims, the familiar mala-
cates. Hand methodsof mining and drilling were used,and the
ore was shippedwithout concentration;but the continuanceof
bonanzaat depthsof 3o0 to 4o0 meters assuredthe miner of
rich returns. With deeper exploration, however, results were
disappointing.Lower gradeore was found at depthsof 50o to
6o0 metersin the southernpart of the district; but the methods
of mining•inusewere not adaptedto the extractionof suchore.
Furthermore
in latera•exploration
in thesouthern
minesfaults
carryingheavyflows of water were encountered.After inef-
fectualattemptsat'controlby the'introduction
of pumpingma-
chinery,work ceased'aboutI885 and-thedeepconnected mines
2Numbers refer to the publicationslisted,in the bibliography.
 THE VEINS OF CHAI•ARCILLO, CHILE.

of the district were flooded. A few tentative efforts have s•ince

beenmadeto resumemir•ing. Someten yearsago, the pumping
equipmentat the ConstanciaMine again proved inadequatefor
the lowering of .the water and more recentprojectshave been
unsuccessful
througha want of mining intelligenceon the part of
iheiroperators.Severalminesbeyondthefloodedareaare now
beingworkedand onefind of high gradeore in the BolacoViejo
Minehasof lateattr.aeted
some
attention
in Chile;but•itpresent
the district on the whole is in a state of decay.
Production.--The present production as might be expected
under these conditionsis almost nothing. In t9o 3 from t6o
metrictonsof fairly high gradeore were producedabout8oo,ooo
gramsof silver (II., p. to9). The yearsduring.thedecadence of
the districtafter x885 haveprobablywitnessedlittle greaterpro-
duction than that of t9o3. In /885 one mine, the Mant0 de
Ossa,producedsilver valuedat t,ooo,ooopesosof t8 pence. In
•88o the Constancia
Mine gavelil• returns. From •869 to
x875, during.thebestdaysof Chafiarcillo,x78,625kilograms.of
fine silver was sold from the district, and the opinionis held 'by
Chilean authoritiesthat this amount was substantiallygreater
due to "high grading" (III., pp. 426-427). At this period,
therefore, Chafiarcillo was mining more than one fifth of the
silver productionof Chile. The total productionof the district
is difficult of estimation; but some figures are available on the
total prdduction
of certainmines. The Descubridora
Mine pro-
ducedthe value of 40,000,000 pesosof t8 pence;the Manto de
Peralta, t5,ooo,ooo; the Candelaria a'bout•5,ooo,oooand the
mines of the Corrida vein between x8o,ooo,ooo and 200,0o0,000
of pesos(III., p. 426). The total value.ofsilverrecoveredfrom
the minesof the district is thus about $•oo,ooo,ooo gold. This
sumat the price of silver for t874, •2 pesosper kilogram (II.,
p. 24), would representabout2,300,000kilogramsof fine silver.
The fact that from x86oto x885 Chileproduceda little lessthan
3,ooo,oookilogramsof fine silver and that her total production
of silverfor 2to yearsto •9o2 was 7,988,•86 kilograms(II., pp.
22-23), makesvivid the preeminentpart played by Chafiarcillo
in Chileansilver mining.
4 IV. L. WHITEHEAD.

Scopeof Investi#ation.--Upona collectionof the ores of

Chafiarcillo in the laboratories of the MassachusettsInstitute of
Technologythe presentinvestigationwas begun. The min-
eralogywas carefully studiedin polishedand thin sectionand
conclusions
regarding.the origin of the ores were postulated.
The opportunity,however,was presentedduring the summero•[
•9•7 to visit the district and at'this time the earlier work was
enlargedin scopeandthe fieldwork wasperformed. The mines
accessiblewere entered,the geologyof the districtand.the sur-
roundingregionwas studiedand tentativelycorrelatedwith the
resultsof otherwork don•efarther north and valuablemapsand
sectionswere copied.
During the progressof the investigationcriticism,in,forma-
tion and assistance
were obtainedfrom many sources. It is, in-
.deed,a pleasureto acknowledge the kindly adviceand super-
visionof Dr. Waldemar Lindgren and Dr. C. H. W'arren of the
Massachusetts Institute o•Technology, and the invaluablein-
formation
received
fromSefiores
JermanBrainandNicomedes
Echegarayof Chafiarcillo. Especialindebtedness
is also felt for
the manykind personalfavorsof Mr. JosiasRogers,of Copiap6,
and for the able assistance in the field of Mr. L. C. Baena.. The
excellentpublications
uponthe districtby SefiorEchegaray(IV.,
V:) and 'by Dr. Fr. A. Moesta (VI.) have provedat all times
helpful.
THE REGION OF NORTH CHILE.

The important silver districts o.f Chile are distributed for

•,ooo kilometersalongthe narrow coastalstrip of the country.
Huantajaya, •o kilometerseast of Iquique, and Caracoles,•5o
kilometersnortheastof Antofagasta,lie respectivelyabout 8oo
and 45ø kilometersnorth of Copiap6 and are representative,
with suchminor depositsas Challacollo,of a northernsilver.belt.
South of Caracoles is encountereda stretch of about 4oo kilo-
meters barren of rich silver veins. At Tres Puntas, 65 kilo-
metersnorth of Copiap6,however,a southernsilver belt begins,
and continuesthrough Ladrillos, to kilometerseastof Copiap6,
and Chafiarcillo,to ArquerosandCondoriaco nearCoquimboand
some2oo kilometersto the south. This region of north Chile,
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO, CHILE.

includedbetweenCoquimboand Iquique,is that of primary im-

portancein connectionwith the silver mining of the country.
Ulimate.--The climateof the region varies little from north
to south. From Iquique to a line betweenChafiaraland Taltal
extendsthe barren desert of Atacama with its depositsof salt
and nitrate. Precipitation here is slight, occurring in gen'tle
showers,more often in depositionof dew from the fogs near the
coast,but in heavyrainfall only oncein six to ten years. Vege-
tation is absent and the surface is clothed in a man'tle of sand and
rock debris. Southof this area and north of Copiap6lies a zone
characterized
by a clim'ate
muchlikethatof thenorthbutwith
a slightlygreaterrainfall. Vegetationthoughsparse'is found in
many of the quebradasor dry valleys. The valley of the Rio
Coplap6is greenand fertile due in great part to efficientirriga-
tion; but to the south of the river the evidencesof increasing
precipitationabound. The steepvalleysare dotted with shrubs,
bushesand a few trees, while a sparsegrowth of shrubsand
coarsegrassis to be observedoften upon the hillsides. Flowing
streamsother than the branchesof the Coplap6in the mountains
and that river itself are, however,absent,until,-proceeding south,
the Rio Huasco is reachedand the rainfall towards Coquimbo
becomesprogressivelygreater. The region on the whole, how-
ever, is today essentiallyarid.
Topo#raphy.--Due perhapsin great part .to these climatic
variations,topograph, ically the region is divisibleinto three units.
In the north the CoastRange rising precipitatelyfrom the sea
to 'an altitude of z,2oo to 2,ooo meters extends inland some 4o
kilometersin a seriesof rough ranges. At the easternflank of
thesemountainsand a few hundredmetersbelow the peaks,lies
at an elevation of z,ooo to z,aoo meters, the Interior or Central
Valley. The val!ey,flat and rolling,descends
to an enclosed
centerof drainageand then to the east,through low hills eastof
Antofagasta and precipitouslyin the Iquique district, rises to
the volcanoesof etheCordillera which attain a height of 6,ooo
meters. Beyonda plateaueastof theseranges,extendsthe chain
of the high Andesfrom 5,oooto 6,75o metersin altitude.
In the secondtopographicprovinceextendingfrom just south
 W. L. WHITEHEAD.

of Taltal to the Rio Coplap6,from the persistentrange at the

coastthe slopesdescendto a poorlydefinedcontinuationof the
Interior Valley and then rise to brokenrangeswhich mark the
easternboundaryof Chile. Thesemountainsdrain, not into an
enclosedbasinas in the north, 'butby deep,well developedque-
bradas or dry rivers into the sea.
In the third provincethe valley of the Rio Copiap6near the
sea cuts through the continuedCoast Range and turns a:bruptly
througha right angle for a few kilometersinto the prolongation,
ill-defined,of 'the Central Valley. On the east of this north-
south course of the river sharp ranges dissectedby flowing
streamsrise abruptly to the Cordillera. About 50 kilometers
southof the city of Copiap6,the river swingsto the east,branch-
ing into the mountains,and the Central Valley, relievedby a
few low rangesof which Montana Chafiarcillois one, lies be-
tween high cuestasslopinggraduallyeast and west. In this
provincethe valleys,bothdry and containingstreams,are often
steepwalledcarlons, the streamsare swift and filledwith rapids,
and .therelief is great.
Rock For•natio'ns.---Thesurface in this southerntopographic
province,thoughdeeplydissected, doesnot, however,intersect
the lowestrocksexposedin the region. The geologiccolumnis
shownin the following table.
The earliest horizon, the Perion forma•tion,outcropsfirst to
the north in the Taltal area and is consideredtentativelyto be of
LowerJurassicageas is alsothe Aeroplanoformation.
Theseformationsrepresenting enormousvolcanicactivityat-
tain in the Provinceof Antof.agasta
a thickness
of morethan
I,ooo meters.
GEo•.o•c Co•xJMN.

Recent.--Desertdeposits,alluviumof greater valleysin Copiap6.

Tertiary.--Water worn benchgravels.
Post Cretaceous.--Copiap6 intrusiverocks. Granites,granodioritesand dio-
rites.
Cretaceous.•Tierra Amarilla Formations. Sandstones, conglomerates and
shales (with gypsum). Interbeddedlavas.
Cha•arcillo Formation. Limestones with interstratified tuffs and lavas.
Upper]ura,•sic.--Chaharal
Formation. Volcanicrocks.
 THE VEINS OF CHA2•ARCILLO,CHILE.

Middle Jurassic.--Loreto Formation. Limestones,int'erbeddedvolcanic rocks.

Gryphaeacf. arcuata and Parkinsonia parkinsoni (?) at Pampa Loreto.
Lower ]urassic.--Aeroplano Formation. Volcanic rocks of and,esitic and ba-
saltic composition,sediments.
Peion Formation. Tuffs, brecciasand flows of rhyolitic and and,esitic com-
position. A few beds of metamorphosedlimestone.

