Highway Construction Report (Design)

FOUR LANNING OF UDHAMPUR-RAMBAN
SEC. OF NH-1A (NOW NH-44)

UDHAMPUR, JAMMU & KASHMIR
SIX MONTH INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRMENT FOR
Six Month Industrial Training
At
Gammon India limited Engineers& Contractors
(From 24th June to23rd Oct 2018 )
SUBMITTED BY
BANTY KUMAR SANGRA
Section –D4CE1
Class Roll no.:- 150377
University Roll No: - 1606595
Civil Engineering Department

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE
LUDHIANA, INDIA
GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE,LUDHIANA Page 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
As the professional courses not only require the theoretical knowledge but practical
knowledge too, that is why college started conducting training program for the students, so
that they can get ample view of practical problems. I find it a matter of honour in showing the
feeling of indebtedness and thankfulness to the Principal, GURU NANAK DEV
ENGINEERING COLLEGE , LUDHIANA for providing this opportunity to carry out the
six months industrial training
It is my privilege to express my profound ineptness, my deep sense of gratitude to

Gammon India limited Engineers& Contractors. For showing trust in me and assigning
me such an important and interesting project and also for sparing time from his schedule to
discuss and clarify issues related to this project.
I sincerely thank to my project guide Er SATPAL SINGH PROJECT DIRECTOR

(Gammon India limited Engineers& Contractors) for guidance and encouragement in
carrying out this project work. My special thanks to SURESH GOGIA(DY. MANAGER
HR), Er.ROMIT (Astt. Manager lab Incharge), Er SANJEEV (Site Incharge CULVERT), Er
AMARJEET (Site Incharge BRIDGE) for their kind co-operation to the completion to my
project work.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr K.S.GILL (H.O.D) of
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF , GURU NANAK DEV
ENGINEERING COLLEGE , LUDHIANA for providing me an opportunity to do
my project on “FOUR LANNING OF UDHAMPUR-RAMBAN SEC. OF NH-1A
(NOW NH-44),Udhampur” in “Gammon India limited Engineers& Contractors”
this project bears on imprint of many peoples.
I am also thankful to my friends and family members who supported me encouraged

me all the time to go through this whole project.

STUDENT DECLARATION
This is certify that I Banty Kumar Sangra student of Civil 7th Semester Roll No-150377
,University Roll no :- 1606595 has undergone industrial training in “Gammon India
limited Engineers& Contractors” as required of six month project semester for the award
of Degree of Civil Engineering, GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE and
prepared the report entitled “FOUR LANNING OF UDHAMPUR-RAMBAN SEC. OF
NH-1A” which is an authentic record of my work carried out at Udhampur, Jammu.
If any discrepancy is found regarding the originality of this project I may be held
responsible. I have not copied from any report submitted earlier this or any other university
this is purely original and authentic work.
BANTY KUMAR SANGRA

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 10
1.1 Project Details 10
1.2 Location of Project 11
1.3 About Project 12
1.4 Necessity of Project 13
CHAPTER 2 About the Company 14
2.1 Company Profile 14
2.2 History 15
2.3 Current Projects 16
2.4 Recent Developments 17
2.5 Awards/Achievements 18
CHAPTER 3 Training Activities 19
3.1 Site work 19
3.1.1 Surveying 19
3.1.2 Earthwork 22
3.1.3 Construction of pavement 27
CHAPTER 4 Structural Work 38
4.1 Construction of Major Bridge 38
4.1.1 Theory of Bridge 38-39
4.1.2 Raft Foundation 40
4.2 Construction of Drainage 45
4.2.1 Side Ditch 45

4.2.2 Culverts 47
4.3 Highway Design 53
CHAPTER 5 Theory About Mechanical Process 56
5.1 Excavation And Backfilling 56-57
CHAPTER 6 Lab Work (Quality Assurance & Quality 60

control Department)
6.1 Quality Implementation at Site 60
6.2 Project Quality Plan 60
6.3 Test‟s 61
6.3.1 Soil Tests 61
6.3.2 Asphalt Tests 77
6.3.3 Concrete Tests 81
6.3.4 Field Tests 87
CHAPTER 7 Batching Plant 89
7.1 Cement 90
7.2 Aggregates 90
7.3 Admixers 91
7.4 Report of Mix Design 93
CHAPTER 8 Safety 98
8.1 Safety Appliances 98
CHAPTER 9 Benefit of Training 101
Conclusion 108
CHAPTER 10 References 109

List of Abbreviations
NHDP:- National Highway Development Project
NHAI:- National Highway Authority of India
LOA:- Letter of Acceptance
EPC:- Engineering, Procurement and Construction
J&K:- Jammu and Kashmir
NH:- National Highway
UBC:- Ultimate Bearing Capacity
PCC:- Plain Cement Concrete
DSC:- Design and Supervision Consultancy

List of Figures/Photos
Figure No. Figure Name Page no.
Figure 1.1 Map showing new NH from Udhmapur to Banihal 11
Figure 1.2 Map showing old NH from Udhampur to Ramban 11
Figure 3.1 Surveying work 22
Figure 3.2 Cutting of road 22
Figure 3.3 Subgrade construction 26
Figure 3.4 Sub base layer 29
Figure 3.5 Type of rollers 36
Figure 4.1 Plan view of bridge cutting a long curve 38
Figure 4.2 Cross section of Minor Bridge 41
Figure 4.3 Laying of foundation over PCC 42
Figure 4.4 Reinforcement of raft foundation with abutment wall 42
Figure 4.5 Concreting of Raft and Abutment 43
Figure 4.6 Abutment wall after construction 43
Figure 4.7 Reinforcement of Return walls along with Abutment 44

walls
Figure 4.8 Construction of Pier on Raft Foundation 44
Figure 4.9 Construction of side ditch 46
Figure 4.10 Completed side ditch 46
Figure 4.11 Reinforcement for construction of culvert 50
Figure 4.12 Shuttering before concreting of culvert 50
Figure 4.13 Alignment of Bond stone in Breast wall 54

Figure 4.14 Construction of Breast wall 54
Figure 4.15 Construction of Trap for Culvert 55
Figure 5.1 Breaking of huge rocks during hill excavation using 58

driller
Figure 5.2 Excavation of hills using excavators 58
Figure 5.3 Proctor Compaction Test 61
Figure 5.4 CBR Machine 63
Figure 5.5 P.I 66
Figure 5.6 SEIVE 68
Figure 5.7 IMPACT TEST 70
Figure 5.8 Slump cone test 82
Figure 5.9 Compression Testing Machine 85
Figure 5.10 Vicat Apparatus 86
Figure 7.1 Batching Plant 89
Figure 7.2 Asphalt mixing plant 96
Figure 8.1 Safety helmet 98
Figure 8.2 Safety shoes 98

List of Tables
Table No. Table Name Page no.
1 embankment material specification 25
2 specification of sub base course material 28
3 grading specification of sub base material 28
4 specification of base course material 30
5 grading specification of base course material 31
6 specification of asphalt aggregate 34
7 size and amount of aggregate sample prepared for LAA 72

test
8 result of bitumen penetration test 78
9 grade specification of extraction test 80
10 Percentage Strength at 1 and 3 days 84
11 Percentage Strength at 7, 14 and 28 days 84
12 Compressive Strength of different grades of concrete at 7 84

and 28days

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
PROJECT DETAILS
o PROJECT NAME: 9402, FOUR LANNING OF UDHAMPUR-

RAMBAN SEC. OF NH-1A (NOW NH-44)
o CLIENT: NHAI
o CONTRACTOR: GAMMON INDIA PVT. LTD.
o PROJECT DISTANCE: 67 TO 89 AND 130 TO 151 KMS

o PERIOD: 1095 DAYS
o DATE OF LOA: 23RD SEPTEMBER, 2015
o DATE OF START: 28TH SEPTEMBER, 2015

o DATE OF COMPLETION: 27TH DECEMBER, 2018
o MAINTENANCE PERIOD: 4 YEARS COMMENCING FROM THE

DATE OF PROVISIONAL CERTIFICATE
o TOTAL DESIGN LENGTH: 40.07 KMS
o TOTAL HILL EXCAVATION: 58 LACS CUMECS
o TOTAL CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS: 507
o TOTAL MINOR BRIDGES: 59

o TOTAL MAJOR BRIDGES: 8
o TUNNEL EXCAVATION: 880M
o LONG PEDESTAL UNDERPASS: 5

o BYPASS: 2
o MAJOR INTERSECTIONS: 2
o MINOR INTERSECTIONS: 5
o VALUE: 1709.99 CRORES
o LOCATION: UDHAMPUR TO CHENANI AND NASHRI TO RAMBAN, J&K

1.1 LOCATION OF PROJECT
Figure 1.1:- Black line showing new NH from Udhampur to Banihal
Figure 1.2:- Map showing old NH from Udhampur to Ramban

1.2 ABOUT PROJECT
Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi, has given its approval for development of
the four laning of the Udhampur – Ramban section of NH-1A (now NH-44) in
J&K. This work will be under the NHDP Phase-II. The approval is in
Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) mode.
The cost is estimated to be Rs. 1709.99 crores including cost of land acquisition,
resettlement and rehabilitation and other pre-construction activities. The total
length of the road will be approximately 40.07 kms.
The main objective of the project is to expedite the implementation of six-

projects in the State of J&K under NHDP Phase-II. Implementation of these
projects would provide all- weather connectivity from Jammu to the Kashmir
valley. It will also reduce journey time from Jammu to Srinagar and strategic
border areas in the State. Moreover, implementation of the project would result in
development of basic infrastructure in the region which would ultimately lead to
overall economic development of the regions of the State. The project is covered
in the region of Udhampur and Ramban in J&K.
Gammon India has secured a 1709.99 crore project from NHAI for four laning of
Udhampur to Ramban section of NH-1A from 67 to 89 and 130 to 151 kms.
The project was started on 28th September 2015 and has a period of 1095 days to
complete the project. After the completion of the project the company has to
maintain it for 4 more years after completion.
Four-laning from Udhampur to Chenani (Km 67.00 to Km 89.00) and Nashri to

Ramban (Km 130 to Km 151.00) consist of total design length 40.07kms in
which total 507 culverts are going to be constructed in which 291 are new
construction and 216 are old which are going to be dismantled. In this project 59
minor and 8 major bridges are going to be constructed. There is also one tunnel
of 888 meters in this project which is constructed on the Northbound CW at
Chanderkote. 5 underpasses, 2 bypasses, 2 major intersections and 5 minor
intersections are there in the whole design length. 469 structures are to be
removed for widening of the National Highway from Udhampur to Ramban.