The Loreto formationis correlatedwith the Doggerbedsof

Copiap6and is probablyof Middle Jurassicage. In the north,
thisunit is of lessthickness
thanin the CordilleranearCoplap6;
but it is distinctly
'developed
throughout theregion. In Iquique
it outcropsat Huantajaya and in the easternCoast Range.
ß
Farthersouthit continues on the easternslopeof thisrangeand
from Caracol.es and Calama follows in a similar manner the west
flank of the Cordillera. From Taltal to Chafiaralit probably
underliesmuch of the Central Valley.
At Chulo,eastof Copiap6,the Chafiarcillo
formationbegins,
passesthrough Chafiarcillo,.and eraendsto the south. This for-
mation and the Loreto limestone,outcroppingin the silver dis-
trictsfrom Iquiqueto Coquimbo, seemto havebeenexceptionally
favorableloci for the depositionof rich silver veins.
The Tierra Amarilla formation is in unknown relation to the
Chafiarcillo regarding conformity.
The Copiap6intrusives,in the form of stocksand batholiths,
occurin the Cordilleraandin the CoastRangenear Coplap6and
to the north. Smaller bodies cut the volcanics and limestones of
the north and southCentral Valley. Theseintrusiverockshave
not beendifferentiatedbut are believedto be of essentiallythe
same age.
Structure.--Subsequent to the post-Cretaceous intrusionsthe
region was affectedby great compressireforces. The bedsof
the Jura-Cretaceous' seriesin the Coast Range were tightly
folded; in the Central Valley and in the foothillsof the Cor-
dillera they were more gently flexed; and in the Cordillerathey
were plicatedin steepfolds and the granitesand granodiorites
were stronglyjointed. At this time, though,later slight modi-
ficationshave no dout/ttaken place,the main structuralfeatures
of the regionwere developed.
W. L. WHITEHEADß
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO, CHILE.

At Iquiquethe foldsare complexnear the coast;bu.tthe dips

appeargenerallyto the westat the sea. The easternpart of the
Coast Range here is made up of folded limestonesand the
Perionx•olcanics
below. The structureof this range,therefore,
would seemto indicate that the range lies upon a fluted homo-
clinewith north-southtrendandwesterndip. The section 4 east
of Antofagastahasbeenstudiedin somewhatgreaterdetailthan
that of the IquiqueCoastRange. At Antofagasta
the dipsof
Cretaceous rocksare steepinto the sea. Some40 kilometersto
the east, the folds of the Coast Range kave died out and the
strata are nearly horizontal. East of the Central Valley the
gently folded rocksof the Perion formation dip westerly,until,
uponenteringthe Cordillera,steeplyfolded limestonesand Cre-
taceousbeds and strongly jointed intrusive rocks are encoun-
tered. The structureof this sectionis most clearly that of an
.anticlinalor great arch fluted with minor folds. In Taltal the
Antofagastaanticlinalseemssomewhatmore poorly developed;
but it is perhapsprobablethat this structure,thoughfiat, extends
throughChafiaralinto the Departmentof Copi.ap6. The Central
Valley southof the Rio Copiap6is situatedalongthe axis of an
anticline. This fold, narrow and steepat Chulo, broadensand
flattensto the south. At Chafiarcillo,it is about 3ø to 5ø kilo-
meters in width. To the west the structure is obscure due to in-
trusive rocks; to the east in the Cordillera steep folds which
exposethe whole Jura-Cretaceoussectionprobably obliterates
the easterndipsof the arch to the north.
After the relief of the east-westcompressireforces causing
this folding, the great arches of the anticlines•and anticlinals
were unsupported. In many placesthey yielded, subsidedand
broke into a massof blocksboundedby normal faults. Certain
reversefaults of lesserimportanceare not to be assignedto this
cause;but rather to the diastrophicforces. A greaternumberof
the minor faults and all of the known faults of 1.argedisplace-
ment are, however, normal. In Antofagas•a and Iquique great
north-southfauRs boundthe Central Valley which is a graben.
4 Observations on the geology of the northern region were made by the
author during the examination of nitrate deposits.
IO W. L. WHITEHEAD.

Faults occuralso at anglesnear 45ø to the strike of fold.s. In

Copiap6 faulting is marked, as in the Chafiarcillodistrict, and
the faults of the CentralValley no doubtare to be found. The
age of this period of faulting is obscure;but is believedto be
distinctlyearlier than the recentformationof the great fault,
the scarpof which determinesthe high cliffs on the coastfrom
Arica to Coquimbo.
Mineralizationoccurredduringthe periodof faulting. Solu-
tions, no doubt derived from deep-lyingigneousrocks, obtained
accessthrough fracturesto the rocksnow exposedat the surface.
Veins were formed in the fissures;gold and copperbeing often
depositedin volcanic rocks and silver in limestone. Alteration
of rock took place near these fissuresand in porous volcanic
rocks,as tuffs and brecciaswide areaswere stronglyalteredby
the processof silicification. Though somemineralizationdoubt-
lesstook placeby contactmetamorphism duringthe'intrusionof
the igneousrocks,the importantore depositsas well as the eco-
nomicallyworthlessevidencesof ore forming activity are due to
this metallogeneticperiod.
Physio#raphy.--The history of the region subsequent to the
time of ore formation and faulting has been on the whole free
from cataclysmicgeologicprocesses. Volcanoes have poured
out their lavas in the range of the Andes; uplift has probably
taken place;the great coastalfault has beenformed; and earth-
quakesevenyet givefrequentevidence of the presentsligh.tmove-
ment upon fault planes,particularlyupon that of the coast;but
the regionhasbeensubjectmainly to .theprocessof erosion. At
this time, therefore, after that faulting which persistedlater than
the depositionof veins,the physiographichistory of the region
begins.
The chronologyof erosion,however,can not be given in pre-
cisedetail. Unfortunately time was not availablefor the widely
conductedexploration necessaryfor exact physiographicre-
•earch. In consequence
the earlierhistoryof erosionis some-
what obscure and the dates of the various events must remain
at presentindefinite.
In the arid northernpart of the regionevidenceis to be found
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO, CHILE. II

of a former cycle,probablywet. The concordance

of summit
levels in the foothills of the Cordillera and in the Cordillera itselfo
benches
observed
highon the'flanksof theAndesrangeandwell-
rounded,
water-worn
boulders
of numerous
graveldeposits
of
thehighbenchesof Taltal, offer indicationof anearlytopography
probablydeveloped'by.normalprocesses of erosion. This topog-
raphy, perhapsthat •of a peneplain,it would seem,must have
beendevelopedduring Tertiary time.
Uplift havingwarpedthe inferredpeneplain to an elevation
to the east of from 4,0oo meters in the Andes 'and Cordillera to
2,500 metersin the foothills,a dry climate,possiblyduring late
Tertiary or early Pleistocenetime,wasimposeduponthe region.
During the consequent arid erosion,the land thr.oughoutthe
region was dissectedto an early mature stage. Though con-
- structivebuildingup by the volcanoesof the Andestook place,
erosion,principallyby the agentsof the intermittenstreams,was
perdominant.Basinsconsequent uponthe faultedgrabenof the
Central Valley were formed. Subsequent quebradasor dry
riversbecamewell adjus. ted to the geologyof the regionand are
found following the axes of anticlines,the faults, and the soft
beds. The lowerlandwasreducedto a rollingplaneuponwhich
rounded hills often were due to hard strata and intermediate
valleysand enclosedbasinswere filled with debris. The higher
land of the Cordillera has been dissected to a more accentuated
relief,but onenevertheless distinctlymature. Everywheregreat
fans of polished,subangularfragmentswere spreadout from
the hills and mountainsinto the valleys.
On the north,from Iquique.toTaltal the desertcycleseeill per-
sists. Its peculiarfopographyis but slightlymodifiedby a few
recentfaults cuttingalluvial fans and by the great coastalfaul.t
intersectingit a.tthe sea. From Taltal to the Rio Copiap6,how-
ever, dry channelsintersectthe arid topographyand in the south
of the region it is preservedonly on the upper slopesof the
mountains.
Here, south of the Rio Coplap6,steepcarlonstributary to
broad alluvium-filledvalleys cut these remnants of the older
desertstage. Relief is great and streamcaptureof westdrain-
 I2 W. L. WHITEHEAD.

ingvalleys
tookplacebythebranches
of theRioCopiap6.The
greatervalleys,.tosomeextentadjusted,
haveattainedan early
maturityandhavebeenaggraded perhapsby a slightdepression.
Thetri'butari•s
aretypically
young.
In the region,ther.ef.
ore,the physiographic
historyhasprob-
ablyincluded an earlystageof normalxyeterosionwhichpro-
ceeded nearlyto peneplanation.Arid erosion,succeeding
this
stage,had reachedthe beginningof maturitythroughoutthe
regionwhenin thesouthelevationandthe imposition of a wetter
climatecausedthe arid topographyto be dissected to renewed
youth. At presentin the north the desertcyclepersists;in the
southslightdepression
haspartlyfilledthemainvalleys.

THE CHA•ARCILLO DISTRICT.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The Chafiarcillo
districtincludessome8,ooosquarekilometers
of the southernpart of the regionof North Chile. This quad-
rangle, the Copiap6area}extendingfrom about 3¸ kilometers
southof Chafiarcilloto a few kilometersnorth of Copiap6•and
from Chafiarcillo4o kilometerseast and west, coversthat sec-
tion of the regionof primary importancein connectionwith the
broader geologicrelations of the Chafiarcillo veins. In it, as
far as is known, are exposedat the surface,rocks only of the
Chafiarcilloand Tierra Amarilla formationsand of the post-
Cretaceousintrusions. These last occur in great bodiescom-
posingan undifferentiatedigneouscomplexwhich invadesthe
westernCopiap6area.
In the easternpart of the area and certain.centralportionsof
indefiniteextent, west of Tierra A.marillaand Juan Godoy are
exposedthe Tierra Amarilla sandstonescut by a few intrusive
bodies. From Chulo, Juan Godoyand to the south,outcropthe
Chafiarcillo limestones. Another small area of these beds is to
be found at a point representedin the southeastcorner of the
map of Plate VII. The Copiap6intrusionsalso intersectthe
limestonesin massesof relativelysmall size.5
5 The geologicd.ataof the area are obtainedfrom personalobservationsby
the writer and, from the sections by Loren•zo Sund% "Estudios Jeolojicos i
Topograficosdel Desierto i Puna de Atacama,"vol. x, Santiagode Chile, x9o9.
 THE VEINS OF CHAi•ARCILLO,CHILE. I3

The intersectionof the sedimentarybedswith the surface is

in accordwith definitestructural causes. The axis of a syncline
in the Tierra Amarilla bedspassesthrough Cerro Blancoand
onward to the northeast. The area of the Chafiarcillo limestone
last describedis upon the easternlimb of this syncline. From
Chulo southeastward extends the axis of an antidine. At Chulo
the limestoneoutcropsin almostvertical bedson this fold. At
Tierra Amarilla the dips are flatter; the limestoneand its cover
of the beautifullyexposedTierra Amarilla sandstone lie at an in-
cilnationof some3oø. To the southof Pabellonthe anticlineis
invadedby plutonicrocksand the structureis obscure;but about
Chafiarcilloit distinctlybroadensand the dipsuponits limbsai'e
perhaps20ø. The fold thus, in spite of its narrowing to the
north, probablypitchesto the southwardthroughoutits length.

STRATIGRAPHIC GEOLOGY.

The Chafiarcillodistrict, a rectangulararea of about2.5 kilo-

metersnorth-southelongationand of x.6 kilometerswidth upon
the hills abovethe town of Juan Godoy,is intersectedby the axis
of this anticline. The bedsthus have gentledips and in the sec-
tion of some 80o meters to be observed at the surface and in the
mines,are all of the Chafiarcillo formations.

C•A•IS•O

o ,oo zoo Joo 400

FIG. I.