1.3 NECESSITY OF THIS PROJECT
 All weather road connectivity from Udhampur to Ramban as the highway

remains closed for 40 days a year due to bad weather conditions.
 Reduce the distance between Jammu to Srinagar from 41km to 11 km
 Need less time to travel from Udhampur to Ramban
 Geometric and safety concerns, as existing NH1A passes through steep

mountain terrains.
 Increase of Socio economic development
 Safety of hill station which come along NH1-A
 Safety of wild life sanctuary
 Increased employment to the local community
 It promote trade and tourism and trade to the Kashmir
 Better infrastructure is pre-requisite to the economic growth of the state
 “Gammon India is committed to training and developing people as a key

part of our business in India”
Gammon India also runs a graduate employment program and has engaged a large number of
engineering graduates from Jammu to join its project team

CHAPTER 2
ABOUT THE COMPANY
2.1 COMPANY PROFILE
 Date of Establishment : 15-06 1922
 Revenue : 646.907 ( USD in Millions )
 Market Cap : 4097.91376716 ( Rs. in Millions )
 Corporate Address: Gammon House,Veer Savarkar Marg,Prabhadevi

Mumbai- 400025,Maharashtra www.gammonindia.com
 Management Details :
• Chairperson :- Abhijit Ranjan
• MD :- Abhijit Rajan
• Directors :- Atul Dayal, Atul Kumar Shukla, Jagdish C Sheth, Urvashi

Saxena, Naval Choudhary, Chandrahas C Dayal, Ajit Desai, Rajul A
Bhansali, Digambar C Bagde
 Business Operation : Engineering – Construction
 Financials : Total Income - Rs. 36913 Million ( year ending

Sep 2014) Net Profit - Rs. 678 Million ( year ending Sep 2014)
 Company Secretary : Gita Bade
 Bankers : DBS Bank, ICICI Bank, IDBI Bank, Indian Bank, Karnataka Bank,
Oriental Bank of Commerce, Punjab National Bank, Syndicate Bank, Union
Bank of India, UCO Bank, United Bank of India, Central Bank of India,
Canara Bank, Bank of Baroda, Allahabad Bank, Bank of Maharashtra
 Auditors : Natvarlal Vepari

2.2 HISTORY
 Gammon India company was incorporated way back in 1922 as a private

limited company, founded by John C. Gammon and was converted into a
public Ltd. company on April 31, 1962. The company provides engineering
services and construction of services. It operates in plan, design and
undertakes construction of roads, highways, bridges and other projects.
 Gammon India is not only the largest civil engineering construction company
in India, but can lay claim for the largest number of bridges built in the whole
of Commonwealth. With over seventy years of tradition in the field of
construction. Gammon is a name that is inextricably woven into the fabric of
India.
 As builders to the nation, Gammon has made concrete contributions by

designing and constructing bridges, ports, harbours, thermal and nuclear
power stations, dams, high–rise structures, chemical and fertilizer complexes
environmental structures, cross country water, oil and gas pipelines. Gammon
has accomplished this by fusing tremendous engineering knowledge with
innovative skills, harnessing men and materials to build structures.
 The project services of the Group include transportation engineering, energy

projects and high rise structures, hydraulic works and irrigation projects,
tunnel engineering, marine structures, water projects, pipeline projects and
road projects.
 This insatiable quest has led Gammon to pioneer Reinforced and Prestressed
Concrete, Long span bridges, Under water concreting using the Colcrete
process, Thin shell structures, Non–Shrinking concrete, Aluminium trusses
for launching precast, prestressed beams and many more

2.3 CURRENT PROJECTS OF THE COMPANY
 Vadape–Gonde Road (99.5km) Nh–3
 Parbati Hydroelectric Project –Lot PB3
 Rampur Hydroelectric Project – Package 1 & 2
 West Bengal Corridor Project
 Bramhaputra Bridge
 Gorakhpur By Pass
 Kosi Bridge
 Dahej Uran Pipeline Project Spread –3
 Gandikota –Package 2, Andhra Pradesh Irrigation Works
 Kalwakurthy Lift Irrigation Scheme

2.4 RECENT DEVELOPMENT
 November 2010 – Gammon India acquired 84.16% of equity capital in

Metropolitan Infrahousing. Consequently, Metropolitan Infrahousing has
become a subsidiary of the company. The company already had 13
subsidiaries before this acquisition.
 September 2010 – Gammon India announced that Gammon Group companies

won Rs 310 crore worth of order for supply of 1 x 150 megawatt (MW)
steam turbine and boiler for Nagai Power plant.
 March 2010 – Gammon India won Rs 631.81 crore order from Delhi Tourism
and Transportation Development Corporation (DTTDC). The order is for
construction of bridge which approaches over river Yamuna at Wazirabad,
Delhi.
 February 2010 – Gammon India has bagged a contract form the International
Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) worth Rs 137.28 crore. The
order comprises construction of Sri Chaitanya Chandrodaya Mandir and
Indian Educational & Cultural Centre at Sri Mayapur, Dist: Nadia, West
Bengal.

2.5 AWARDS/ACHIEVMENTS
 MSRDC Award for J.J. Hospital to Palton Road by J.J. Hospital – 2002
 ACCE–L&T Endowment Award for Excellence in construction of Haldia

Induced Draught Cooling Towers – Induced Draught Cooling Towers at
Haldia – 2001
 IIBE –7th Annual Award Nite for Flyover at Doveton Jn.Chennai by
Doveton Jn. Chennai – 2001
 IIBE–7th Annual Award Nite for Noida Bridge at Delhi by Noida Bridge at
Delhi– 2001
 ACCE–L&T Endowment Award for Excellence in construction of
Industrial Structure, Raichur Natural Draft Cooling Towers by Raichur
Multiflue Chimney– 2000
 ICI–MC–Bauchemie Award for the Most Outstanding Bridge, Kaladan

Bridge by Kaladan Bridge – 2000
 ICI–MC–Bauchemie Award for the Most Outstanding Bridge, Jadukata
Bridge by Jadukata Bridge –1999
 ACCE–Sarvamangala Award for Excellence in Construction of Karbude
Tunnel by Konkan Railway Tunnel and Viaduct – 1999
 ACCE–L&T Endowment Award for Excellence in Construction of
Industrial Structure, Kothgudem, Natural Draft R.C Cooling Towers by
Kothgudem Cooling Tower –1998
 IIBE– Most Outstanding Bridge National Award, For CMLR Vashi
Flyover by CMLR Vashi Flyover –1998
 IIBE– Most Outstanding National Award TO P.V.Raj Memorial. P.V.Raj
Memorial 1995
 Certificate of Merit for Akkar Bridge by Akkar Bridge – 1988
 The Arch of Europe Gold Award by Ganga Bridge –1987
 IFAWPCA Certificate for Sindhri Horizontal Silos by Sindhri Horizontal Silos
 IFAWPCA Certificate for Thane Creek Bridge by Thane Creek Bridge –1971

CHAPTER 3
TRAINING ACTIVITIES / SITE WORK
In the four month training period, I have been working in the following sections.
I. Site work
II. Material tests
III. Office work
3.1Site work
Site work is divided into the following sub sections
1. Surveying
2. Earth work
3. Construction of pavement layers
4. Construction of structures
5. Construction of walk way
3.1.1 Surveying
Before any construction activity all survey results are undertaken under the
supervision of the engineer‟s representative, and all the survey works are
submitted to the engineer in digital format. after the survey works are
approved by the engineers the setting out Work continues.
The detail vertical, horizontal alignments, widening and shoulders are designed
by the Engineer‟s, based on this the contactor prepares a template (Cross
sectional working drawings), which is easy to understand, using eagle point
software. After the template (Cross sectional working drawings) is approved by
the engineers, the surveyors use this template in the setting out works.

Before construction beings the surveyor should provide the following
information to the Forman or grade checkers
• Slope stakes limits (boundary of any earth work activity)
• Depth of cut or fill
• Fixing center line, shoulder and carriageway
• Fixing and locating of structure formwork
The basic things for any survey work are :-
• Design data and Drawings

• Templates (cross sectional working drawings)
• Skilled man power (Level man)
• Chain mans
• Equipment‟s (level, total station) and
• Peg etc.
The surveyor writes the following information on the peg:-
-) or fill(+)
The surveyor uses the template (cross sectional drawings) to set out all the above
information for construction of all pavements. After construction, the design elevation
of each pavement layers is cheeked (As built reading for layers above the sub grade is
taken) by consultants (with a tolerance of +2.5 for earth works).
Surveyors in consulting engineer‟s side are mainly engaged in checking each part of the
section done by contractor surveyors. After a completion of one section of a particular
layer or part of a structure they are responsible for checking the desired elevation as per
the section template or structural drawing is reached. If the result is not in a tolerable

limit they have the power to instruct a certain correction. If the design elevation of the
pavement layer wasn‟t attained, the specified pavement is ripped and reworked
Surveying work I performed
In surveying the main task is setting out design works to the ground.
Instruments used for setting out works include total station, and leveling. I
have been with the survey staff for about 10 days, and in those days I have
tried to cover all survey works.
Works that I have executed while I was working with the surveying crew are
centerlines, slope stack limits, and excavation limits.
While this section I have performed good, this is because I have already got a good
understanding of survey works in the university and almost the same procedure
is used in the practical world.
The challenge I have faced while I was working with the surveyors is lack of knowledge
for operate total station and lack of accuracy during make correction for sub base and
base due to an uniform crown slope of the existing lane
I have solved this by using getting tutors from surveying mans and we made blue
elevation for grader machine operator and we use average crown slope per station

Fig 3.1surveying work
3.1.2) Earth Work
Earth work includes excavation of material to attain the design elevation of the road. It
includes sub grade construction including capping layer.
3.1.2.1 Cutting
Cutting is the excavation of supper elevated area to get the design elevation of the road.
It stands at or near vertical in sound rock, but in weathered rock or soil, cutting is done
with slope with respect to the soil type.
Some considerations are taken when cutting is done. These are:
 Type of material to be excavated

 Water table
 Angle of slope determination
 Volume and position of materials
 Drainage and protection against erosion
Fig 3.2 cutting of road

Type of material to be excavated:
Type of material to be excavated governs the construction method, the suitability of the
cut material for the sub grade and slope that can be safely adopted.
Water table:
A water table may be permanent or seasonal. In any case its presence and characteristics
(level, flow of water etc.) is determined. Due to occurrence and level of water table
affects the method excavation and stability of cut slope and the drainage system.
Angle of slope determination:-
The design of slope is a compromise between the following requirements

 Stability and
 Erosion
Volume and Position of Different Materials:
Some materials need high energy to excavate and transport away from the excavation
area. For example the area which is sound rock and has a boulder needs consideration of
volume of cut and where it should be transported.
Drainage and Protection against Erosion
Cut section always needs always drainage to drain out the water which comes from
either cut section, catchment area or both. This accumulation of water erodes the
excavated area. So, it needs a solution to protect erosion. For example at the area where
the water flow is available from the catchment area to the cut section, intercept ditch is
built to drain out the water before it reaches the cut section.
Acceptable fill material:

Mostly fill materials are obtained from cuttings. If the material is not suitable, other
material is transported from the borrow areas to the embankment. The following

materials are not suitable for the embankment
 Materials containing more than 5% by weight of organic matter such as top

soil, material from swamp, mud and perishable.
 Materials whose swelling is more than 3% (black cotton soil).
 A Clay material whose plastic index is greater than 45 and liquid limit is
greater than 90%.
 California bearing ratio (CBR) less than 4%.
 Maximum particle size exceeds two-third of specified layer thickness after
compaction, except in case of rock fill.
Embankment is done as follow
 The surveyor fixes the slope of stack limit according to the design.
 Unsuitable materials are removed and replaced by appropriate materials as
per engineer‟s recommendation.
 The road bed is prepared.
 Field density test is taken to check whether the compaction attains its
degree of compaction at optimum moisture contain.
 After showering the road bed, the material filled is dumped.
 The dumped fill material fill material is mixed and placed at the moisture
content near to the optimum moisture content by the grader.
 The mixed and placed material is compacted by steel roller until the
compaction attains 95% maximum dry density.
The fill material is placed and compacted through 20cm thickness.
The contractor takes an agreement of the following specification of materials with ERA for
embankment.

Inspection and test description Testing method Acceptance criteria
Maximum particle size Visual <2/3 of layer
CBR AASTO T-193 >4% for fill
>15% for capping
Percent of swell AASHTO T-193 <1.5%
Liquid limit AASHTO T-89 <60%
Plastic index AASHTO T-90 <30%
Maximum dry density(MDD) AASHTO T-180 Lab. Value
Optimum moisture content(OMC) AASHTO T-180 Lab. Value
Field dry density(FDD) AASHTO T-191 >95%
Field moisture content (FMC) AASHTO T191 OMC+2%
Table 1:embankment material specification
3.1.2.2 Sub Grade construction
The sub grad is prepared by either filling or cutting so as to meet the design level.
If the approved design needs cutting, the existing ground is excavated using any
suitable equipment (dozer, excavator, and grader) until the finished sub grade
level is reached.
Sub grade is the final layers of the embankment in fill and cut sections. This is the
layer just above road bed on which the pavement layers finally rest on it. Sub grade is
constructed as follows.
 The setting out work is done using five pegs per station.
 The surface is showered on which the sub grade layer is to be constructed.
 The sub grade materials is dumped.