The formation is made up of alternatingbedsof pure or im-

purelimestoneand of volcanicrocks. The limestones
vary some-
I4 W. L. I/PHITEHEAD.

what in appearance;but they are usuallywell beddedin strata a

few centimeters to half a meter in thickness and weather to a
buff or light browncolorat the surfaceforminga strikingcon-
trast to the volcanic rocks. The latter at the surface are medium
grained with a distinctly tuffaceoustexture. Their color is
greento black,and the cliffs composed of them are dark and
irregularlyrough. In theminescertainof the lowerhorizonsof
volcanicbedsare fine grainedand of a gray colordifficultof dis-
tinction from the limestone. ø
The uppermostof thesemembersis calledthe Descubridora
limestone. This member, subdividedby the miners into many
"mantos,"is a distinctunit. At the top of brecciatedtexture, it
gradesbelowimochalkylimestone
andfartherbecomes
darkcol-
ored and carbonaceous.At the bottom of its •9 o meters of
thicknessit is a pure gray limestone.
The topsof the higherpeaksof the districtare composed of
thislimestone.It persistsuponthe slopesof the hillsdownward
to an elevationof x,oooto x,o3ometersto the northeast, and of
about950 metersto the southwest.Its well beddedstrataof
some5¸ centimeters thickness,
its buff,whiteor graycolor,and
its roundedoutcropslend a characteristic
appearance to the sum-
mits of the mountain of Chafiarcillo.
Microscopically
the typicalDescubridora limestoneis seento
becomposedpredominantly of finecrystals
of purecalcitewith a
few coarse ones and occasionalnarrow veinlets of calcite. Inter-
stitiallyto the calcite,grainsof quartzwith raggedoutlineare
of usualoccurrence.They containemptyinclusions and a few
shredsof calcite. More rarelylathsof alteredfeldsparare to be
observed.The rock is distinctlya pure, fine-grainedlimestone
whichhas.beensubjected to no, or very slight,al.teration.
Below the Descubridora limestone lies a tuff, known as the
"PanizoVerde" by the miners,and for this reasoncalledthe
Verde tuff. It outcrops
on the lowerslopesof the mountainand
determinesthe dark, ruggedcliffs of the lower slopes. It is
• The excellent descriptive sectionsof Dr. Fr. A. Moesta and Sefior N.
Echegaray have been of great value as a basis for the subd,
ivislon of the
formation.
 THE VEINS OF CHAI•I'ARCILLO,
CHILE. I5

coarse-grained, of distinctlytuffaceousappearanceand is dark

green in color. The thicknessis variable,ranging from 3ø to a
rare x4ometers;but averagesperhaps5ø meters. This rockwith
the Descubridoralimestoneunderliesthe greater part of the
surface of the district.
The Verde tuff, underthe microscope, is foundto becomposed
of roundedand subangulargrainsof alteredvolcanicrock whose
component mineralsare indistinguishable.A few grainshavea
coarsetextureand in theseplagioclase feldspar,probablyalbite,
in many laths is stronglyalteredto chloriticmaterial and a fer-
romagnesianmineral is replacedby actinolite. Indeed the
roun&d fragmentsarealmostcompletely alteredandarecemented
by calciteand actinolite. It is believedits original composition
was andesitic.
The Negro limestone,"Panizo Negro y Cenizo" of the Chil-
eans,is found below the Verde tuff. This bed, composed of
blackshalyappearinglimestone, with intercalated
strataof chalk
and of fine breccia,variesin thicknessfrom 25 to 65 meters. It
outcrops in the southeastern andsouthwestern cornersof the dis-
trict only; but is found in all of the mines.
The chalkystrata of this rock are composed of pure CaCOa.
Under the microscope the blackbedscharacteristic of the mem-
ber are resolvedinto a fine-grainedmassof interlockingfeldspar
and calcitecrystalswith a few smalldisseminated areasof pyrite.
The feldspar,apparentlyoriginallyalbite,is seeminglyreplaced
in part 'by calcite. Actinoliteof a nearly colorlessvariety is a
common constituent. The breccia is of fine texture similar to
that of the Verde tuff. Alteration of the feldsparof the vol-
canicfragmentsto calciteandactinolitehasno doubttakenplace.
This rock,while typicallyan impurelimestone,is thusnot shaly
but tuffaceous.
The Negro limestoneis underlainby a thick bed of a fine
textured, gray-greenrock, the Panizo Ahuesado. This mem-
ber is recognizedin nearly all of the minesand variesin thick-
nessfrom •2o to I65 meters. At a distanceof some4ø to 5ø
metersbelowits top it is interruptedby the thin stratumof the
Bocano limestone. It is of such fine-grainedtexture, and of
i6 W. L. WHITEHEAD.

suchobscure
colorthat exceptfor its toughbreakits recognition
undergroundwould be of extremedifficulty. Under the micro-
scopethe Ahuesadois seento be an altered tuff.
The downwardsuccession is continuedby a thin beddedlime-
stonecontainingalternatingpureand impurestrata. It attainsa
thicknessof I2o to I5 o meters in the Delirio and Constancia
mines. This, the Delirio limestone,resemblesin all respectsthe
limestones of the uppersequence.The purer layersare of cal-
cite; the shaly-appearingstrata are tuffaceous.
A secondbed of fine tuff about 3ø metersthick occursnext in
the series. The Constanciatuff, as it has beencalled, is of a char-
acter similar to that of the Ahuesado.
Persisting for some 7ø meters below this tuff, is a blue-gray
limestone, the Panizo Azul of the Delirio Mine. This member
is a massiveand impurelimestone.
The sequence clearlyexposedin the minesis closedbelowby a
7o-meterbed of characternearly identicalwith the Verde tuff.
It has beennamedby the minersthe SegundoPanizo Verde. It
is believed that this Segundo tuff has not been passedin deep
exploration;although an indefinitereport states (III., p. 426)
that on the lowest level of the Delirio shaft a limestonecarrying
ore had beenfound belowthe Segundotuff.
The Chafiarcilloformationis thusmadeup of beds,varying in
thicknessfrom 25 to •9o meters, and composedof alternating
tuff and limestone with a maximum thickness of 88o meters.
The tuffs were probablyof original andesiticcomposition.
IGNEOUS GEOLOGY.

At a time indefinitelylater than the depositionof the Descu-

bridoralimestone, manydikeswere inje.ctedinto the rocksof the
Chafiarcillo formation. Their strike is prevailingly southeast,
their thicknessvaries from one to three or four meters, and .their
dip nearly vertical.
The dike rocksare highly altered. Calciteoccursabundantly
throughoutthe groundmass and the alteredplagioclasepheno-
crysts. Aggregatesof interlockingquar.tzgrainsanda few crys-
tals with holohedral outline are imbeddedin the groundmass.
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO, CHILE. x7

Chlorite,sericite,and actinoliteare of rare occurrence.Calcite

and somequartzhave certainlybeenintroduced during the
alterationandtheirpresence
renderstheclassification
of therock
difficult. The dikes can, therefore,only be calledalteredpor-
phyriespossiblyof originaldioriticor tonaliticcomposition.
At a timeprobably considerablylaterthantheinjectionof the
dikes,the last intrusionwasa smallstock,20 metersacross,just
eastof thetownof JuanGodoy. It is soalteredthat little of its
originaltextureis to be seen. The specimens havea dull gray
vitreousappearance, and cannot be determined megascopically.
Under the microscope it is seento be of fairly coarsetexture.
Of its originalconstituent minerals,andesinefeldsparalonere-
mainsin large, typicallytwinnedcrystals. Diopsidein coarse
grainedcrystals,showingthe characteristic twinning,occursin
ill-definedveinletsandirregularareasandno doubtreplaces both
thefeldsparandsomeferromagnesian mineralnowquitealtered.
Associated with diopside are wollastonite,
a few grainsof epidote
and a fibrousmineral,perhapsa serpentine, but of indeterminate
c'haracter.
A laterstageof thealteration
hasin{:roduced
a min-
eral in elongated,
interlocking,
colorless
crystalswith bentforms
and undulatory extinction.It has positivedl•ticalcharacter,
negativeelongation,
an indexof refractionaboutx.6oto x.6•,
low birefringence
(o.ox2-o.o•5) and parallelextinction. It is
biaxial with an opticangle (•E) about5oø, the axial planeap-
pearsto be perpendicular to the cleavage;but the opticaxis
emergesin sections showingno cleavage.The identityof this
mineral is uncertain, for its characteristicsdo not seem to agree
withanyknownspecies:
It replaces
boththeearlierpyroxene
and the feldspar.
The composition of this igneousrock is peculiar. Its altera-
tion, however,seemscertainlyof a contactmetamorphicnature
and,in all probability,after its consolidation
near the uppercon-
tact of the stock,hot solutionsof igneousorigin penetratedit
underhigh pressurefrom below. Lime may havebeenintro-
duced;the rockappearsto be abnormally high in thiscomponent.
Iron was mostcertainlyremoved. Many of the mineralswere
entirelyreplaced
by thosestableundercontactmetamorphic
con-
ditions and the rock was changedto its presentcharacter.
I8 IV. L. WHITEHE,4D.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.

During and probablypersistingafter the periodof igneous

activity,the rocksof the districtwere subjectedto compression.
The anticlinewhoselimbs dip east and west of Chafiarcillowas
formed. In the district itself which lies upon the axis of this
fold, the rockshavebut gentleinclination. Their folding,though
slight,is, however,believedto be of great structuralimportance.
The fiat apex of the anticlineis representedin the Chafiarcillo
districtby a bifurcatingfold with a maximumdip at the eastern
and western extremities of the district of about 5ø. At the
northernend of the area the fol.d is single,its apex falls upon
the claim of the Manto de Ossa Mine and continues to the north-
east. From the Manto de Ossasouthwardthis anticlineparts.
One slight flexure, an an,ticline,passesthrough the claims of
the Colorado,Desempefio,San Francisco,Dellrio and Constancia
Mines. Another similar fold extends .due south from the Des-
cu.bridoraMine. A shallow synclineseparatesthese anticlines.
East and west of these fiat folds the .dips increasegradually
to their maximum. The fol'ding, therefore, has been gentle
but complexupon the apex of the great anticline; but upon the
limbshasbeen•*•teep
andessentially
simple.
Probably in genetic connectionwith this folding, the vein
fractures were formed. They strike predominantlyparallel to
the major axis of folding and dip steeplynear the axial plane.
A few are to be found,however,at an anglenear 45ø to the strike
of the axis. The fractures were manifold, at least 20 in num-
ber, they were imbricatingand discontinuousoften locally; but
they no doubtextendedto great depths.and were open.

MINERALIZATION.

Next penetratingthem came vein forming solutionsof in-

definitebut probablyigneous origin..Veinsweredeposited vary-
ing in width from 25 centimetersto one meter, and containing
calcite,barite, quartz, siderite,arsenopyri.te,
zincblende,pyrite
and many arsenides,sulpharsenides and sulphantimonides of
silver. Ore shootsin placesrich in silver were formed and,
 THE VEINS OF CH.d•.dRCILLO,CHILE. I9

beforethe endof thissingle,andperhaps

short,metallogenetic
epoch,the primary or hypergeneveinsof the districthad been
produced.
After a periodof post-mineral
faulting,the districthasbeen
affected
principally
by theprocess
of erosionduringwhichmany
constituentsof the veins have been disso.
lved, carried downward
into the veins,reopenedin part by the movementso.f faulting,
and havebeenprecipitated.This process, repeatedagainand
again,hasproduced richbodiesof ore. In the upperportionof
the veins,in the oxidizedzone,chlorides,iodidesand bromidesof
silver,nativesilverand dyscrasitehavebeendeposited.Below
in theenriched zonenativesilver,dyscrasite,
argentire,stephanite
and other sulphides have beenprecipitated.The veinsin both
zoneshave beenwidenedin 'placesto a rare IO meters. This
process,that of oxidationand enrichment
by supergene solutions
of atmospheric origin,hasbeenthe causeof thegreatbodiesof
bonanza ore of Chafiarcillo.

THE VEINS.

DIRECTION AND LOCI OF VEINS.

The historyof the veinsof Chafiarcillo

is to be readonly
during the late geologiceventsinferred for the district. The
depositionof sediments, the effusionof lavas,the injectionof
dikes into the strata and the intrusionof plutonicbodiesof
igneousrockshaveall precededthe formationof the veins. The
resultsof thesepre-veinprocesses have in many casesexerted
marked influenceupon depositionof the veins; but their effects
have beenmainly thosealwaysproducedby the environment
into whichvein-formingsolutions are brought. The veinhistory
itself is introducedafter the closeof igneousactivity at the
horizonof the presentsurfaceof the districtand wasalsopre-
.cededby the period o.f folding.
The connection between the direction of the veins and the
axes of folding is striking. Of theseaxes,-thatof the more per-
sistentanticlinestrikesN. 25ø E., and that of a minor divergent
anticline branches from the main fold on the Descubridora claim
20 W. L. WHITEHE,'tD.

and strikesdirectlysouth. Ten of the twenty-fourveinsrecog-

nizedin the districthave a directionparallelto theseaxes. Six
lie parallelto the major fold; four strikewith the minor flexure.
These ten veins includeall but one of the great continuousveins
of the district and have no doubt producedconsiderablymore
than 7ø per cent.of the silverminedat Chafiarcillo.The other
veins, nine in number, have a strike at about 4øo to the major
axisof folding. Three,at N. 65ø E., of whichthe Veta Can-
delariais one,'areveinsof someimportance;six, at N. •5 ø W.,
are poor. Two curvedbranches 'of the Corrida Coloradaseem
each to be composed of joined veins of these4øø systems,at
about9øø oneto the other. A third curvedvein,the Guiasdel
Descubridora, branchesfrom the Veta Descubridora at the north,
follows it for several hundred meters, tends N. 65 ø E., and
finallyto thesouthdiesoutin thetroughof theshallowsyncline
betweenthe greaterand lesseranticlines.The greaternumber
of veins,about9ø per cent.indeed,maybe saidto havea direc-
tionparallelto anaxisof foldingor at about4øøto suchanaxis.
Moreover, the characterof the vein seemsto vary witl• its
positionwith regardto the foldingaxis. The richestveinof
Chafiarcillo,
the CorridaColorado,continuousovera distanceof
more than two kilometers,lies directly uponthe crestof the
greateranticline.The Veta Descubridora,
a richproducer,
is
upontheaxisof theminor,divergent
anticline.Awayfromthe
axesof the foldsthe veinsparallelto themgrow lesscontinuous
andpoorer.Amongtheveinsat 4øøto theanticlinal
axesbut
one,the Veta Candelaria,
is rich,andit attainsits bestdevelop-
mentuponthecrestof thetwofoldsat theirjunction.Thedips
of all veinsare steepto the westor northwest.The stronger,
more continuous
veinsthuslie near the axial planesof the folds,
thoseweakerand of short extensionare uponthe limbs.
THE FISSURES.

From suchconsiderations
a geneticrelationof the vein frac-
turestofoldingistobeinferred.Themechanics
of theformation
of mineralized
fissures,
however,
hasalwaysprovedto bea difficult
andobscure subject.In manycasestherocksare of a natureor
 THE VEINS OF CHAI•ARCILLO,CHILE. 21

thealterationis sosevereas to givethegeologistno preciseindex

of folding,andthe literatureis thusdeficientin the treatmentof
fracture origin in mining districts. Willis,7 however,while not
discussing the feature,has illustratedfractures,or small faults,
near the axial plane of anticlinein competentstrata. The un-
publishedresultsof A. R. Whitman and of the author in the
CobaltDistrict, Ontario, also give excellentproof of the genetic
connection of folds and vein fractures. The veins of Chafiarcillo
seemto offer further indicationof this mode of origin of vein
fissures.
An origin of the fracturesduring folding postulatesthe up-
bendingof the anticlinalarchesand the subjectionof the com-
petent strata of limestoneand tuff to tensionalforcesnear the
axes of the folds. Fractures of great continuity would form
under these conditionsupon the axes; parallel to them minor
fractureswould occur. F.urthermore,the forcesof compression,
whichproducedthe folds,are in a directionof about9øo to the
axesof folding. Suchforcesare often known to causefractures
or joints in rocksat an anglenear 45ø to their directionas diag-
onalsof an ellipsoidof strain.8 As the stressand the consequent
strain upon the rock increases, the ellipsoidbecomesflatter, the
diagonalplanesare changedand the anglesbetweenthe planesof
fracturingand the directionsof forcebecomegreater. Thus the
systemsof vein fracturesat 40ø to the axes of the folds are
easilyexplicableand indicatean ellipsoidof strain but slightly
changedfrom the undeformedsphere.
The facts'of the field seemto agree with suchan hypothesis
of fracture origin. Few of the veins lie in a di.rectionin dis-
agreementto this explanation.The veinsof the DoloresTer-
cera and the Loreto Fifth have a north-south strike, but are far
removed from the fold of this direction. The two barren veins
of the northernpart of the district,thosecrossingthe claimsof
the Bolaco Nuevo, Manto de Ossa and the Manto Peralta, and
7Willis, Bailey, "Mechanics of AppalachianStructure,"U.S. Geological
Survey,Thirteenth Annual Report,Pt. II., p. 217,Plate LXXVI. and following.
8 Becker,G. F., "Finite HomogeneousStrain, Flow and Rupture of Rocks,"
Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 4, PP. I3-9o, I893.
22 W. L. WHITEHE•ID.

of the BolacoNuevo,Esperanzaand Descubridora respectively,

are alsoof directionobscure in its connecion
with folding. Such
exceptions are, however,rare and includeonly four minor veins
out of the total of twenty-four. The others,constitutingmore
than 80 per cent. of the number and all of the more continuous
rich veins,fill fracturesof which it may be statedwith somecon-
fidencethat their originis dueto the forcesproducingfolding.
VEINS APPROXIMATV.
LY N. 25ø E. VV.INS APPROXIMATELYN. I5 ø W.
I. Corrida Colorad'a. I4. Veta Loreto 3a.
2. Guias de Carvallo. I5. Veta Loreto 4a.
3. Veta Esperanza. I6. Veta Atravieso.
4. Veta Mercedes. I7. Veta Chacabuco.
5. Veta Loreto Ia. I8. Veta Desempeno.
6. Veta Loreto 2a. I9. Veta Yungai.
VEINS APPROXIMA:rELY N.-S. VEINS CURVED(BOTI-IN. 65ø E. AND
7. Veta Descubridora. N. 15ø W.).
8. Guias del Manto de Ossa. 2o. Veta Forastera (branch).
9. Veta Dolores Tercera. 2I. Guias d,e Colorada (branch).
IO. Veta Loreto 5a. 22. Guias d•el Descubridora.

VEINS APPROXIMA•LYN. 65ø E. VEINS APPROXIMATELY N. 55ø V•,;.

I I. Veta Candelaria. 23-24. Two barren veins of the
I2. Veta Bolsa. northern d/strict.
I3. Veta Nuevo Bo,laco.

Thesemay be of later formation and connectedwith faults at

N. 55ø W. (seep. 58).
The vein fissuresthus fall in two groups,that of the axial
fissuresand that of the fissuresat 4ø0 to the axes of folds or the
shearfissures.The axial fracturesprobablyproducedby ten-
sionalstresswere doubtless open,certainly,in placesto a width
of 25 centimeters, and perhapslocallyto a width of one meter.
Movementoccurreduponthemas evidenced by the gougeusually
uponthe footwall; but this movement,slight in extent,doesnot
indicate their classificationas faults. The shear fractures, also
loci of smalldisplacements,similarlywere openfissures;but the
characterof their origin suggeststhat the openingsupon them
were generallynarrower than upon fissuresof the former class.
The Candelaria fracture, however, must have been a wide fissure
and here the factor of bendingmay have beenoperative. Upon
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO, CHILE. 23

all fracturesthe hangingwall appearsto havebeenbrokenby

innumerable imbricatingcracksand fissures.The footwallhas
beenusuallyunbroken, however,and is in manyplacespolished,
slickensidedand coveredby gouge. During the subjectionof
the rocksof the districtto lateral compres.sive
forces,therefore,
wasproduced a networkof openfissures of greatcontinuityboth
horizontal and vertical.

THE PRIMARY MINERALIZATION.

The primarymineralization wasproduced by solutions

which
penetratedthis network,perhapsimmediatelyuponits opening.
They no doubtcamefrom below,were hot, posgiblyof a tem-
peratureof I5 oø C. to 30oø C., and were underhigh pressure.
Their origin,as is often the casewith vein-formingsolutions,is
obscure;but the contactmetamorphism of Los Carrosdiorite is
significantin this connection.
This type of alterationof the intrusivestronglyindicatesin
the light of the presentknowledgeof contactmetamorphicproc-
esses thattheigneous rocksinjectedbelowthepresentsurfaceof
the districtgaveoff emanations chargedwith soda,lime,silica,
water and other volatile substances. These emanationsat high
temperature andundergreatpressure alteredthe contacts of the
intrusionfrom the deepercoreof whichthey were derivedand
undoubtedly continuedonwardto imposesimilarmetamorphism
uponthesurrounding limestone.A fewcrystals of albitefeldspar
replacinglimestonenearbeddingplanesis.the onlyevidence of
thislatterprocess
obtained in thefield. Los Carrosintrusionis
not, however,believedto be the immediateorigin of the vein
solutionsof Chafiarcillo;but from the natureof plutonicigneous
activityin the regionstrongprobability
existsthat similarin-
trusionslie at depthsbelowthe zonepenetratedby the mines.
Los Carrosstockis merelya cupolaof a deeperintrusionwhich
undoubtedly hadotherexcrescences.
From.thesepoints.,lociof
concentrationperhaps
of the igneous
emanations of the cooling
magmabelowthem,solutions perhaps
roseand,after producing
in all probability
contact
metamorphism of a naturecomparable
to that notedat the presentsurface,penetrated
undergreatpres-
24 W. L. WHITEHEAD.

sureall openings
offeredthemand,as theyprogressed upward
alongthe fracturesin the coolerrocks,deposition
took place.
The Chafiarcillo fissures were of a nature to become such chan-
nels,the presence belowof the magmaparentto the solutionsis
stronglyindicatedand it is believedthe vein-formingsolutions
of the districthadsuchan igneousorigin.
The solutions, whatever their source, introduced the min-
eralizationof the Chafiarcilloveins. During the periodof their
accessto the fracture•,thefissureswerefilledandthe wall rocks
were replacedin part by the mineralsof the primaryor hyper-
gene mineralization.
DEPTH.