Grader
Sub grade
material
Figure 3.3: sub grade construction
Mixing and placing

 If the material being used is dry, water is added to attain the optimum
moisture content (OMC). And if the material is moist, it is mixed with a dry
material to reduce the moisture.
 If the material from one section is coarser, it is mixed with a finer material
from other source to get high density during compaction.
 The material is mixed by the grader thoroughly to avoid segregation of

materials and to adjust the moisture content of the material so as to get the
optimum moisture content (OMC).
 To protect intrusion of materials the surface is made smooth and visually good.
 The surface is compacted by the steel roller to attain the desired field compaction.
The following ways of construction are recommended during compaction.

 On hilly areas, the direction of compaction is from the bottom to the
top, this is to protect the pavement layer sliding during compaction.
 The compaction paths are overlapped to each other. This is to avoid the
bulging of materials in between two paths.
 On curves, compaction is started from inner side (smaller radius) of the road
curve and continues to the outer part, this is done to protect the super
elevation from sliding down.

3.1.3 Construction of Pavement Layers
Pavement layers construction is classified into three
1. Sub base layer

2. Base course layer
3. Asphalt concrete layer
3.1.3.1 ) Sub Base Layer construction:
Sub base is a pavement layer which is laid directly above the sub grade. It is an important
layer to spread the load in the compacted pavement. Sub base layer has the following
functions.
 It enables traffic stresses to be reduced to the acceptable level in the sub

grade.
 It acts as a working plat form for the construction of the upper pavement
layers such as base course and asphalt concrete layers.
 It acts as a separation layer between sub grade and base course layers.
 Under a special circumstance, it acts as a filter or as a drainage layer.
Sources of sub base material:
The sub base material is prepared by blending natural material and crushed material.
Natural material source: the natural material is obtained by the nature and some tests are
taken to evaluate its engineering properties for sub base.
Crushed material source: the crushed material is produced by crushing selected (basalt)
stone.

Specification of sub base material:
Sub base material is expected to fulfill some specification of quality. These

specifications are applied in this project. The specifications are:
Inspection and test description Testing method Acceptance criteria

Maximum particle size Visual <2/3 of layer
Grading
CBR(4days soaked and at 95% MDD) AASTO T-193 >30%
LAA AASHTO T-96 <51%
Percent of swell AASHTO T-193 <1.5%
Liquid limit AASHTO T-89 <35%
Maximum dry density(MDD) AASHTO T-180 Lab. value
Optimum moisture content(OMC) AASHTO T-180 Lab. value
Field dry density(FDD) AASHTO T-191 >97%
Table 2: specification of sub base course material
Test sieve(mm) Percentage by mass

total aggregate passing
test sieve (%)
50 100
37.5 80-100
20 60-100
5 30-100
1.18 17-75
0.3 9-50
0.075 5-25
Table 3: grading specification of sub base material

Sub base material
Figure 3.4: sub base layer
The construction of sub base layer follows the following procedure.
 Proportioning of natural and crushed material is made at the laboratory. Most

of the time the proportion is made two natural and one crushed.
 Proctor compaction, PI, LAA, CBR and gradation tests are taken on the
mixed sub base material to check whether the proportion satisfies sub base
material specification or not and the materials are transported to the site.
 Setting out work is made by the surveyor using five pegs per station.
 The two materials are showered by the water truck and mixed based on the
laboratory proportion by the grader. The optimum moisture content is
checked by the foreman.
 After grading, the sub base material is compacted with 20cm thickness by the
still roller.
 Field density test is taken after compaction to know degree of compaction
with respect to the maximum dry density.
The following techniques recommended during preparing sub base layer
 If the material being used is dry water should be added to attain the Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC). And if the material is moist, it should be mixed with a
dry material to reduce the moisture.

 If the material from one section is coarser, it should be mixed with a finer
material from other source to get high density during compaction.
After all inspecting the surface the consultant take a field density test and moisture content
tests is undertaken and this field density is compared with the density Optimum Moisture
Content, and finally “as built” check will be taken by the consultants to check if the exact
design elevation is achieved. If any of the tests is failed sub base ripping and reworking.
3.1.3.2 Base course layer construction
Base course layer is a pavement layer which is found between the sub base and asphalt
concrete layer. Its material is permeable material. The layer does not hold moisture. The
moisture is drained out to the sub base vertically and to the shoulder laterally. So, one of
the functions of base course layer is protecting the contamination of asphalt concrete layer
with moisture, because asphalt is very sensitive to the moisture effect. It has very high
bearing capacity of traffic load. This helps the asphalt concrete layer to not be deformed.
Base course material

The base course material is produced by crushing fresh quarried rock in the area near
to our site. The rock which is for crushed aggregate is hard and durable.The project
accepts and works with the following material specification.
Inspection and test Testing method Accepted criteria
description
Grading AASHTO T-27
CBR (4days soaked at AASHTO T-193 >100%
95%MDD)
LAA AASHTO T-196 <35%
ACV BS 812-1990 <25%
FI BS 812-1990 <30%
SSS AASHTO T-104 <12%
Field dry density (FDD) AASHTO T-191 >98%
Table 4:specification of base course material

Gradation specification of base course material
Test sieve (mm) percentage by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve
Nominal maximum particle size
37.5mm 28mm 20mm

50 100 - -
37.5 95-100 100 -
28 - - 100
20 60-80 70-85 90-100
10 40-60 50-65 60-75
5 25-40 35-55 40-60
2.36 15-30 25-40 30-45
0.425 7-19 12-24 13-27
0.075 5-12 5-12 5-12
Table 5: grading specification of base course material
Base course layer is constructed as follows.

 After sub base construction is completed, base course material is
transported from the nearest source to the site.
 Setting out work is made by the surveyor using five pegs per station.
 The material is laid by the grader above the sub base layer by the grader and
it is showered by the water track.
 The material is compacted by the steel roller until the required degree of
compaction is obtained.
 The thickness of the layer is checked by the surveyor.
 All test (LAA, grading, CBR, ACV, FI,) is taken within 150m distance and
plasticity index (PI) is taken within 250m after compaction.
 Field density test is taken after compaction to know whether the base course
layer attains the required degree of compaction or not.

 After all requirements are fulfilled, the base course construction is approved.
Spraying (showering) of prime coat
Prime coat is a mixture of bitumen and kerosene. It is sprayed on the base course after
construction of base course is completed and approved. Asphalt concrete layer is paved
after spraying of prime coat. Prime coat needs at least 24 hours to be cured. So asphalt
concrete layer is paved after 24hours spraying of prime coat. Prime coat is a medium
curing. MC-30 and MC-70 are the grades which are used as the grades of prime coat.
Prime coat spraying is used:

 to promote bond between base course and wearing course.
 to consolidate the surface on which the new treatment is to be placed.
 to act as deterrent to the rise of capillary moisture in to the
wearing surface. Prime coat is not applied on the following adverse
conditions:
 during foggy or wet condition.
 when rain is imminent.
 when wind is sufficiently strong to cause an even spraying.
Tack coat
It is a mixture of petroleum and bitumen added the dinorame reagent. It sets rapidly. It
has similar function with prime coat. And cares which are listed in prime coat are
applied here. Tack coat is used when asphalt concrete layer is going to be laid on the
bridges. It also used when two halves of the asphalt is ready to be joined. And when
new surface asphalt layer lay on wearing layer Tack coat is applied in such condition
because it sets rapidly.
Before application of the tack coat, the existing surface should be properly prepared in
order for a successful bond to be formed. It is important that the existing surface be dry and
free from dirt and debris. The bitumen is applied by a pressure distributor. This type of
vehicle is equipped with a tank containing the surfacing material and a spray bar with

nozzles that spread the bitumen.
Kept free of traffic, the tack coat should be allowed to dry until it reaches an appropriate
degree of stickiness to allow for proper bonding between the two layers. Tack coat used for
our project is rc- 70 and asphalt ( AC 85/100
3.1.3.3) Asphalt pavement concrete layer construction
Asphalt pavement concrete layer is the top layer of pavement layers. Traffic load is
applied on it directly. It is made with high quality paving material composed of
bitumen, aggregate and air. Asphalt concrete layer possesses the following
characteristics.
 High resistance to deformation.

 High resistance to fatigue and ability to withstand high strain.
 High stiffness to reduce the stress transmitted to the pavement layers.
 High resistance to the environmental degradation.
 Low permeability to prevent the entrance water and air.
Asphalt pavement concrete materials
The asphalt concrete layer is made from high quality crushed stone and bitumen.
Crushed material:
It is produced by crushing high quality rock. The size of this material is less than or
equal to 25mm. filler materials (crushed rock material passing 0.075mm) are mixed
with the aggregate to get a well graded aggregate size. The crushed material has one
production plant at 10 km of our site. There are four bins of aggregate which are
blended together to get the required asphalt concrete aggregate proportion. The bins
have their own gradation specification.
Different tests are taken on the aggregate of asphalt concrete. These are:
 Aggregate crushing value (ACV) test

 Soundness test (SSS) test
 Ten percent fine value (TFV) test
 Absorption test
 Specific gravity test
The contractor accepts the following specification.
Grading AASHTO T-27 Table 6400/8

ACV BS 812-1990 <21%
Polished stone value(PSV) <50%
Water absorption AASHTO T-182 <1% by mass coarse aggregate
<1.5 by mass fine aggregate
SE AASHTO T-176 >% for fine aggregate
FI BS 812-1990 Table 6400/5
Table 6: specification of asphalt aggregate
Bitumen
Bitumen is viscous liquid or solid material which has adhesive property. It is usually
hard at normal temperature and softens flow when it is heated. It is used to bind
aggregates. Its type and grade is specified based on the environmental conditions. Grade
80/100 (80-100) of bitumen is used in this project. Per cent of the bitumen content
which is used in the project based on the mix design is 5.0%. Quality tests are taken on
the bitumen which is used in this project. The quality tests are:
 Penetration test
 Softening point test
 Ductility test
The two materials (aggregate and bitumen) are mixed in the mix plant based on the mix
design. The asphalt concrete hot mix is transported to the site. The different tests are
taken on the asphalt concrete hot mix. The contractor accepts the following tests and
specification on the asphalt concrete mix.

Construction procedure of asphalt concrete layer:
Asphalt concrete layer construction is done as follow.
 Before layering asphalt pavement layer, prime coat is sprayed on the base
course to bind base course aggregate. And the prime coat is allowed 24 hour
to penetrate the base course layer and it binds the aggregate sufficiently.
 The asphalt aggregate mix is transported to the site by the damp truck.
 The asphalt concrete layer is paved by the paver.
 Temperature is measured before paving the hot mix asphalt
 Thickness of the pavement is measured using deep stick.
 The mix is compacted by the steel roller when the allowable temperature is
occurred.
 After steel wheel roller compaction, the layer is compacted by pneumatic
tire rollers smooth the surface and increase degree of compaction until the
layer of the tire is not visible.
Note:-
 Most of the time, the asphalt layer is done through half. Because there is no
detour to the current flow of traffic. So, the halves are done at different
time. At the time of laying the second half layer, the previous half is cut and
it is polished with the tack coat to join the two half layers.
 One truck asphalt concrete mix covers 40m length of pavement.
 Temperature has greatest effect on the asphalt concrete layer. Asphalt needs
accurate measurement of temperature. So temperature is measured at different
time and place. It is measured as follow.
Measurement taken at Temperature ⁰ c
Loading the truck at the plant 145_170
the truck reaches the site 145_150
The finisher paves 135_145
The steel roller makes 120_125

compaction

Steel Roller
Fig 3.5 type of rollers
The following techniques of construction are applied during the construction of pavement
layers.
 The direction of compaction is from bottom to the top on the hilly area. This is
done to protect the sliding pavement layer during construction.
 The compaction paths are overlapped each other to avoid the bulging of
materials between the two paths.
 Compaction is started from the inner side of the horizontal curve and continues
to the outer side of horizontal curve. This is done to protect the sliding of
materials due to supper elevation.

The following precautions taken during paving the asphalt i.e. foreman taken different
action to pave asphalt properly These are
 Covering the dump tracks to keep the temperature during transporting

asphalt from mix plant
 Painting dump tracks with bitumen
 Compacting the asphalt with manual hand compacting machine for place
which is not cover by steel roller compacting machines

CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL WORKS
4.1 Construction of Major Bridge

Plan View of the Bridge
Figure 4.1 showing plan view of bridge which cuts a long curve
4.1 BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the

way beneath. The required passage may be for a road, a railway, pedestrians, a
canal or a pipeline. The obstacle to be crossed may be a river, a road, railway or a
valley.