Veins representativeof this stagealoneare rare in the district.

Almost invariablythe primary ore has beensubjectedto some
supergenealteration; but many important ore shootsare pre-
dominantlycomposedof hypergeneore. Suchore bodieslie at
an appreciabledepthbelow.the surface. In the northerndistrict
extendingsouthwardto the Boconapropertyon the Corrida Colo-
rada the depth of ore predominantlyprimary varies from 2oo
to 35o meters. South of this point in the San Franciscoand
Dolores Primera mines it is found some 45ø to 5o0 meters in
depth. The Delirio and Constanciamineshave encounteredsuch
ore at about 400 meters. As few mines of the district have
reacheda depth of 50o meters,evidentlylittle primary ore has
been extracted at Chafiarcillo.
The depth at which this type of ore occursis intimately re-
lated to the stratigraphyof the sedimentaryrocks. In fact the
statementis accuratethat primary ore is to be found in the third
limestone bed below the surface. Thus in the northern district,
definedas above,this ore is met in depthfirst in the Delirio lime-
stone. In the southernarea at the depthsnoted it was developed
in the lowest Delirio limestone and in the Azul limestone.

WIDTH.

The veins of primary character found in thesepositionsare

usuallysomewhatnarrowerthan on the levelsabove. They vary
 THE VEINS OF CHA•rARCILLO,CHILE. 25

in widthconsiderably,
of course,
but whenminablear6 usually
from 25 centimetersto one meter wide. These widths are con-
tinuouslaterally along the dip of the limestonestrata often for
•oo meters or more; but vertical changesin the width of the
primary veins are sudden. A narrow cleft hardly traceablein
the tuffs commonlybroadensupon entering a limestonebed
(panizo) and often attainsa thickness.
of 75 to •oo centimeters
upon penetratinga pure stratum (manto) of this bed.. The
stopesof rich ore at the horizonsunaffected
by superficial
proc-
essesthus are usuallynarrow and low-backed(2-•o meters)
but extendlaterallyoftenappreciable distances.
TYPES OF VEINS.

Two types of theseprimary veins are recognizedin the dis-

trict. They are composedof similar gangueminerals, calcite,
siderite,bariteand quartz. The first and lessimportan.t
typeof
the copperveins,however,containsmore siderite. Accompany-
ing the ganguein theseveinsare chalcopyrite,tetrahedrite,zinc-
blende,galena,pyrite, arsenopyrite,and tracesof the sulpharsen-
idesandsulphantimonides
of silver. Thecopper
veinsarenar-
row, lie in fissuresstriking about N. •5 ø W. and are found
best developedin the Veta Atravieso and its neighborsin the
southernarea. The secondtype and that of which the rich silver
veinsof the districtare representativediffers from the first mainly
in the quantitative relation of its componentminerals. In the
silver veins, with a gangueof calcite,barite and a little siderite
and quartz, small amountsof pyrite, galena, chalcopyriteand
tetrahedrite occur. Zincblendeand arsenopyriteare abundant
constituents,however,and the silver minerals,pearceire, proustire,
polybasite,pyrargyriteand perhapsmiargyriteare in manyplaces
presentin markedquantity. The usualnarrow vein of this type
in tuff or impure limestone,nevertheless,containsonly calcite,
barite and quartz with a sparsesprinklingof minute sulphide
grains.'
Only upon its enteringthe purer limestonestrata and upon its
widening, do the sulphidesof the basemetals and their more
complex
accompanying
silvercompounds
enterthe'vein.Here,
26 I4/. L. WHITEHEA'D.

besidea vein of one to two metersthickness,the hangingwall is

oftenpenetrated by manyinterlacing richveinlets. In placesore
is foundawayfromtheveinto several
meters.The second
vein,
narrowbutrich,characteristic
of thehangingwall of the Corrida
Colorada also is confined to these horizons. Rich ore, therefore,
often extendsinto the hangingwall in limestone;
but the foot-
wall is polished,
coveredwith clay-likegougeandis barren.
FACTORS AFFECTING ORE SHOOTS.

Wall Rocks.--The relationsmentionedaboveprove a definite

andimportanteffectuponthe localization
of ore shootsby pure
bedsof limestone. This featureis well illustratedby the section
of the Constancia
Mine (Fig. 2). All of the.primaryore of
Chafiarcillo is contained in limestonesand the better bodies of
suchore are in the purerstrataof the limestone.
Intersections of Veins.--Of but little lessefficacy
in thedeter-
ruination of ore shootsare the intersectionsof veins. The rich
zone of the northern district from the Candelaria and Manto
Peraltaproperties,
throughthe Descubridora,
Es.peranza,
Colo-
rada and Loretoclaimsappearsto be connected
with the cross-
cuttingVeta Candelaria.At its immediate
crossing
with the
Veta Descubridoraand the Corrida Colorado bodiesof extreme
ric?/ness
wereencountered. Thesepipe-likechimneys
of high
gradeorewerecalled"bolsos"
or pillows
bytheminers.Other
vein intersectionsshowsimilar effects,as in the caseof the cross-
ingof theVetaDescubridora
andtheGuiasdelDescttbridora,
of
the various Loreto veins and of the branchesof the Corrida.
Dikes.--Dikes have also affected the concentrationsof ore.
Fracturedsomewhat duringthe folding,theyseemto haveof-
feredchannelssubsidiary
to thoseof theveinsfor thecirculation
of solutions.Their strongalterationand their mineralization
offerproofof thepassageof solutions.Wheretheyareclosely
spacedasin thecenterof t.hedistrictnearthe Colorada
Mine
andwheretheyhavebranched nearveinstheyhaveprobably
beenof importancein themineralization
of theveins.The fact
that severalof the betterore-producing
areasare eachupona
wedge-shaped
blockbounded
by dikesdipping
awayfromthe-
THE VEINS OF CHAi•ARCH_,LO,
CHILE. 27

Fro. :z.
28 W. L. WHITEHE•ID. '

area suggeststhe possibilityof concentrationof vein solutions

in the blocksby the dikes. The effectof dikesat their immediate
crossingwith veins is obscuredby the unfavorablecomposition
of their rocks,as with the tuffs, for the precipitationof the silver
minerals.
?olds.---The folds havebeenimportantfactorsdeterminantof
ore shoots,as is evidentf.rom the discussion
of the origin of the
fissures. The beddingmay, however,have servedalso to deflect
rising solutionsinto the crests of the anticlinal arches. The
cause of the difference in character between the ore shoots of
the copperveinsand thoseof the silver veins is a difficultmatter.
These copper or "atravieso" veins, however, approachmore
nearly than others Los Carros intrusion and, indeed, penetrate
its zoneof contactmetamorphism.This fact is suggestiveof a
more intimaterelationbetweenthe Los Carrosigneousbodyand
the copperveinsthan betweenit and the silver veins. The pres-
enceof copperin the inner and moreintensezonesof mineraliza-
tion and of silver in the outer zones is characteristicof many
mining districts. The copperveins of Chafiarcilloare perhaps
indicativeof similar relationsof intensityof mineralizaton.

SILVER AND COPPER VEINS.

Thus, while certain veins at about the strike N. I5 ø W. may

containpredominantcoppermineralsdue to their proximity to
an igneousbody,thesilverveinsare not affectedby thisinfluence
in knownhorizons. The partsof theseveinscarryinghigh con-
centrationsof silver,however,appearto be due to definitecausal
factors. To reiterate, these factors effectingprecipitationof
silvermineralsare (I) purerlimestonestrata, (2) intersections
of veinsor fissures,
(3) intersections
of dikes,of dikesandveins,
andperhaps proximityo.fdikesto veins,and(4) theposition
of
veinswith regardto the axesof folds. Where oneof these
factors has been favorable, ore shootshave formed..Where
more than one has beenin a fortuitous combination,exceedingly
rich masses.
of silver minerals are encounteredin the vein.
 THE VEINS OF CHA•rARCILLO,CHILE. 29

M INERA.LOGIC RELATIONS.

Megascopic.--Inthis primary ore finely crystallinecalciteor

platy barite composes the greaterpart of the vein material. In
many placesthe two are admixed. Cavitiesare of usual occur-
rence in the vein and vary in size from the commonfew milli-
metersof diameterto thoseof a centimeter opening. They are
seenwith a hand lenseto containcrystallinecoatingsof calcite,
of quartz and silver sulpho-salts.Scatteredthroughoutthe
gangueare smallgrainsor morerarely massiveaggregates of the
metallic minerals. Zincblendemay rarely be observedin dis-
seminatedgrains. Arsenopyritein interlacingcrystals,in solid
aggregates, and in hollow spheroidalforms is an ever present
constituent. Ruby silver, pearceireand polybasitelie in the
ganguein sharplyoutlinedgrainsandmasses, manyof whichare
angularin shapeand a few of which are of featherymargin.
The ga•gue is in placesbandedwith thesegrains; in placesthe
sulphides are .evenlydisseminated,and elsewhere cleangangueis
in serratedcontactwith massivesulphide.
Microscopic.--Underthe microscopea sequenceof mineral
depositionis clearlyto be observed.Calcite,the first mineralto
be precipitatedin the veins,is replacedby holohedralcrystals.of
barite. Lathsof baritepenetratecoarselycrystallineaggregates
of calcitegrains regardlessof contactsor structure. Where this
replacementhas reacheda more completestage,massesof inter-
lacing barite crystalsare seen with residual calcite included.
Quartz accompanied the barite and occupies areasbetweenlaths
of this mineral. The depositionof calciteand its replacement in
this mannerby bariteand subordinatequantitiesof quartz,com-
prisedthe first stageof primary mineralization.
The next stage,succeeding the first probablyby an inappre-
ciableinterval,consisted of the precipitationof sulphides.Zinc-
blendefilled certaincavitiesbut more often replacedcalcitein
irregularareasal.ongcrystalboundaries.It wasaccompanied by
ruby silver (proustite) which occursin the blende in small ir-
regularblebs. Galena,pyrite and chalcopyrite are rare com-
ponentsof the silverveins;but wherethey havebeenobserved
3ø W. L. WHITEHEAD.