Classification of Bridges
Classification of Bridges (According to form (or) type of superstructures)
1. Slab Bridge
2. Beam Bridge
3. Truss bridge
4. Arch bridge
5. Cable stayed (or) suspended bridge.
Classification of bridges (According to material of construction of superstructure)
1. Timber bridge
2. Concrete bridge
3. Stone bridge
4. R.C.C bridge
5. Steel bridge
6. P.C.C bridge
7. Composite bridge
8. Aluminum bridge
Classification of bridges (According to inter-span relationship)
1. Simply supported bridge
2. Cantilever bridge
3. Continuous bridge
Classification of bridges (According to the position of the bridge floor

relative to superstructures)
1. Deck through bridge
2. Half through or suspension bridge

Classification according to method of connection of different part of
superstructures
1. Pinned connection bridge
2. Welded connection bridge
3. Riveted connection bridge
Bridge According to length of bridge

1. Culvert bridge (less than 6 m)
2. Minor bridge (less than 6 m-60m)
3. Major bridge (more than 60 m)
4. Long span bridge (more than 120)
According to function
1. Aqueduct bridge (canal over a river)
2. Viaduct (road or railway over a valley or river)
3. Pedestrian bridge
4. Highway bridge
5. Railway bridge
6. Road-cum-rail or pipe line bridge
Process of minor bridge construction
1 Excavating the land 100mm below than the bottom level of the footing with
reference to the TBM and with the help of auto level and excavator.
2 The PCC has been done as excavation is done 100mm below that 100mm is for the
PCC which helps in the bearing strength of the soil and foundation not to be in direct
contact of the soil.
3 After PCC the laying of reinforcing bars are to be done for the foundation of the
bridge as per the drawings provided by the client.
4 After the laying of the reinforcement bars than pouring of the concrete is to be
done with the help of concrete pump.
5 When foundation of the bridge is constructed than the abutment wall is made
over the foundation at both ends of the bridge.
6 Above the abutment wall there is an abutment cap on which the elastomeric
bearing is constructed.
7 After the bearing of the bridge now the precasted RCC I-girders kept on the
bearing of the bridge from the both ends.
8 Above the precasted RCC girders there laid a Deck Slab which is used as
carriageway and above it there built a RCC Crash barrier and RCC Railing
Fig 4.2 Cross section of Minor Bridge

Fig. 4.3 Laying of foundation over PCC
Fig. 4.4 Reinforcement of raft foundation with abutment wall

Fig. 4.5 Concreting of Raft and Abutment
Fig. 4.6 Abutment wall after construction

Fig. 4.7 Reinforcement of Return walls along with Abutment walls
Fig. 4.8 Construction of Pier on Raft Foundation

4.2 DRAINAGE
Different structures are built in the road construction. The structures are concerned to
different purposes. The functions are:
 Supporting the rolling soil

 Protecting the soil from erosion
 Draining out the accumulated water
 Helps to widen the road section
Minor Drainage Structures
Minor drainage structures are drainage structures which are used to drain the water that
comes from the asphalt surface, cut section and catchment area.
Minor drainage structures which are built on the road are classified into:
i. Longitudinal drainage structure (side ditch)

ii. Cross drainage structure (culvert)
4.2.1 Side Ditch
Side ditch is a longitudinal drainage structure which is built at the side of the road. It
collects water that comes from the surface of the road, cut section and the catchment
area and drains to the nearest
culvert. Side ditch is provided where cut section is available and flow water exists from
the catchment area to the road prism.
Side ditch is classified into:
 V ditch
 U ditch
 Trapezoidal ditch
Construction materials of side ditch

Side ditches are constructed from sound rock material and mortar..

Fig 4.9:- Construction of side ditch
Fig 4.10 :- Completed side ditch

4.2.2 CULVERTS (CROSS DRAINAGE STRUCTURE)
Culvert is also a bridge whose span is less than 6m. The function of a culvert is to
convey surface water across a highway, railroad, or other embankment. In addition to
the hydraulic function, the culvert must carry construction, highway, railroad, or other
traffic and earth loads. Therefore, culvert design involves both hydraulic and structural
design considerations.
Culverts are available in a variety of sizes, shapes, and materials. These factors, along
with several others, affect their capacity and overall performance. Sizes and shapes
may vary from small circular pipes to extremely large arch sections that are sometimes
used in place of bridges.
The most commonly used culvert shape is circular, but arches, boxes, and elliptical
shapes are used, as well. Pipe arch, elliptical, and rectangular shapes are generally used
in lieu of circular pipe where there is limited cover. Arch culverts have application in
locations where less obstruction to a waterway is a desirable feature, and where
foundations are adequate for structural support. Box culverts can be designed to pass
large flows and to fit nearly any site condition. A box or rectangular culvert lends itself
more readily than other shapes to low allowable headwater situations since the height
may be decreased and the span increased to satisfy the location requirements.
The material selected for a culvert is dependent upon various factors, such as
durability, structural strength, roughness, bedding condition, abrasion and corrosion
resistance, and water tightness. The more common culvert materials used are concrete
and steel (smooth and corrugated).
Another factor that significantly affects the performance of a culvert is its inlet
configuration. The culvert inlet may consist of a culvert barrel projecting from the
roadway fill or mitered to the embankment slope. Other inlets have headwalls, wing
walls, and apron slabs or standard end sections of concrete or metal.
A careful approach to culvert design is essential, both in new land development and
retrofit situations, because culverts often significantly influence upstream and
downstream flood risks, floodplain management and public safety. Culverts can be
designed to provide beneficial upstream conditions and to avoid negative visual impact.

Required Design Information
The hydraulic design of a culvert essentially consists of an analysis of the required

performance of the culvert to convey flow from one side of the roadway (or other kind
of embankment, such as a railroad) to the other. The designer must select a design
flood frequency, estimate the design discharge for that frequency, and set an allowable
headwater elevation based on the selected design flood and headwater considerations.
These criteria are typically dictated by local requirements although state and federal
standards will apply to relevant highway projects. The culvert size and type can be
selected after the design discharge, controlling design headwater, slope, tail water, and
allowable outlet velocity have been determined.
The design of a culvert includes a determination of the following:
• Impacts of various culvert sizes and dimensions on upstream and

downstream flood risks, including the implications of embankment
overtopping.
• Alignment, grade, and length of culvert.
• Size, type, end treatment, headwater, and outlet velocity.
• Amount and type of cover.
• Public safety issues, including the key question of whether or not to

include a safety/debris rack.
• Pipe material.
• Type of coating (if required).
• Need for fish passage measures, in specialized cases.
• Need for protective measures against abrasion and corrosion.

• Need for specially designed inlets or outlets.
• Structural and geotechnical considerations, which are beyond the scope of
this chapter.
Process of culvert construction
1. Excavating the land 100mm below than the bottom level of the footing with
reference to the TBM and with the help of auto level and excavator.
2. The PCC has been done as excavation is done 100mm below that
100mm is for the PCC which helps in the bearing strength of the soil
and foundation not to be in direct contact of the soil.
3. After PCC the laying of reinforcing bars are to be done for the
foundation as per the drawings provided by the client.
4. After the laying of the reinforcement bars than pouring of the concrete is to
be done with the help of concrete pump.
5. After 24 hours the shuttering which is used for stabilize the concrete is
removed.
DETAILS OF CULVERT (AS EXAMPLE)

Dimensions: -
Length of culvert = 10m,
Width = 2×2
Wall thickness = 250 mm ,
Raft thickness = 300 mm,
Top slab= 250mm,
PCC bottom thickness = 100 mm
Effective cover= 75 mm earth face, 50 mm non earth face.
Quantity of concrete used = 24.200 cum
Grade of concrete in culvert = M30
W/C ratio for culvert = 0.40
Size of PCC = 10200 mm × 2700 m×100mm

Quantity of concrete in PCC = 2.754 cum
Slump for PCC= 150 mm
W/c ratio for PCC = 0.5
Fig. 4.11 Reinforcement for construction of culvert
Fig. 4.12 Shuttering before concreting of culvert

BAR BENDING SCHEDULE FOR EXECUTION AT SITE
CULVERT SIZE (2×3) CHAINAGE = 72+497 (Length = 4.5m)
S.NO BAR Description of Bar Dia Spacin No of Cutting Total Remarks
MAR in g in Bar Length Weight
K mm mm c/c (kg/
1 01 1125 1125 12 200 22 4.652 90.88 Raft
2450 T.L=102.34 Bottom
main bar
2 02 175 175 12 100 44 2.752 107.526 Raft top
2450 T.L=121.08 main bar
3 3& 4000 10 200 20 4.00 49.36 Raft
3a T.L=80 bottom
distributio
n bar
4 04 775 12 200 44 4.927 192.50 Wall inner
3425 T.L=216.78 side
775 vertical
bar
5 05 175 12 200 44 3.727 145.62 Wall outer
3425 T.L=163.98 side
175 vertical
bar
6 06 300 10 200 22×2 1.245 33.799 Raft
=44 T.L=54.78 haunch bar
685
300
7 06 300 670 10 200 44 1.230 33.39 Slab
300 T.L=54.12 haunch bar
8 07 & 4000 10 200 10×4 4.00 98.72 Wall outer
08 =40 T.L=160 distributio
n bar

9 09 150 150 10 100 44 2.71 73.57 Slab
2450 T.L=119.24 bottom
main bar
10 10 1100 1100 10 200 22 4.61 62.57 Slab top
2450 T.L=101.42 main bar
11 11 & 4000 10 200 20 4.00 49.36 Slab

12 T.L=80 bottom
distributio
n
12 15 4000 10 200 20 4.00 49.36 Slab top
T.L=80 distributio
n bar
13 16 4000 10 200 16 4.00 39.48 Raft & top
T.L=64 slab beam
binder
14 17 4000 10 200 8 4.00 19.44 Slab beam
T.L=32 face binder
outer
15 500 12 150 12 1.284 13.68 Chair for
140 140 T.L=15.408 raft
300 300

4.3HIGHWAY DESIGN
BREAST WALL
The breast wall is a type of retaining wall which is used to prevent the sliding of
hill towards the road so that there is no problem for the running traffic on the
road in case of any landslides.
Height: - 3m throughout the road length, somewhere 6m (depend upon the sliding
risk). Dimensions: -
1. Top width of breast wall = 600 mm
2. Bottom PCC thickness = 100 mm
3. Slope of PCC= 20 %
4. Slope of breast wall= 1/3 (V/H)
5. Bond stone used= 200mm * 600 mm (M20)
6. Number of bond stone provided in1m^2=2
7. Grade of concrete in breast wall = M15
8. One span of breast wall = 6 m
9. Number of steel bars used in bond stone = 4 no. , dia. 10mm,
10. Weep holes provided to release hydraulic pressure: - 100 mm

dia. PVC pipe, 1 m c/c spacing in staggered form

Fig. 4.13 Alignment of Bond stone in Breast wall
Fig. 4.14 Construction of Breast wall

Fig. 4.15 Construction of Trap for Culvert

CHAPTER 5
THEORY ABOUT MECHANICAL PROCESS
5.1 EXCAVATION AND BACKFILLING
In civil engineering, a cut or cutting is where soil or rock material from a hill or
mountain is cut out to make way for a canal, road or railway line.
In cut and fill construction it keeps the route straight and/or flat, where the
comparative cost or practicality of alternate solutions (such as diversion) is
prohibitive. Contrary to the general meaning of cutting, a cutting in construction
is mechanically excavated or blasted out with carefully placed explosives. The
cut may only be on one side of a slope, or directly through the middle or top of a
hill. Generally, a cut is open at the top (otherwise it is a tunnel). A cut is (in a
sense) the opposite of an embankment. When used in reference to transportation
routes, it reduces the grade of the route.
Cuts can be created by multiple passes of a shovel, grader, scraper or excavator,
or by blasting. One unusual means of creating a cut is to remove the roof of a
tunnel through daylight. Material removed from cuts is ideally balanced by
material needed for fills along the same route, but this is not always the case
when cut material is unsuitable for use as fill.
TYPES OF CUT
There are at least two types of cut, side hill cut and through cut. The former
permits passage of a transportation route alongside of or around a hill, where the
slope is transverse to the roadway. A side hill cut can be formed by means of side
casting, i.e., cutting on the high side balanced by moving the material to build up
the low side to achieve a flat surface for the route. In contrast, through cuts,
where the adjacent grade is higher on both sides of the route, require removal of
material from the area since it cannot be dumped.