in polishedsectionsthey are seento be intergrownwith zi.nc-

blendein an irregularmannertypicalof contemporaneity.This
stageof theprimarydeposition,thoughcharacterizedbythepre-
cipitation
of tracesof proustite,
is on thewholea periodof the
formationof sulphidesof the basemetals.
Arsenopyritein greatquantitywas introducedinto the veins
next in the succession.
It wasprecipitatedin cavities,usually
only partlyfillingthem. It replaced
calcitealongcrystalcon-
tactsand alongcleavagelines. Its acicularcrystalscommonly
penetratezincblende,and veinletsof arsenopyritecut the latter
mineral. Ruby silver again was depositedin small amounts;
and quartzwasprecipita,ted, replacingcalciteandbaritein halos
aboutthe arsenopyrite.It alsois developed in holohedral
crys-
tals and fine aggregatesalo.ngthe contactsof calciteand barite
andreplaces bothof theseminerals. This stage,the third of the
sequence, is againa predominantly barrenmineralizationtypified
by the introductionfirst in great amountsinto the veinsof iron
and of arsenic.
Arsenicalmineralscontinued to characterize
the earlypart of
the fourth stage. Pearceiteand proustitecompletedthe filling
of cavitiespartlyoccupied
by arsenopyrite.They are to be seen
in many placesin vugslying in the intersticesof aciculararseno-
pyrite crystals. They alsoare depositeduponcalcitein vugsand
usuallycompletelyfill the openings. Replacementof gangue,
principallyof calcite,by thesemineralsoccurredbut was of sub-
ordinateimportanceto their filling of openspaces. Late in the
fourth stage,antimony-bearing mineralsappeared. Tetrahedrite,
often o.fthe variety freibergite,is found replacingcalcitearound
the contactsof arsenopyritecrystals. Polybasitereplacedthe
marginsof pearceitegrains;pyrargyriteaffectedsimilarlymasses
of proustite. Vugs were alsofilled by polybasiteand pyrargyrite
and smallblebsof pearceiteand proustitein the antimonymin-
eralstestify to the fact that locallythe arsenicalsilvercompounds
were still stable. Replacementof calcite:byveinletsand areasof
polybasiteandpyrargyriteis a featurecommonlyobserved. Thus
this fourth and last stage of the primary mineralizationbegan
with predominantopenfilling by arsenicalsilver compoundsand
 THE VEINSOF CHA•ARCILLO,CHILE. 31

closedwith replacementby antimonialsilver sulphides. From

(I) the characterof the openfillings,(2) the former absence of
antimonialminerals, (3) the replacements of gangue, (4) the
mineralassociations and (5) the absenceof replacementof galena
by ruby silver of this stage,the periodis believedundoubtedly
primary and is thus the last stageof the hypergenesequence pre-
eminentlyimportantin the formationof the Chafiarcilloveins.
PRIMARY MINERALIZATION.

Character. First Stage. Process.

Calcite. Filling.
(Siderite.)
Barren gangue minerals.
Barite. Replacement.
(Quartz.)
Second Stage.
Pyrite.
Base metal sulphides. Zincblonde (Proustite).
(Traces of silver.) Chalcopyrite (Proustite). Replacement.
Galena (Proustite). (Filling.)
Third Stage.
Arsenopyrite. Arsenopyrite (Proustire). Replacement.
(Traces of silver.) Quartz. Filling.
Fourth Stage.
Sulpharsen,
ides of silver. Pearceite. Filling.
Proustire. (Replacement.)
Sulphantimonidesof Tet'rahed,
rite (Freibergite).
silver. Polybasite. Replacement.
Pyrargyrite. (Filling.)

FAULTING.

At a time subsequent to the primary mineralizationof the

veins,but separatedfrom it by an interval of indefinablelength,
the rocksand veinsof the districtwere dislocatedby faults. The
early part of this period, characterizedby faults of appreciable
displacement,
is represented
at Chafiarcillo
by one fault only.
This, the Loreto fault, strikesNW.-SE., dips.to the southwest
and is normal. The displacementupon it, downward on the
southwestern side,is about5ø meters. This fault separates
what
have been called the northern and southern areas of the district,
32 W. L. WHITEHEAD.

in realitythe northernandsouthernblocks,andthe displacement

upon it is the causeof the differenceof mineralization of identical
strata in thesetwo blocks. Later faulting has producedno im-
portantdisplacements.The fault strikingN. 55o W. in the north
of the districtand cuttingthe BolacoViejo shaft throwsthe Cor-
rida and Manto de Ossavdns aboutI4O metershorizontally;but
the vertical displacement is slight. Thi.s fault is distributiveon
at least four faults in the Candelaria claim. The San Francisco
fault strikingN. 75ø W. throughthe centralpart of the district
produceda predominantlateral displacementof about 3ø meters.
The San Bias faults at the southernextremity of the area are of
a similar nature. They causedmarked horizontal displacement;
but dislocatedthe strata but little vertically.
During the faulting .periodsmall faults were formed on dikes
and on veins. Veins were displacedon dikes,and more rarely on
crossveins; dikes were openedto offer channelsfor downward
percolatingsolutions;and the veins were universallyfractured
and reopened.
After the first period of faulting, therefore, the rocks of the
district were broken into two blocksof about 5ø meter,sdifference
in elevation; after the secondperiod the displacements though
often greatwere unimportant;but the veins,dikesand rockswere
shatteredand openedin a manner to have a marked influence
upon succeeding processes affectingthe veins.

EROSION.
ß

.The periodof faultingwas followedby erosionduringwhich

the surfacewas slowlyworn down from a horizonat leasthun-
dredsof metersabovethe presentsurfaceto their outcropsof
today. Formercyclesor stagesof the physiography seemunim-
portantin connection with the veins. For long periodsin the
pastthe climateappearsto havebeensomewhat similarto that
of todayor to havebeenmorearid and in consequence of this
inference,thepresentprocessesof a superficial
naturein theveins
the believedto havebeenoperativein the past. Whateversuper-
geneconcentrations
of silvermayhavebeenformedduringearly
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO, CHILE. 33

physiographic stages,arid or wet, have certainlybeenmodified

and their mineralsredistributedduring the last stageof erosion.
Thus the discussionof the veins is concernedmerely with the
presenterosiveperiodand its variations. The topographyof the
district and its environsshowsthis period clearly to have been
simple. Deep carlonsand valleyslead the drainageof Chafiar-
cillo southwardto the broadervalley o.f the Quebradade Pa-
ionales. This course,proceedingto the sea, is partly filled by
alluvium. The topography,therefore,is young in the highlands
aboutChafiarcillo,is more mature in the main valleys,and in the
latter localitiesindicatesa recent slight depression.
Suchan interruptionof erosion,however,has not affectedthe
mountainsof the district. Here the youthful stagehas persisted
from its beginning. The deepcuts of the carlonshave, as they
proceeded downward, stimulated the circulation of surface
waters. Possible older concentrations of silver in horizons now
removedhavebeencarrieddownwardinto the veinsand precipi-
tated anew. Erosionhas not outstrippedsolutionand deposition,
as sulphidesare never exposedin the valleys,but the two proc-
essesl•avein an orderlymannerkept in paceand as the youthful
topographyof the district was carvedthe presentsupergenecon-
centrationof silver in the veinsprogressed.
ENRICHMENT.

Depth.--The primaryoresare first foundaffectedappreciably

by supergeneor secondaryprocesses at a depthof I6O to 300
meters in the northern area and of 35ø to 400 meters in the
southernarea. The zoneof this first alterationin depthof the
hypergeneore, or the zone of enrichmentis at the north in the
Negro limestone,at the south in the Dellrio limestone. It thus
variesin thickness
in thenorth&ore40 to 65 meters
andin the
south from I2O to I5O meters. It usuallyoccursin the second
limestonehorizonbelowthe surfaceand separatingit from the
zoneof unaltered,primary ore beneath,lie the Ahuesadotuff and
the Constancia tuff.
Zoning.--In the enriched zone many of the structuresand
mineralsof the primary zoneremain. In the lower part of the
34 W. L. WHITEHEAD.

zone supergeneeffectshave often been weak and the alteration

hasbeenslight. In theupperzone,however,andnear faultsand
fractures, the enrichment
hasobliterated the primarysulphide
mineralization. Thus,thoughtheunderlying andoverlyingbeds
of tuff give unusually
sharpdelimitation to the zoneof enrich-
ment,the zone,nevertheless, is definedratherby the processes
involvedin the formationof the ore thanby thequantitative
re-
sult of suchprocesses.
Character.raThesecondarydepositionof silver is character-
ized by the predominance
of replacement.The primary ore
shootsare pseudomorphed
by thoseof the enrichedbodies;their
shape,size and general relations as describedabove are un-
changed;but by the precipitationof mineralscontaininggreater
percentagesof silverthanthoseof the hypergene depositionthey
havebeenappreciably increased
in richness.Pearceite, proustite,
polybasite
and pyrargyritein the relationstypicalof the primary
veinshavebeenreplacedby stephanite,argentite,minor amounts
of a secondgenerationof pearceiteand polybasite,and by much
dyscrasiteand native silver. Replacementof gangue minerals
has rarely beennoted in the ores developedduring enrichment.
The enrichedores of Chafiarcillothus are due predominantlyto
the replacementof the sulphidesof early depositionby super-
genesulphidesand native silver.
Mineralo#y.--Under the reflectingmicroscopetheserelations
are clearly to be observed. In the first stagesof enrichmentruby
silver is replacedby argentite,stromeyrite,stephaniteand traces
of polybasiteand pearceite. The typical arrangement of the
supergenemineralsis in concentricbandsaboutcoresof the un-
alteredruby silver. In this stagepyrargyrite is first affectedby
the secondaryreplacements;proustite is.more resist,ant. Upon
enrichmentbecomingmore intense,dyscrasiteand minor amounts
of native silver and silver amalgam are introduced. The native
elements,includingdyscrasite,developin irregular dendriticareas
first in pyrargyrite, later in proustite,pearceiteand polybasite.
As their deposition
procee•ds
theyreplacecompletely
earlysul-
phidesand finally in the upper part of the enrichedzone pene-
trate the earlier sulphidesof enrichment, argentite, stephanite,
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO, CHILE. 35

pearceiteand polybasitein feathery massestypical of replace-

ment. The result of most intense enrichment is veins of massive
dyscrasiteand r}ativesilver. Rarely thesetwo mineralsare crys.-
talline and have been depositedin open spaces;in placesthey
have evidentlyin part replacedcalciteand are found penetrating
crystalsof calcitealong the cleavage;but the great part of the
silver of theserich veinshas replacedsulphidesof earlier devel-
opment. This last stageevidentlyinvolvesa processof oxida-
tion; but is distinctlya feature of the zone of enrichment.

EmucH MENT.

Character. First Stage. Process.

Stephanite.
(Pearceite.)
Sulphides of silver. Repl,acement of earlier sul-
(Polybasite.)
(Sulphide enrichment.) phid,es.
(Stromeyrite.)
Argentite.
Second Stage.

Native elements.
Dyscrasit'e. Replacement of all earlier
Native silver. sulphides and of gangue.
(Oxidation of sulphides.) Silver amalgam. (Open filling.)

The copperveinsin this zoneshowsimilarprocesses to have

beenactinguponthem. Chalcociteand more rarely stromeyrite
replacechalcopyrite, borniteand tetrahedritein the crossingvein--
lets quite typical of secondarycopperdeposition;but strangely
absentfrom supergenestructuresin the silver veins. No appre-
ciable concentrationof silver has taken place, however, in the
copperveinsin the enrichedzone.
Factors,'tffecting Ore Shoots.-•The enrichmenthas beenaf-
fected less than the primary depositionby factors of environ-
ment. Enrichment,however,has proceeded more rapidly in the
vicinity of faults,uponreopenedveinsand near fractures,poroug
dike rocks. Intersectionsof veins,with the consequent openings
due to the post-primarymovements,have offeredexcellentchan-
nels for the circulationof supergenesolutions. The great part
of enrichmentis, nevertheless, determinedby the primary ore
shoots.
36 W. L. WHITEHEAD.

OXIDATION.