RESPONSIBILITIES
Responsibilities of all concerned are clearly mentioned with respect to

overall administration and implementation in the approved Organogram.
MATERIALS TO BE USED
For excavation as per the requirement and the direction of project manager. For
filling works wherever applicable, depending upon the contract specification,
the filling earth shall be identified and approved. The filling material shall be free
from lumps, clods, vegetation and other organic and deleterious matter.
SAFETY REQUIRMENT
 Care shall be taken not to dump the excavated material near the excavation
area and follow the safety norms.
 Barricading shall be provided around excavated area and signal light shall be
provided at night hours.
 Excavated material shall not be dumped alongside the pit excavated.
Excavated earth shall be disposed off to designated locations as mentioned in
contract. Some quantity of excavated earth shall be retained for backfilling if
specified so. Excavation pit shall be kept free from water by suitable means of
dewatering as and when required
 In case of mechanized excavator with excavators. Work shall be continued till
about 150mm above final level. Levelling and dressing shall be done
manually with light compaction, either manually or with plate compactor, as
instructed by Project Manager
 All persons engaged in job shall wear PPE and the equipment‟s deployed
will be checked by HSE Officer.

Fig. 5.1 Breaking of huge rocks during hill excavation using driller
Fig. 5.2 Excavation of hills using excavators

BACKFILLING
Backfilling is the process of putting soil back inside a trench or in a foundation

when the excavation has been completed. The process requires skills and some
knowledge on the specifications and requirements of your contract and
understanding soil conditions. Backfilling can be done in several ways, and can
be used in tasks such as protecting foundations, landscaping, or filling in voids in
underground structures.
Every soil has unique characteristics requiring different construction techniques
to ensure optimum performance. Impact loading of the pipeline, shafts, structures
and appurtenances must be avoided during the placement of backfill.
Excavation and backfilling of soil is a very important part of construction
process, and care must be taken while excavation in safety perspective. Different
soil layers may be encountered while excavation, dewatering may be needed
sometimes. These points must be kept in mind to take necessary action during
excavation and backfilling. Correct measurement of excavation and backfilling is
required because excavation cost is major part of the foundation construction.

CHAPTER 6
LABWORK
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT
This is the department, which keeps a check on the quality of the materials that are to
be used on the site. Test on bricks, aggregates, cement, fly ash, concrete (cube test)
were explained and performed in the lab. The importance of the components of
concrete was taught to us, because at the end of the day concrete covers maximum
amount of volume in our construction.
6.1 Quality Implementation at Site
“GAMMON INDIA”, has established procedure for monitoring, measuring and

analyzing of these processes and to take necessary actions to achieve planned results
and continual improvement of these processes. It has also maintained relevant
procedure to identify and exercise required control over outsourced processes, if any.
6.2 Project Quality Plan:
The project quality plan is prepared and formulated as a management summary of a

quality related activities required to meet the terms of contract. This quality plan sets
out the management practices and describe the quality management system based on
PDCA (plan, check, do and act) principle.
Material Test Section

Material test is the back bone of road construction. Although Different tests are taken in
this project most of laboratory test taken before we arrive at the project site and other
laboratory test outside company due to unorganized laboratory section. Tests which are
done in the project are classified in to two categories. These are laboratory tests and
field test.

Laboratory Tests
Laboratory test is classified into:
• Soil class
• Asphalt class
• Concrete class
 Soil class
Different tests are done for each material. The following soil tests are carried out in the
laboratory.
I. Proctor compaction test

II. California bearing ratio(CBR)
III. Plasticity index

IV. Gradation
V. Aggregate crushing value
VI. Loss Angeles abrasion
VII. Ten per cent fine value
VIII. Soundness
IX. Absorption
X. Flakiness index
XI. Elongation index
Proctor compaction test

The objective of this test is to obtain relationship
between compacted dry density and soil moisture
content using manual compaction effort. The dry
density which can be achieved for a soil depends
on the degree of compaction applied and the moisture
content. The moisture content which give the highest
dry density is called optimum moisture content.
Fig 6.1 Proctor Compaction Test

California Bearing Ratio test
CBR test is developed to measure the resistance of materials to the penetration of

standard plunger under controlled density and moisture content.
This test is used to evaluate the strength of sub grade, sub base and base course
materials. The CBR value is a requirement in design in pavement materials of natural
gravel. The test covers the laboratory determination of the California Bearing Ratio of a

compacted sample of soil using 65, 30, and 10blows per layer for each five layers.
CBR test is done for embankment, capping layer, sub grade, sub base and base course
materials. Each material has its own minimum requirement of CBR value. If a material
does not satisfy the requirement, it is rejected because the soil does not resist the
expected traffic load.
Calculation
The amount of water which is used to prepare a sample is obtained by the following
formula:
Amount of water = (OMC-NMC)×sample

NMC
To determine the degree of compaction, the following formula is used.
% compaction = (Wm+Ws)-Wm ×100

V (OMC+100) MDD
The calculation of CBR for 2.54mm is:

CBR = Dial Reading×233.25 ×100
Piston Area×6.9KPa
The CBR calculation for 5.08mmis:
CBR = Dial Reading ×233.25

Piston Area×10.2KP
Fig 6.2 CBR Machine

Plasticity index
Soil has the plastic behavior. The plastic property

of the soil has a great effect on construction. The soil
is swelling at the rainy season and it shrinks at the
dry season. Volume variation is occurred depending on
the season. This makes the asphalt concrete pavement
being deformed. Deformation is occurred when the plastic
index is above the maximum tolerable value. Embankment,
capping layer, sub grade, sub base and base course materials
has its own plasticity index limitation.
Plasticity index the difference of liquid limit and plastic Fig 6.3 P.I
limit. Liquid limit is the empirical established moisture
content at which a soil passes from the liquid state to the plastic state. And plastic limit
is a moisture content at which a soil becomes dry to be plastic.
PI = LL-PL
Where PI = plastic index

LL = liquid limit
PL = plastic limit.
.
Gradation
Gradation is the determination of particle size distribution of soil which is used to
construction. If a material is well graded, it has a good inter locking of particles to each
other. The proportion of fine materials and coarse materials has a great effect on road
construction. If the percentage of the coarse material is above the limitation and the
percentage of fine material is below its specification, the material particles are not
interlocked to each other efficiently. This situation loses the strength of the material. If
the percentage of fine material is above its limitation and the course material is below
the requirement, the bearing capacity of the material is under the required capacity. It

shows sliding property. This also loses the strength of the construction material.
In order to get a well graded material, sieve analysis is carried out for each soil
materials. It is taken on embankment, capping layer, sub grade, sub base, base course,
asphalt aggregate and sand. Each material has its gradation specification.
Percentage of pass and retained is determined as follow.

% pass = mass of pass
Total mass
% retained = mass of retained

Total mass
Sieve Analysis Test
APPARATUS:
1. A set of IS sieves- 80mm,63mm, 50mm, 40mm, 31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm,

12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm, 4.75mm, 3.35mm, 1.18mm, 600 micrometers, 300
micrometers, 150 micrometers and 75 micrometers.
2. Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1% of the weight of the test
Centre.
PROCEDURE:
1. The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110+5oC and

weighed.
2. The sample is sieved by using a set of IS sieves.
3. On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.
4. Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a %age of the

total sample weight.
5. Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative %age of aggregate retained on
each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.

Fig 6.4 Sieve

Aggregate crushing value (ACV)
Aggregate used in road construction should be strong enough to resist crushing under
traffic wheel loads. If the aggregates are weak, the integrity of the pavement structure is
likely to be adversely affected. The strength of coarse aggregates is measured by the
aggregate crushing value.
The aggregate crushing value (ACV) gives a relative measure of the resistance of an
aggregate to crush under a gradually applied load.
Aggregate crushing value is determined by measuring the material passing a specified

sieve after crushing under a load of 400kn. This test is applied on the aggregates which
passes 14mm sieve and retained on a 10mm sieve.
This test is carried on the stone masonry, sub base, base course, and asphalt aggregate
materials. Each material has its own aggregate crushing value limitation.
Calculation
Aggregate crushing value (ACV) is expressed as a percentage to the first decimal place
for each test specimen from the following equation.
ACV = M2 ×100
M1
Where M2 = mass of the material passing the 2.36mm sieve (gm)

M1 = total mass of test specimen (gm)
Note;-
Two samples are prepared for the aggregate crushing value. One of the two is for the
dry crushing the other is socked in water and wet crushing is taken. The dry one
represents the dry season of the site the wet one represents the rainy season of the site.

Average o the two samples is taken as the crushing value of the aggregate.
Impact Value Test

AIM: To determine the impact strength of Aggregate.
APPARATUS:sieve-12.5mm passing
PROCEDURE:
The material retailed on 10mm sieve is taken for the test and is put into measuring
cylinder with 25 gloves. Now weight of the material retained is taken out and with the
hammer of 100 mm dia falling from the height of 380 mm , 15 gloves are given. then
the hammered material is passed through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of the material
which passes 2.36mm sieve is taken and percentage is calculated. for building material
maximum value should be 45%. and for the road construction it should be 30 %. This
experiment is done to get an idea of toughness of the aggregate.
Fig 6.5 impact test

Los Angeles Abrasion Test(LAA)
The objective of the test is to assess the hardness of the coarse aggregates used in the
pavement construction. Due to the movement of traffic, the road aggregates used in the
surface course are subjected to wearing action at the top. Resistance to wear is an
essential property for road aggregates specially when used in the wearing course.
The Los Angeles test is a measure of degradation of aggregates of standard grading

resulting from combination of actions including abrasion, impact and grinding in a
rotating steel spheres. As the drum rotates, a shelf plate picks up the sample and the
steel spheres, carrying them around until they are dropped to the opposite side of the
drum creating an impact or crushing effect. The spheres and sample with the drum
rotates 500 revolutions. The test has four grading and uses their corresponding number
of steel spheres. After the abrasion, each grade is sieved by 0.175mm sieve.
Grading Number of spheres Mass of sample (gm)
A 12 5000
B 11 5000
C 8 5000
D 6 5000
Each sample has its own grade limitation.
passing Retained Grading

A B C D
37.5mm 25mm 1250
25.0mm 19mm 1250
19.0mm 12.5mm 1250 2500
12.5mm 9.5mm 1250 2500
9.5mm 6.3mm 2500
6.3mm 4.75mm 2500
4.75mm 2.36mm 5000
Total 5000 5000 5000 5000
Table 7: size and amount of aggregate sample prepared for LAA test

% LAA = (M1-M2) ×100
M1
Calculation
Where M1 = mass of sample before test

M2 = mass of sample retained on 0.175mm sieve after test
LAA =Los Angeles abrasion value

Note
The steel spheres represent a dynamic wheel load effect on the aggregate. When a
vehicle moves, it applies an impact load on the surface course and base course. This
effect is represented by Los Angeles abrasion in the laboratory. If the LAA value of a
material is above the limitation, it is rejected.
Ten Percent Fine Value (TFV)
Mostly the strength of the aggregate is measured in crushing test. The Ten Percent Fine
Value (TFV) gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crush under a
gradually applied load. In pavement design there are specific requirement for the TFV
of material test both dry and socked value.
Ten percent fine value (TFV) is determined by measuring the load required to crush a
prepared aggregate sample to give 10% material passing 2.36mm sieve after crushing.
The standard size of the aggregate 14 mm passing and 10mm retained.
Applied load for ten percent fine value is minimum 160kN. Ten percent of the prepared
sample should be crushed by 160kN or more than 160kN load to be accepted. But if ten
percent of the aggregate is crushed by less than 160kN, the material is not acceptable
because the aggregate does not tolerate heavy load vehicles.

Calculation
F = 14 × f
m+4
Where
F =is the required force for the TFV
f =the maximum force read on the machine
m = the percent of material passing 2.36mm after crushing
Soundness test using sodium sulphate
The objective of the test is determination of the resistance aggregate being corroded by
chemicals.
The soundness test using sodium sulphate covers the test of aggregate to estimate their
soundness subjected to weathering. This is accomplished by repeated immersion of
aggregate in saturated solution of sodium sulfate. This is related the aggregate
contamination with chemicals before and after road construction.
Absorption test
Aggregate absorbs moisture. The moisture quantity which is absorbed by the aggregate
varies with respect to the season. The pore water pressure is happened due to
fluctuation of the moisture
content. This condition affects the construction negatively. The moisture which is in the
aggregate comes to the asphalt concrete layer. But asphalt concrete is sensitive for
moisture and temperature. Deformation of the asphalt concrete is happened when
moisture comes from base course layer to the asphalt layer. To avoid such problems,
absorption test is taken on the aggregates. It should be less or equal to the specification
value.

Calculation
%absorption=(m1-m2)×100
m1
Where
m1 = mass of wet aggregate
m2 = mass of oven dry aggregate
Flakiness Index Test (FI)
Flakiness index one of the test used to classify aggregates and stones. For base course
and wearing course aggregates, the presence flaky particles are considered undesirable
as they cause inherent weakness with possibility of breaking down under heavy loads.
Aggregates are classified as flaky when they have a thickness less than 60% of their
mean sieve size.
The flakiness index of an aggregate sample is found by separating the flaky particles
and expressing their mass as a percentage of the mass of the sample. The test is applied
for the material passing 63mm sieve and retained on 6.3mm sieve.
FI = m2 × 100
m1
Calculation
Where
EI =elongation index
M1=mass of the sample
M2 =mass of the sample retained on the gage

 Asphalt Class
Bitumen is very sensitive for temperature. Quality and other tests are taken on the
asphalt. The tests which are done on asphalt class are:
• Penetration test of bitumen

• Ductility test of bitumen
• Softening point of bitumen
• Marshal test
• Extraction test
• Distillation
Penetration Test of Bitumen
Penetration test is used to measure the consistency of bitumen material expressed as the
penetration distance in millimetre that a standard needle penetrates a sample of bitumen
vertically under known condition of loading, loading time and temperature. The
distance which the needle penetrates is measured in 1/10mm. This is termed as
penetration value.
Penetration test is used to know the grade of bitumen. Grade of bitumen has a direct
relationship with environmental condition especially temperature. The hot areas need
high grade of bitumen. If the grade of bitumen is low in hot area, it becomes liquid
easily. This reduces the binding strength of bitumen. So the penetration value of hot
area bitumen is low. The grade of cold area bitumen is low because it is needed to be
fluid in low temperature that represents the surrounding temperature. If the grade is
high, the bitumen does not bind the aggregate. Here, the penetration value of bitumen is
high.
road up grading project uses a bitumen whose penetration value is (85/100). This value

of penetration is high and grade of bitumen is low because the environment is semi hot
Test No Reading 1/10mm

1 2 3 Average
A 90.1 90.6 90.3 90.3
B 8.4 88.7 88.5 88.5
Average A+B 89
penetration 2
Table 8: Result of bitumen penetration test
Ductility Test of Bitumen
This test provides the measure of tensile property of bituminous materials and used to
know the ductility of bitumen for the specification requirement. The ductility of a binder
indicates its elasticity and ability to deform under a load and return to its original
position when the load is removed.
The ductility of bitumen is related to the traffic load effect. If the bitumen is ductile, it
does not show rupture. If it is not ductile, rupture of bitumen is happened. This makes a
crack on the asphalt concrete layer. The minimum ductility requirement is 1m
elongation of bitumen without rupture.
Softening Point Test of Bitumen
The softening point test is used to measure and specify the temperature at which
bitumen begins to show fluidity. The softening point is used also useful to evaluate the
uniformity of source of supply. The softening point is also an indicative of tendency of
the material to flow at elevated temperature encountered in service.
Two steel balls are placed on a sample of binder contained in a brass ring which is

suspended in water. The bath temperature is raised at 5⁰ c per minute, the binder
gradually softens and eventually deforms slowly as the ball touches a base plate 25 mm
below the ring the temperature of the water is recorded. The temperature of softening
point in water media should be within the limit 30⁰ c - 80⁰ c.
Marshal Test
The marshal test is used to measure physical properties of asphalt specimen that relate
to plastic deformation properties of asphalt mixture.
A good bitumen paving mix exhibit stability, durability, workability, and skid resistance
properties besides economy. This method works on the base of the determination of the
optimum bitumen content for a particular grading of aggregate which results good
stability and flow that satisfies the requirement when a cylindrical specimen of bitumen
paving mixture loaded on the lateral surface by means of marshal apparatus. This
method is used for the mixture containing asphalt cement and aggregate which its size is
maximum 25mm.
The main goal of the test is to measure stability and flow. Stability of the test specimen
is the maximum load resistance that the standard test specimen will develop at 60⁰ c.
The minimum stability which accepted by this project is 10kN. So every test result of
stability is greater than or equal to 10kN. Flow is the total movement or strain occurring
on the specimen when the specimen is maximally loaded during stability test. The
specification of flow which is accepted in this project is 2mm-3mm. If flow is less than
2mm, crack of pavement is happened and if the flow is greater than 3mm, the bitumen
bulges to the surface of pavement and it loses the strength of the pavement. The two
values represent the effect of traffic load on the asphalt concrete pavement.
Extraction Test
The objective of extraction test is to separating the bitumen from the aggregate to check
the bitumen amount and the gradation of the aggregate at the working site. Asphalt

mix design was made before. The bitumen and asphalt aggregate are mixed in the based
on the mix design on the mix plant. Extraction test is taken daily to check the bitumen
content and gradation of the asphalt aggregate. The bitumen content used in this project
is 5% of the asphalt concrete mixture. The gradation specification is listed in the
following table
Sieve (mm) Specification by passing

Lower limit Upper limit
(LL) (UL)
26.5 100 100
19 87.2 97.2
13.2 74.5 84.5
9.5 64.8 74.8
4.75 50.7 58.7 Table 9: grade specification of
2.36 35.0 43.0
1.18 20.0 28.0 extraction test
0.6 13.5 21.5
0.3 9.2 15.2
0.15 7.7 11.7
0.075 6.6 10.6
Distillation Test
This test is used to measure the proportion of bitumen and kerosene of prime coat. Prime
coat is a mixture of bitumen and kerosene which is sprayed on the base course before the
asphalt layer be paved. The proportion has been set before application. But the test is done
to check whether the proportion is applied or not. The proportion of the bitumen and the
kerosene has a significant effect on the binding of the base course aggregate. As a result
setting the correct proportion makes the asphalt concrete durable. The proportion of the
bitumen and kerosene is 60% and 40% respectively. If the percentage of bitumen is
greater than 60 it does not penetrate the base course layer it slides when the asphalt
concrete is laid on it.
Calculation:-
% bitumen = Vb ×100
Vm
Where Vb = volume of bitumen
Vm = volume of bitumen and kerosene mixture.

 Concrete Class
Three tests are done in concrete class in this project. These are:
i. Slump test
ii. Concrete cube strength test
iii. Mortar cube strength test
iv. Consistency TEST
Slump Test
Slump test is method of determining of workability of fresh concrete. It is carried out by

filling a specified mold with fresh mixed concrete and measuring the slump after
removal of the mold.
He slump test limitation accepted in this project is from 30mm to 60mm. if the slump is
under the limitation, it is not workable. It needs additional water to make it workable. If
the slump is above the limitation, it is changed to fluid. It needs removal of some
amount of water.
Slump Cone Test

AIM: To determine the workability of fresh concrete by slump test as per IS: 1199-
1959.
APPARATUS: slump cone, tamping rod.
PROCEDURE:
1. The internal surface of the mould is thoroughly cleaned and applied with a
light coat of oil.
2. The mould is placed on a smooth horizontal, rigid, non-absorbent surface
3. The mould is then filled in 4 layers with freshly mixed concrete, each
approximately to one fourth of the height of the mould.

4. Each layer is tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the tamping rod (strokes are
distributed evenly over the cross section).
5. After the top layer is rowed, the concrete is stroked of the level with a trowel.
Fig. 6.6 Slump cone test
6. The mould is removed from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly in the
vertical direction.
7. The difference in the levels between the height of the mould and that of the
highest point of the subsided concrete is measured.
8. This difference in height min mm is the slump of the concrete.
Concrete Cub Compressive Strength Test
In asphalt road up grading project, concrete is used for drainage structures such as pipe
culvert, box culvert, slab culvert and lean concrete. All concrete design is based on a
specific strength of concrete. The test is done to measure the compressive strength of the
concrete cubes. The cubed concrete is casted at the site. It is taken to the laboratory and
socked for 7days and 28days age. The concrete strength is normally tested at an age of
28 days. Sometimes this test is taken at the age of 7days. The 7day strength of the
concrete is two third of the strength of 28 days. The concrete strength of 28 days which
is used in this project varies depending on the structure. The compressive strength of
concrete is 35Gpa for pipe culvert, 30Gpa for curb stone and 25Gpa for footway curb
stone.

Compressive Strength Test
APPARATUS: CTM machine, Tamping rod, Mould, Trowel, Tray,
PREPARATION OF CUBE SPECIMENS:

Making these test specimens are from the same concrete used in the field.
SPECIMEN:
5 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above.
Procedure:
1. Representative samples of concrete shall be taken and used for casting cubes 15 cm
x 15 cm x 15 cm or cylindrical specimens of 15 cm dia x 30 cm long.
2. The concrete shall be filled into the moulds in layers approximately 5 cm deep. It
would be distributed evenly and compacted either by vibration or by hand tamping.
3. After the top layer has been compacted, the surface of concrete shall be finished
level with the top of the mould using a trowel; and covered with a glass plate to
prevent evaporation.
4. The specimen shall be stored at site for 24+ ½ h under damp matting or sack. After
that, the samples shall be stored in clean water at 27+20C; until the time of test.
5. The ends of all cylindrical specimens that are not plane within 0.05 mm shall be
capped.
6. Specimen shall be tested immediately on removal from water and while they are
still in wet condition.
7. The bearing surface of the testing specimen shall be wiped clean and any loose
material removed from the surface.

8. In the case of cubes, the specimen shall be placed in the machine in such a manner
that the load cube as cast, that is, not to the top and bottom.
9. Align the axis of the specimen with the steel plates, do not use any packing. The
load shall be applied slowly without shock and increased continuously at a rate of
approximately 140 kg/sq.cm/min until the resistance of the specimen to the
increased load breaks down and no greater load can be sustained. The maximum
load applied to the specimen shall then be recorded and any unusual features noted
at the time of failure brought out in the report.
TABLE NO10,11 & 12

Fig. 6.7 Compression Testing Machine
Compressive Strength Test of Mortar
Mortar is a mix cement sand in 1 : 2 ratio respectively. The sand size used for mortar is
9.5mm sieve pass. Mortar is used for the construction of retaining wall and ditch. Cubed
mortar is casted at the site and taken to the laboratory. It is soaked for 7days. After
7days, strength test is taken on the casted mortar. The compressive strength of mortar is
greater than or equal to 10Gpa.

Consistency Test
AIM: to determine the quantity of water required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency.
PRINCIPLE: the standard consistency of cement paste is defined as that consistency
which will permit the Vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 5-7mm from the bottom of
the vicat mould.
APPARATUS: vicat apparatus conforming to IS: 5513-1976 balance whose
permissible variation at a load of 199 gm should be +1.0gm gauging trowel confirming
to IS-10086-1982.
Fig. 6.8 Vicat Apparatus
PROCEDURE:
1. Weigh approximately 400gm of cement and mix it with a weighed quantity of

water. The time of gauging should be between 3-5 min.
2. Fill the vicat mould and level it with a trowel.
3. Lower the plunger gently till it touches the cement surface.
4. Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.
5. Note the reading on the gauge.
6. Repeat the above procedure taking fresh sample of cement of different quantities of
water until the reading on the gauge is 5-7 mm.
REPORTING OF RESULTS:
Express the amount of water as a percentage of the weight of dry cement to the first
place of decimal.