$trati#raphic Position.mAbove the enriched zone and sepa-

rated from it by a bed of tuff, the Ahuesadotuff in the southern
block and the Verde tuff in the northern, lies the zone of oxida-
tion. This zone is f.ound in the limestoneoutcroppingat the
surfaceor, where tuff is exposed,in the first limestonebed below.
Thus in the north the Descubridoralimestoneis the countryrock
of the oxidized veins and in the southernarea the Negro lime-
stone is their usual horizon .of deposition. The zone of oxida-
tion attains in the north a thicknessof x9o meters while in the
southwhereit is found beneaththe Verde tuff it is merely some
5ø metersthick but extendsto a depthbelowthe surfaceof per-
haps xoo meters.
This zoneis characterizedby the depositionof halidesof silger
and of oxidesof iron. The latter mineralspermeatethe walls of
the veins and lend their warm red colors to the rock. The miners
have thus called the .oxidized zone the "panizo calid.
o" or
"warm zone."
Ore $hoots.--The ore shootshere are quite different in size,
shapeand characterfrom thoseof the primary and enriched
zones. The veins have been appreciablywidened and' in places
are observed o.f a width of xo meters. The ore shoots have lost
the elongatedshapeparallelto the limestonebeddingso typical
of the sulphidezonesand are of irregularshape. They attain
verticaldimensions
of 3ø to 5ø metersand a horizontalextension
of almost continuousore of 200 meters or more. Assayswere
high in silverandhavebeenreportedof the richness
of 2 to 2.5
percent.silver. The stopes
in thiszoneare,therefore,
wider,of
greaterverticalandhorizontalextentand werecomposed prob-
ablyof highergradeorethanthosein thedeeperproductivelevels.
The rich ore bodies,which have beenextracted from the stopes
of the oxidizedzone,haveapparentlybeenconcentrated,to judge
from presentavailabledata,in definiteconnectionwith certain
geologicfactors. They first are confined,
as the oresbelow,to
limestonestrata. Dikes have, where they crossthe veins, evi-
dentlyinfluenced
deposition
and causedthe extension
of ore
PLATE I.
ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY VOL. XIV.

'4

a.Iodobromite
(pebbly
gray)replacing calcite
(dark gray).Note preserva-
tionof calcitestructure.X 400.
b.Iodobromite
(light
gray) replaced bythinmarginal lines
ofargentire
in
calcitegangue(black). X 400.

C. d.
c.Iodobromite
(light
gray)
replacing
calcite
alongt•vin
lamellae.
X I05.
d.Dyscrasite
(light
gray)
replacing
argentire
(dark
gray).Gangue
isblack.
X 2.
PLATE II. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. VOL. XIV.

•, ,/

b.
b. •'at*•¾½$i1¾½•(l•ght gr•y), •½plach•g•odol•omit½ (])lacE).
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO,CHILE. 37

Shoots
togreater
depths
thanwhere
theyareabsent.
Thiseffect
in somecasesis due to the interruptionof circulatingsurface
waters; in othersit is broughtabout by the fracturing of the
dikes and the surrounding rock. Cross fractures of post-
primary age produce similar local enrichments,but perhaps
greatestin importanceas an influenceupon the precipitationof
silver in the oxidizedore shootsare the fracturesof latest age
parallel to the veins and near their intersections. Where these
factorshaveprovedfortuitousin their connection with the earlier
ore bodies,exceedinglyrich massesof chlorides,bromidesand
iodides of silver, and of native silver have been formed.
Mineralogy.--Under the microscope the oxidizedmineralsin
polishedsectionshowa typicaland interestingsequence.Areas
of native silver and dyscrasiteof the last stageof enrichment
are replacedat their contactswith gangueby halidesof silver.
The halides,usually a greenishmineral containingsilver, iodine,
bromine and chl,orine,and identified as iodobromite,develops
irregularly at the margins of the dys.crasite
and penetratesthe
latter in blunt rough-edgedveinlets. Many areasof seemingly
pure iodobromiteand cerarg'yritecontainsmoothlyroundedblebs
of dyscrasite,minute specksof fine irregular lines of this min-
eral to prove their origin by its replacement. Veinlets of native
silver and of dyscrasiteare interruptedby their entire conversion
throughoutshort lengthsto iodobromite. Where argentite,ruby
silver or other silver sulphideshave persistedunalteredto be ex-
posedto the processes of oxidation,they are to be frequentlyob-
servedreplacedin part by haiidesof silver. Minute specksof
ruby silver are, in many places,surroundedand indentedby
cerarg'yriteand iodobromite.
Open filling by the halides is not unusual and cerargyrite,
bromyriteand i.odobromite are to be found coatingfracturesand
filling vugs. Replacement, however,is the predominantprocess
of the depositionof theseminerals. Calcite has beenpartially
replacedalongcleavagelinesby the commonrouge-coloredoxide
of iron and theselines of rhombicshapeare of,tento be seen'in
areasof silver halides. Veinlets .of iodobromitealso penetrate
the twinning of calcite. From suchrelationsthe replacementof
38 W.L. WHITEHEAD.

calcite
bysilverhalides seems wellproven,andnodoubtexplains
in part the greatwidthof the veinsof the oxidizedzone. In
places,nevertheless,
calciteis unaltered
anddyscrasitelyingon
cleavage planesof calcite
hasbeenreplaced.Thusundercertain
conditions
calcitehasbeenreplacedby halidesof silver,under
othersdyscrasite,
nativesilverand earliersulphides
havebeen
replaced, andunderall circumstances
a subordinateamountof
thefillingof spaces
hasbeenaccomplished
bysilverhalides.
In the copperveinsa differentbut probablyparallelsequence
has beeninferred. Areas of nativecopper,no doubtderived
from chalcocite
of the completeenrichmentof the primaryore,
are replaced
at theircontacts
with gangue
by bands.of native
silver. The silver is, in turn, replacedat its immediatecontact
withtheganguebya narrowcoating
of cuprite,
crystals
of which
project
intothesilver.Thedepositionof silverhereseems of
approximatecontemporaneity
with that of thehalides of the
silver veins.
As a nextstageo•ftheprocesses
affecting
thesilverveins,the
halidesof theoxidizedoresarereplaced
by nativesilverandby
argentite.Narrowrims,representedinthepolishedsection
mag-
nified500diametersby a mereline,lie at thecontact
of calcite
andiodobromite andproveto be nativesilver. Featheryvein-
letsof nativesilvercommonlypenetrateareasof halides. Ar-
gentite
asa coating
of masses
of iodobromite
hasalsobeeno.b-
served.Thedevelopmentof thesetwominerals,
ho.wever,
closes
the'sequenke
of deposition
in theChafiarcillo
veins.
OXIDATION.

Character. First Stage. Process.

Cerargyrite. Replacement
of all earl,ier
Iod,obromite. silver minerals and of
Halides of silver. Bromyrite. calcite.
Embolite. Open filling.
Iodyrite.

Second Stage.
Lo•al enrichment
dueto re- Nativesilver. Replacementof halides.
versal of oxidation reac- Argentite.
tions.
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO, CHILE. 39

ANALYSISOFVEIN ANDWALL ROCK(1V[OESTA)

OXIDIZEDZONE,CHA•ARCILLO.
I, II.

SiO: ........................ 47.97 SiO.• ........................

AI:O, ....................... 6.2:• Al_•O8+ Fe.•Oa .............. 3.53
Fe:O8 ....................... 3.9o MgO. ....................... II.46
MgO ....................... I6.7I CaO ........................ 29.73
CaO ........................ 9.65 CO ......................... 3I.O9
CO......................... i 1.64 K:O q- Na20 ................ x.69
K:O + Na:O ................ 1.27 C ........................... 0.93
AgCI ....................... 1.55 101.25
98.91
I.--Ore bearing altered, rock of vein (manto).
II. = Unaltered wall rock.

The altered rock showsappreciableincreasein Si02, AI:Os,

F%Os and MgO (BaO?), losses .of CaO and CO•, and the addi-
tion of AgC1.
ANALYSESOF HAnDES OF SILVER (IV[OESTA).
Ag ................................. 75.3 46.0
C1 .................................. 24.7
I ................................... 54.o
ioo.o ioo. o

I. and II. thereforeare cerargyrite.

VII. is iodyrite.
The ratios of CI, Br and I of the remaininganalyses,taking
Ag = z, are as follows:

III. IV. V. VI.

ß .

•g ...................... I I I I
CI ....................... o.64x5 o-5x3• o.4xoI 0.3904
Br ....................... 0.3599 0.4864 o.59og o. 58? i
[ ........................ o.og33

z.ooz4 0.9996 } x.ooo3 z.ooo8

These ratios indicate distinctly the existenceof isomorphism

betweencerargyrite,bromyrite and iodyrite and as the complex
halide compoundsof silver are quite homogeneousunder the
microscope at highestmagnificationsuchisomorphismis believed
well proven.
4ø W. L. WHITEHEAD.

ANALYSESOF HALlDESOF SILVER(MOEST) OXIDIZEDZONE, CHAfiARCILLO.

I. I II. III. I IV, V, VI. VII.

Ag ............. 73.58 74.76 67.68 64.o7 ' 6•.4o 62.89 45.o2
CI ..............
Br .............
I ...............
24.42 24.68 I4.25
I8.o4 I 'i•.•2
23.07
8.81
26.85
tr.
8.o8
27.35
1.73 54.25
Hg ............. x.3x o.o7 1.78 2.99 tr.

99.3I 99.5I 99.97 IOO.O4 Ioo.o5 'tO0.04 99.27

Subtracting H# as chloride.

I. II. III. iV. V. [ VI. VII.

Ag ............. 74.73 74.82 67.68 65.42 63.65 62.89 45.02
CI .............. 24.56 24.68 I4.25 xx.o4 8.58 8.07
Br ............. x8.o4 23.57 27.83 27.35
I ............... 1.73 54.25
ß

99.29 99.50 99.97I xoo.o3Ioo.o61

xoo.o4
{ 99.27

THE MINERAL SEQUENCEOF THE CHA•ARCILLOVEINS.

Oxidation.
Silver Veins. Quartz. Chalcopyrite.
Primary. Pearceite. (Galena.) Cerargyrite.
Calcite. Proustitc. Arsenopyrite. Iodobromite.

(Sid,erite.) Tetrahedrite Tetrahedrite.Embolite.

Barite (Freibergite). Bromyrite.
(Quartz.) Polybasite. Silver
Veins.Argentire.
silver Nairive

Pyrite. Pyrargyrite. Enrichment.

Stephanire.
Zincblend,
e CopperVeins. Copper Veins.
(Proustitc). Primary.((Polybasite.)
Pearceitc.) Enrichment.

Chalcopyrite Calcite. (Stromeyerite.)Chalcocite.

(Proustire).
Siderite. Argentite. (Stromeyrite.)
Galena Barite. Dyscrasite. Oxidation.
(Proustitc).(Quartz.) Native silver. Native copper.
Arsenopyrite Pyrit'e.
(Proustite). Zincblend,e.
Silver
amalgam.
Native silver.
Cuprite.

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE VEIN PROCESSES.