 Field Tests
There are two field tests which are done in Gondar–Debark road up grading project. These
are:
i. Field density test
ii. Core cut of asphalt layer
Field Density Test
This test is used to measure degree of compaction and dry density of the compacted soil
at the site. Degree of compaction and dry density of the soil has a significant effect on
the asphalt concrete pavement. If the two parameters are not fulfilled, the asphalt layer
shows the differential settlement. The test is done by sand replacement method. The test
is taken for sub grade, sub base and base course layers in the site.

Core Cut of Asphalt Layer
The core of the asphalt concrete is cut in order to measure the thickness of the asphalt
layer, bulk specific gravity and void.
Cut of core is carried out at every 100m distance of the asphalt concrete layer. It is done
in the sequence of right, centre, and left. The core sample is taken to the laboratory and
the following tests are done.
 Thickness measurement
 Test of bulk specific gravity
 Test of void

CHAPTER 7
BATCHING PLANT
Batching Plant where the concrete ready mix prepare. We prepare here concrete
mix design M30 (1:1:1.5) (sand: cement: concrete). Batching plant can be operated by
software name “BATCHMATE” or it can be operated by manually with the buttons of
the machine.
Batching Plant consist of five main parts: -

1 Aggregate Hopper (in which combination aggregate of 10&20mm size)
2 Belt (which use to carry the aggregate to the skip)
3 Skip (which is use to transmit the aggregate to the mixture)
4 Mixture (which is use to mix the concrete mix design)
5 Cello (which contain cement bags. It can contain up to 2800 bags of cement)
6 water tank (use to contain water and connected with water pumps)
Fig. 7.1 Batching Plant

7.1 CEMENT:
 Portland cement is composed of calcium silicates and aluminate and aluminoferrite

It is obtained by blending predetermined proportions limestone clay and other
minerals in small quantities which is pulverized and heated at high temperature –
around 1500 deg centigrade to produce „clinker‟.
 The clinker is then ground with small quantities of gypsum to produce a

fine powder called Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). When mixed with water,
sand and stone, it combines slowly with the water to form a hard mass called
concrete. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified OPC in three
different grades The classification is mainly based on the compressive strength of
cement-sand mortar cubes of face area 50 cm2 composed of 1 part of cement to 3
parts of standard sand by weight with a water-cement ratio arrived at by a specified
procedure. The grades are: -
 33 grade
 43 grade
 53 grade
7.2 AGGREGATE:
The grade number indicates the minimum compressive strength of cement sand mortar
in N/mm2 at 28 days, as tested by above mentioned procedure. Portland Pozzolana
Cement (PPC) is obtained by either intergrading a pozzolanic material with clinker and
gypsum, or by blending ground pozzolana with Portland cement. Nowadays good
quality fly ash is available from Thermal Power Plants, which are processed and used
in manufacturing of PPC.

COARSE AGGREGATE
Coarse aggregate for the works should be river gravel or crushed stone. It should be
hard, strong, dense, durable, clean, and free from clay or loamy admixtures or quarry
refuse or vegetable matter. The pieces of aggregates should be cubical, or rounded
shaped and should have granular or crystalline or smooth (but not glossy) non-powdery
surfaces. Aggregates should be properly screened and if necessary washed clean before
use. Coarse aggregates containing flat, elongated or flaky pieces or mica should be
rejected. The grading of coarse aggregates should be as per specifications of IS-383:
FINE AGGREGATE:
Aggregate which is passed through 4.75 IS Sieve is termed as fine aggregate. Fine
aggregate is added to concrete to assist workability and to bring uniformity in mixture.
Usually, the natural river sand is used as fine aggregate. Important thing to be
considered is that fine aggregates should be free from coagulated lumps. Grading of
natural sand or crushed stone i.e. fine aggregates shall be such that not more than 5
percent shall exceed 5 mm in size, not more than 10% shall IS sieve No. 150 not less
than 45% or more than 85% shall pass IS sieve No. 1.18 mm and not less than 25% or
more than 60% shall pass IS sieve No. 600 micron.
7.3ADMIXTURES:
Admixtures are those ingredients/materials that are added to cement, water, and aggregate
mixture during mixing in order to modify or improve the properties of concrete for a
required application. Broadly the following five changes can be expected by adding an
admixture
 Air entertainment
 Water reduction for better quality

 Acceleration of strength development
 Improving the workability
 Water retention
Some of the important purposes for which the admixtures could be used are
 Acceleration of the rate of strength development at early ages.
 Retardation of the initial setting of the concrete.
 Increase in strength 4. Improvement in workability.
 Reduction in heat of evolution.
 Production of coloured concrete or mortar.
 Control of alkali-aggregate expansion.
 Reduction in the capillary flow of water.
 Increase in impermeability to liquids.
 Improvement of pump ability and reduction in segregation in grout mixtures
 Increase in durability or in resistance to special conditions of exposure

7.4REPORT OF MIX DESIGN:
For preparing 1 m3 (cubic meter) with Concrete Mix Design M25 we use:
Cement: 370 kg
Sand: 664 kg
10 mm aggregates: 494 kg
20 mm aggregates :742 kg
Admixture: 2.46 kg
Water: 166kg
Additive: 296kg
For preparing 1 m3 (cubic meter) with Concrete Mix Design M30 we use:
Cement: 410 kg
Sand: 804 kg
10 mm aggregates: 508 kg
20 mm aggregates :820 kg
Admixture: 2.46 kg
 A Transit Mixture (TM) is completely filled by the Batching Plant with in

7minutes.
The quantity of the transaction mixture is 4.5 to 6 cubic meter (m3). 1

m3 concrete mix weight is 24000kg.
4.5 m3 Concrete weight is 24000*4.5= 108000
kg 6 m3 Concrete weight is 24000*6=144000 kg

Asphalt Concrete Mix Design
The design of asphalt concrete mixture includes the selection of best blend of aggregate
and the optimum asphalt content to provide a mixture that meets the required
specification as economically as possible. It is applied to only hot mix asphalt paving
mixture containing aggregates with maximum size of 25mm or less. The asphalt mix
design follows the following steps.
 All quality tests of aggregate bitumen are done before any mix design activities
are carried out.
 Aggregates which are taken from the four bins are blended based on the
proportions which meet the required specification.
 The blended aggregate and bitumen are mixed on a number of briquettes,
101.6mm diameter and 60-65mm using 1200gm blended aggregate and various
percentage of bitumen both above and below the expected optimum content. The
expected bitumen content was 5% and 4%, 4.5%, 5%, 5.5% of bitumen is taken
and mixed with hot aggregate.
The expected asphalt content is estimated the following computational formula. P
 = 0.035a+0.045b+kc+F
Where
p = estimated asphalt content of mix
a = percent of aggregate retained on No.8 sieve
b = percent of aggregate passing No.8 and retained on No.200 sieve c
c= percent of aggregate passing No. 200sieve
k = constant that either of 0.15, 0.18, 0.12 based on passing No. 200 sieve
F = 0 to 2 based on absorption of aggregate.
 Compaction of the asphalt concrete mix is done.
 Density of the compacted asphalt concrete briquettes is measured to allow for
calculation of the voids properties.
 Stability and flow tests are taken on the compacted asphalt concrete sample.

The minimum requirement of stability accepted by the project is 10kN and flow
is from 2mm to 3mm.
 Result of the tests is plotted on graph. Density stability, flow air voids, voids in
mineral aggregates are plotted against asphalt content.
The optimum asphalt content is the percentage of the bitumen content which satisfies all
the specifications.
Asphalt mixing plant
One of the biggest machines for ARWE found 2 km far from 0+00 station 300m of
bahirdar -gondar way. It is placed on an area of 0.4km 2 and has source material for
mixing, such as asphalt, aggregate, and naphtha. There are different types asphalt based
on penetration, such as 40/50, 60/70, 85/100, and other are use. Aggregate of different
gradiation 19mm, 12.5mm, 9mm, 4.75mm, and filler are brought by dump tack from
crusher The mixer has 14 major parts as shown on the fig. The mixing process start
from four cold bin holders, each has elevator transfer to the lower elevator, which holds
blend aggregate

FIG 7.2 Asphalt mixing plant
The operator can adjust the speed of elevator by looking the output. when the
aggregate just enter to the dryer drum,<4.75mm aggregate size are sacked to silo.
The remain aggregate will burnet a temperature of 130c˚-140c˚ for 3min.
Then hot bin elevator takes to the top of mixing plant, this elevator has spoon like
structure on the surface conveyer, rotate circularly due to two dynamos at top and
bottom.
At the top sieve shaker will separate to their aggregate size, if there is over size
aggregate is there the mixer itself take it out. The required aggregate size is
always larger than used aggregate size, unless it considers it as over flow. The
sacked dust and filler collected in the dust silo and filler silo. Since dust absorb
high asphalt amount not used in mix-design. If it
is added asphalt and aggregate not allow binding because the dust covers the aggregate
and may cause alligator crack, which is disintegration road surface. At 160c˚-170c˚
heated asphalt is stored in asphalt storage tanker, which hot naphtha circulating on the
surface of the tanker to keep the temperature hot asphalt cement. Then pumped to the
top of mixing plant the pipe is also covered with insulter sponge, and white metal shin

After both bin and aggregate and aggregate reach at top of mixer, there isWeighting
balance which sensitive of 0.1gm. Both asphalt cement and bin taken their proportional
weight for first Bach mixing. After 5min mixing taken by mix Bach transporter to
temporary storage; which is heated surface body by hot naphtha oil circulating the body.
So the mix asphalt can stay for 8hr without losing its temperature in average 100c˚-
120c˚,for placing this asphalt should be not less than 95c˚, otherwise it is taken as waste.
Mix proportion used is The operators beside the plant control every activity with the
help of camera, the plant is computerized register each Bach mix proportion weight, and
time of mix, the operator is control by printing out this data sheet. The dust highly fine
look like cement, which is not soil dust it is aggregate crushed fine dust, used for detour
construction by blending with cinder and for preparation of class C concrete
Our supervisor gave to us to calculate the volume of each aggregate to make this hot
mix asphalt and number batching for plant to make hot asphalt for our asphalt road
project.
Sample calculation to find the volume of bituminous material of for unit station
Specific gravity of hot mix =2.5g/cm 3
HOT MIX Property Ration in per cent Mass for 1200*g Mass per station
BIN I Pass 19mm and 6.6 79.2 1.51
retained 13mm
BIN II Pass13.2mmand 9.43 113.16 2.1689
retained 4.75 mm
BIN III Pass9.5 mm and 24.5 294 5.63
retained 4.75
BIN IV BIN IV 49.05 588.6 11.28
Pass 4.75
Filler 4.7 56.4 1.08
Asphalt( ac 5.66 67.9 1.30

85/100)

CHAPTER 8
SAFETY
The requirement of sufficient no. safety appliances are planned well in advance and
made available at stores.
a) Head protection: Every individual entering the site must wear safety helmet
confirming to IS: 2925-1984 with the chin strapped fixed to the chin.
Fig. 8.1 Safety helmet
b) Foot and leg protection: Safety footwear with steel toe is essential on site to
prevent crush injury to our toes and injury due to striking against the object.
Fig. 8.2 Safety shoes
c) Hearing protection: Excessive noise causes damage to the inner ear and
permanent loss of hearing. To protect ears use ear plugs or ear muff as suitable.
d) Eye protection: Person carrying out grinding works, operating pavements
breakers, and those involve in welding and cutting works should wear safety
goggles and face shield suitably. Goggles, safety spectacles, face shield confirm

to IS: 5983-1980.
e) Ear protection: Ear muff\ear plug should to those working at places with high
sound levels (confirm to IS: 9167-1979).
f) Hand and arm protection: While handling cement and concrete and while
carrying out hot works like gas cutting, grinding and welding usage of hand
gloves is a must to protect the hand.
 Cotton gloves (for material handling)-IS: 6994-1973.
 Rubber gloves-IS-18(380\450mm long) electrical grade, tested to 15000 volts

confirming to IS: 4770-1991.
 Leather gloves- hot work/ handling of sharp edges.
g) Respiratory protection: Required respiratory protection according to the

exposure of hazards to be provided.
h) Safety net: Through it is mandatory to wear safety harness while working at
height on the working platforms, safety nets of suitable mesh size shall be
provided to arrest the falling of person and materials on need basis.
i) Fall protection: To prevent fall of person while working at height, personnel
engaged more than 2-meter wear standard full body harness should be
confirming to IS 3521-1999(third revision).
 Lanyard should be of 12 mm polypropylene rope and of length not more
than 2m.
 Double lanyard, based on the requirement

Challenges and measurements
Challenges I have been facing while performing my work
 Road construction is not fixed at a specific place. Every task is carried out at
different station. It needs movement from one station to the other station. To do
this, transport is necessary but the cars are limited in number. So I have faced such
a challenge to do a work in the construction site.
 Due to I am not taking highway II course in our school .became great handicap for
to be an intern in our company
Measurement of challenge which I took
 I was travelling by dam truck when the site engineers‟ is overcrowded. Sometimes
I was travelling by machine holder vehicles. I also working through at site and
laboratory. So, I solved the transport problem using the chance that I got.
 I got some lecture from my friends and I was reading highway books.