The chemistryof theprimarymineralizationis to beinferred

onlyin its generalities.
Solutions
containingcarbonates of lime
and iron weresucceeded by thosecarryingsulphate of barium
and a 'smallamountof silica. Next basemetal sulphides, sul-
phide of arsenicand iron, quartz, sulpharsenides
of silver and
sulphantimonidesof silverand copperweredepositedin the order
 THE VEINS OF CHA•ARCILLO,CHILE. 41

given from solutions.of unknowncomposition.That the later

sequence was.precipitatedfrom hot alkalinesulphidesolutionsis
doubtful. Complexsulphidesof silver are unstablein suchsolu-
tions (IX., p. 375). The earlier series,includingarsenopyrite,
undoubtedlywas formed during the existence.of intensecondi-
tionsof mineralization. The pressurewashigh andtemperature
perhapsbetween•5oø C. and 300ø C. The sequence of silver
depositionappearsprobablyto havehad its origin underlower
pressureand temperature.
The supergene processes,
however,admit .of more precisein-
terpretations. Temperatureand pressureare undoubtedlythose
existentin the minestoday. (P = atmospheric,T---2o ø C. ñ.)
Exact chemicalresearchhas been conductedregardingthe re-
actions of silver oxidation and enrichment. The chemical char-
acter of the active solutionsmay be inferred with someaccuracy.
The difficultiesof this field of chemistrycertainly are not in-
superable;and, though many problemsmust remain for future
solution,the sequence of the Chafiarcilloveins offers excellent
suggestions for their attack.
The solutionsformed during the oxidation of the veins are
determinedprincipally in compositionby the barren sulphides.
Pyrite, so importanta mineral in this connection in many silver
veins,is by no meansa commonconstituentof the Chafiarcillo
lodes. Arsenopyrite,however,is prevalentand it is believedthis
mineral oxidizing may supplythe sulphuricacid and ferric sul-
phate inferred to be essentialin silver enrichment. The acidsof
arsenic formed from arsenopyritehave been carried to an un-
known end. Mixed with sulphuricacid and ferric sulphateat
the vein outcropsa,re sodium chloride, iodide and bromide per-
hapswind-blownfrom the sea.
In the oxidized zone some of the ferric sulphateis removed,
partlyby its replacement of calciteas iron oxide,partlyby hydrol-
ysis due to the neutralizationof sulphuricacid by calcihmcar-
bonate. Some ferric sulphateno doubt remains,however,and
this salt and the halides of soda constitutethe important com-
ponentsof the downwardmoving solution. Native silver and
argentireof the latest sequenceunder conditionsas yet not elu-
42 W. L. WHITEHEAD.

cidatedare f.ormedfrom halidesof silver in the upperoxidized

zone. They are solublein ferric sulphate(X., p. x3) and add
silver sulphateto the solutions. If the solutioncontainsappre-
ciableamountsof NaC1 (more than 34.3 gm. per liter) (X., p.
x9) the silver may exist in part in the solutionas silverchloride.
The great part of the halidesof silver, however,are probably
removedslowly from the oxidized zone as erosionproceedsby
conversionfirst into native silver and by solutionof this silver
in ferric sulphate.
In the deeperoxidizedzone solutionsof ferric sulphateand
sodiumchlorideencounternative .silverand dyscrasitepersisting
from the zone of enrichment. The ferric sulphate dissolves
silver; but probablyas the residualsilver is plentiful muchwill
be reprecipitated immediatelyby NaC1,NaBr or NaI, and thus
causethe commonreplacementof native silver or dyscrasiteby
halidesof silver. The equilibriumof halide and sulphatesolu-
tions of silver is as yet obscure;but probablythe solubilityof
AgC1will be little affectedby ferric sulphate.
The halide radicalsbeing fixed in this horizon, silver sulphate
derived from the solutionof silver by ferric sulphateis trans-
porteddownwardto the zoneof enrichment. Someof this silver
is precipitatedupon the reductionof ferric sulphateto ferrous
sulphate(X., p. 26). Openfillingsof silverare undoubtedlydue
to this cause. Upon solutionsof high silver concentrationcalcite
actsas a precipitatingagentof native silver (IX., p. 372). Re-
placements of calciteby silver are thus readily explicablein their
rarity at Chafiarcillo. Hydrogen sulphideand alkalinesulphides
are of doubtful efficacyas precipitantsof the sulphidesof the
enrichedzone; but metallicsulphidesmostcertainlyare active in
the depositionnot only of argentiteand of m.orecomplexsilver
sulphidesbut of native silver from solutionsof silver salts,prob-
ably sulphate. Such reactionsare mentionedin discussions of
the chemistryof silver enrichment(IX., p. 38; X., p. 24); but
the precisenature of the replacementsobservedin the Chafiar-
cillo veins are not at presentknown. Their further elucidation
offersan attractivefield of investigationfor the future.
 THE VEINS OF CH•I•IRCILLO, CHILE. 43

THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SUPERGENE PROCESSES.

The mining of the veins of Chafiarcillohas been greatly af-

fectedby the resultsof oxidationand enrichment. The methods
of extraction of ore, the lack of mills for concentration of the
valuablemineralsand the long existentdifficultiesof transporta-
tion to the metallurgicalplants of Pabellonand Copiap6com-
bined to li.mit mining to ore of high grade only. Lack of the
rich ore bodiesof supergeneorigin would, therefore, have im-
pededthe developmentof the district and would certainly have
curtailedthe remarkable'profits
obtainedfrom the workingof
the bonanza ore near the surface.
But little primary ore in the district hasbeendevelopedor ex-
tracted. In part this fact is due to the flows of water encoun-
teredduringdeepexploration,in part to the universallyacknowl-
edgedlow grade of hypergeneores,which un•derformer condi-
tionsof mining couldnot, in general,be workedat a profit.
The contrast of these ore shoots to those in the enriched zone
is, however,marked. The latter, thoughin many placesnarrow
and of slightverticalextension,were minedoften with great re-
turns. Thr.oughout thewell-mineralized veinsof thedistrictstopes
are to be found in the enrichedzone. The availability of these
ore shootsto mining hasbeendue to the replacementof the pre-
dominantprimary sulphides,pearceite,proustiteand pyrargyrite
by argentite,dyscrasi•teand nativesilver. Thoughthe ore shoots
wereunchanged by enrichmentfrom their originalsizeand shape,
the silver contentof the ores has by the replacementsnoted been
increasedfrom 25 to 80 per cent. Openfilling by secondarymin-
erals has often caused further additions to .the values. Thus
tenorsof 2,000 to 5,000 grams per metric ton (6o-I5O oz. per
ton) of primary veins have becomevaluablecommercialore at
perhaps3,500 t.o8,ooo grams per ton.
The replacementsin the oxidized zone, however,were, where
earlier silvermineralswere affected,impoverishments.Lossesof
2o to 35 per cent. of silver content would have been causedif
other factorshad not entered. Replacementof calciteby oxi-
dizedsilverminerals,and appreciable
filling of cavitiesby these
44 W. L. WHITEHE.4D.

minerals united not only to widen the veins and increasethe

horizontaland vertical continuityof the ore shootsbut to raise
the tenor of the ores. Veins were broadenedfrom • meter to 3
and more rarely •o to 20 meters. Ore sh,ootswere consolidated
into bodiesextending tens of meters vertically and •oo ,to 200
metershorizontally. Ores were changedfrom a grade of 3,000
to 5,000 grams per ton to contentsmeasuredin per cents.of
silver. In this manner the oxidized zone became the horizon of
bonanza of Chafiarcillo.

THE FUTURE OF MINING IN THE DISTRICT.

The exceedinglyrich bodiesof the superficialportionsof the

veinsand the known ore shoo,tsof high grade in the zone of en-
richment have long been exhaustedin the Chafiarcillo district.
The probabilityof encounteringfurther ore of remarkabletenor
by explorationis slight. The Chilean miner is thoroughand
keen. His crookeddrifts and crosscu.ts follow every fracture or
veinlet, and his work oncedone can be but little improvedwith
regard to the findingof ore.
Presentdevelopmentis confinedto the searchfor primary ore
in the deepermines. The Delirio Mine is saidto have found ore
containing•,5oo to 2,000 gramsof silver per ton upon the 600-
meter level; but the lower levelsof the mine are now floodedand
are inaccessible.The BolacoViejo hasat a muchlessdepth (•8o
meters) encountered a smallbodyof rich primary ore. Few of
the mines, however, have explored the deeperportionsof their
veinsand the sta,tement may merelybe madethat ore is known
to occur in certain mines at horizonsunexploredsystematically
throughoutthe district.
Somehopeseemsto be held in Chile that with deepmining
Chafiarcillomay return,toher f.ormerrichness.Upon geological
considerations, this hopeis unfounded. Due to economiccauses,
its realization will be at least long delayed. The installationof
costlypumpingequipment, the sinkingof deepshafts,the high
costof miningat depthsof 600 to 800 meters,andthe difficulty
of operating a concentrator in the districtuniteto discourage
the
attemptat development of low gradeore of unknownextent.
 THE VEINS OF CH/t•/tRCILLO, CHILE. 45

The possibility,however,existsthat, with consolidation

of the
mining interestsand with proper managementconductinga con-
servativesystemof exploration,bodiesof ore may be discovered
whichwillprovea sound
basisfor miningenterprise.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.

I. A. O. Cort$s. La Industria del Oro en Chile, Memoria escrita por encargo

de las Sociedad Nacional de Mineria. Santiago de Chile, I89O.
II. Estadistica Minera de Chile en I9o3. Tomo I., Sociedad Nacional de
Mineria. Santiago, 19o5.
III. Estadistica Min.era de Chile en I9o4 i 19o5. Tomo II., Sociedad Nacional
de Mineria. Santiago, 19o7.
IV. 1•'. Eehegaray. E1 Mineral de Chafiarcil,lo. Bolet'in de la Sociedad Na-
cional de Mineria, No. lO6, Santiago de Chile, Dez. 3I, 19o5.
V. E1 Mineral de Chafiarcillo. Boletin de la Inspeceion de Geographia y
Minas. Primera Trimestre de 1915. Ministerio de Industria y Obras
Publicas. Santiago.
VI. Ft. A. l}1oesta. I3ber das Vorkommen der Chlor-, Brom- und Jodver-
bindungen des Sil,bers in Natur. Mar.burg, 187o.
VII. G. Steinmann.Reisenotizen
ausChile. Neu•sJahrbuch
fiir Min., Geol.
u. Pal., 1884, pp. I98--2o3.
VIII. Ed. Sueas. La Face de la Terre. Armand Colin et Cie. 1897.
IX. L. C. Raviez. Experiments in the Enrichment of Sihrer Ores. ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY, Vol. X., I9I$, p. 368.
X. H. C. Cooke. The SecondaryEnrichmentoœSilver Ores. Journal of
Geology, Vol. 2I, I913, p. I.
XI. C. Palmer. PrecipitatingAgents of Silver. EcoNoMicGF.0LOGY,
Vol.
Vol. IX., 1914, p. 664.
XII. C. Palmerand E. S. Bastin. Metallic Mineralsas Precipitant's
of Silver.
EcoNoMic
G•.ot,oG¾,
Vol.VIII., x913,
pp.I4O-I7O.
XIII. 1*. F. Grout. Acid SulphateSolutions,etc. ECONOMlC
G•.o•,o½¾,
Vol.
VIII., I913, pp. 407-433.
XIV. 1*.Sandberger.
Untersuchungen
ueberErzgaenge.Vol. I, Wiesbaden,
1882, p. 293.