CHAPTER 9
Benefits of training
The training program is very essential for students. The student who works in the training
can get much more benefits. I have gained many benefits from the training program. The
benefits that I gained are:
 Development of practical skill

 Up grading of the theoretical knowledge
 Interpersonal communication skill
 Improving team work skill
 Gain of leadership skill
 Learning of work ethics
 Introducing with the professions
 Development of guiding life
Development of Practical Skill:
Theory is the basement of any activity within the road construction. But it is not enough
by itself to know the real situation which exists in a construction. It needs practical skill to
carry out every activity within a project. In the training program, I develop my practical
skill in many ways. I get enough skill how laboratory and field tests are done; in what way
the earth work is done with respect to the soil type; I develop the skill of construction of
structure, surveying work, work inspection.
 Developing of laboratory and field tests:

Different types of tests are carried out in the laboratory and field test. Soil test, asphalt
test, and concrete test are done in the laboratory. Field density test is also done at the

site. I perform these tests with the technicians. So, I develop material test skill.
 Earth work skill and skill of construction of layers:

Cut and fill construction of sub grade, capping layer, sub base, base course and asphalt
concrete are done based on their schedule. They have their own way of construction. I
get sufficient knowledge how these are done.
 Construction of structures:
Construction of structures such as culverts and curb stone construction is carried out. In
this activity I participate actively and I get knowledge of construction of such
structures.
 Surveying work:
Many activities are done after their surveying work is completed. Elevation, coordinate,
length of the activities is computed with the aid of surveying. Here, I develop my skill
of surveying.
 Work inspection:
The work inspector inspects each work. After inspection, the inspector gives approval
for the contractor if the work is done in the required manner. I have learned how to
inspect each work and I know the inspection criteria.
Up grading of Theoretical Knowledge:

I obtain different manuals such as AASHTO, ASTM manual. These manuals their
material quality specification, method test, method of construction specification, structural
analysis, traffic design specification. So I get such a theoretical knowledge. I also develop
the mix design knowledge and I know the parameters which should be satisfied when mix
design is done. As a result, I get the following theoretical knowledge.
 I have gained a good knowledge with respect to high way engineering and soil
mechanics.
 I have got a good understanding of the properties of materials and I know that
different materials are used for each construction.
 I have got better understand that the quality of material has a significant effect on the

road construction.
 I have developed the theoretical knowledge of the relation of pavement design with
the traffic load. The area where there is high traffic load and volume needs more
durable pavement design. And also its design period is large.
 I have got sufficient knowledge about the mix design.
 I have got better knowledge about the geometric design. The geometric alignment of
the road varies correspondingly with the terrain type.
 Drainage structures selection depends up on the data of the catchment area. The
discharge of water that comes from the catchment area is an important factor to select
the drainage structure. So I get better knowledge about the selection drainage
structures.
Interpersonal Communication Skill:
Road construction is a team work. It needs communication of the team members. The
contractor and consultant streams communicate each other in order to run their activities
effectively. But, the project will not attain the required standard if there is no
communication within the team and the project is not completed within the specified time.
So I understand that interpersonal communication is very necessary to run the project
work effectively.
I have learned the following points from the interpersonal communication.
 The contractor and the consultants discharge their responsibilities effectively because
of the presence of well interpersonal communication.
 Every person develops his/her skill of performing an activity interdependently when
there is good interpersonal communication.
 The employer and employees are living together peacefully for a long period of time
since there is a good communication.
When any problem is occurred, the problem gets its solution through communication.
Generally, I have learned that interpersonal communication plays a great role to run any
activity with the desired manner
Since I know the advantages of interpersonal communication, I have begun

communicating with each person who works in the project. But at the beginning of the
trainning, I communicated with my classmates and the work inspectors. This does not

allow me to get things which I require to develop academic knowledge. After a certain
days I developed my communication with each person.
Because of communicating with each person who works in the company, I am benefited in
many ways. I read reference books in the office easily. I could ask any questions which
are relating with the project work for the concerned people.
Improving Team Playing Skill:
Team playing is very essential and mandatory to have a better work. Almost all activities
in road construction need steam work. For example when we consider earth work; it needs
cooperation of machine operator, Forman, grade checkers, surveyor, labor, work
inspector. When one member of the earth work construction is absent, the work is not
completed in the required way. As a result team playing skill is very crucial in road
construction.
In the training program, I developed team work skill the laboratory, construction of
structures, and earth work and pavement layers construction. I was working as a member
of the team. So, I understand the role of team working.
In the laboratory, the laboratory supervisor makes supervision whether the tests are done
correctly or not. The laboratory technician performs each test. The assistance supervisor,
assistance laboratory and technician record result of each test. The labor prepares samples
to be tested. This coordination makes the laboratory test to be done correctly.
In the construction of structures, the work inspector supervises each activity. The surveyor
checks setting of coordinate, elevation and dimension of the structure and other workers
build the structure based on the working drawing.
Different professionals are also participating in the earth work and pavement layer
construction. The machine operator makes excavation and embankment. The surveyor
checks every surveying work. The work inspector controls each work. So, I have
developed my team playing skill by participating in such works.
Gain of leader ship skill

I gained sufficient leader ship skill in the training program. Each task of road construction
needs a leader. I learned here that how to lead one task. I understood that how to solve
disputes which are occurred on work.

Introducing with professions.
I introduced with a people who have different profession. I got an important experience
from these people. Introducing with these people also creates good job opportunity after
graduation. I also gained a crucial advice from them.
Work ethics
I have learned what work ethics is and how it is applied in the training program. Work
ethics is very essential to run every work effectively. I learned the following work ethics
which every employee should respect.
 Punctuality
 Reliability
 Accountability
 Loyalty and
 Responsibility
Recommendation for the company
Training practice has climbed all the way to the top as one of the very pleasant chapters
of my life. It left unforgettable scenes and broadened my view of the external non-
academic world. It has possibly laid a certain amount of corner stone for my future
professional life.
My four month stay in GAMMON put in me a position where I can vouch for
the company‟s competency and task fulfilment.
But there are small details that need to be addressed if the company is to emerge as a
highly respected, world-class construction company, with a strong identity which earns
the devotion of its customers by providing quality services exceeding the expectations of
its customers.

Some of these are listed below.
1. The company must provide substantial medication, safety, transport facility and
payment for the workers, as its achievement in goals and objectives is in one or
another way dependent on the healthy and willingly works of each and every
employee.
2. And I think it is better for the company to have and use machineries and
modern working equipment to run its projects on schedule and to made possible
speedy, accurate and less cost work.
3. The company should also try its best to increase the awareness of the employees
in company and management appreciation. Furthermore, I highly recommend
the company to give the employees incentives, whenever possible, which would
make them want to come to work every day. It starts by giving complements
where they are due
4. Base course layer was constructed in October. It was rainy week. Compaction of
the base course is continued but there was high moisture in base course. After
compaction of base course, the contractor requested to lay asphalt layer and the
request was accepted. The asphalt layer was done. But when it was opened to the
traffic, it was deformed after three days of opening to the traffic.
Asphalt is sensitive to the moisture. If base course holds moisture above the
limit, it comes to the asphalt concrete layer and the asphalt concrete layer is
settled. So I recommend that the effect of moisture on the asphalt should get a
great emphasis.
5. Prime coat is sprayed on the base course to bind the aggregate of base course
before asphalt layer is laid. It needs at least 24hours to cure. But sometimes the
asphalt layer is laid before the sprayed prime reaches 24hour. If the prime coat
does not get enough time to cure, it does not penetrate the base course layer and it
does not bind the aggregate sufficiently. This creates the deformation of asphalt
layer. So, the prime coat should have enough time to be cured.
6. Although company is governmental company I have seen some un ethics and
un accountability finical works in the project I recommended the company to
be accountable.
7. I have seen some lack of unity within the consulting office. Road construction

needs team works each tasks are inter related each other. Unity is necessary to
carry out each task. Otherwise the construction will not be carried out
effectively. So, I recommended the consulting office to have a unity.
8. The design of the mortar that used to the construction of pointing curb stone is
1:3 cement sand ratio respectively. But the sub-contractors sometimes use 1:4
and 1:5 ratios. This problem is addressed to the resident engineer but
measurement is not taken on the sub-contractors. Still they use 1:4 and 1:5 ratios.
This reduces the bondage strength of the mortar. So I recommended that the
safety of the structures should get great emphasis.

Conclusion
I have gained sufficient knowledge which professions participate in road construction.

Road construction is not a specific work. It needs the integration of different professions.
Geological profession, hydrological profession, high way engineer, structural engineer,
material engineer, local persons are participating in road construction. This shows that
road construction is the output of different bodies.
I have learned that road construction needs high financial strength. Investment on road
construction needs very high capital. Road construction needs a lot of machine to be run.
The machines are also very huge and their cost is counted in millions. A number of
professions are participated. It also needs a large number of labors. The construction
materials of road construction have high cost and even sometimes the materials are not
available near to the project. So road construction needs financial strength to resist the
challenge of different type of costs.
I have gained sufficient knowledge about the standard road construction. Construction of
road is subjected to the quality of construction material. The pavement indicates the
problem of quality when the material has low quality as soon as the construction is done. I
have also understood that asphalt concrete pavement is sensitive to the moisture and
temperature. I under stood how each work flow is run.
I understood that earth work is time and capital consumer section of road construction.
Especially if the cut is rock cut, it consumes high energy and large time. After earth work
reaches to the sub grade, the remaining layers do not consume much energy and time. But
quality requirement of materials increases from sub grade to the asphalt concrete layer. I
have learned the work flow of road construction. In addition I leaned work ethics, team
playing skill, leader ship skill.
Finally, it is my sincere wish to see the company as a competent international

construction company capable of undertaking all kinds of construction projects
(building, road, hydropower, irrigation etc.), with strong commitment, supporting
positive attitudes, encouraging interpersonal effort with defined responsibilities,
effective communication, integrity and trust throughout the organization.
REFRENCES
[1] Methodology handbook by the contractors
[2] Planning Department of Gammon India
[3] IS CODES
[4] www.wikipedia.com
[5] http://www.nhai.org/

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FOUR LANNING OF UDHAMPUR-RAMBAN

SEC. OF NH-1A (NOW NH-44)

SIX MONTH INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

Civil Engineering Department

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE,LUDHIANA Page 1

It is my privilege to express my profound ineptness, my deep sense of gratitude to

I sincerely thank to my project guide Er SATPAL SINGH PROJECT DIRECTOR

I am also thankful to my friends and family members who supported me encouraged

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE,LUDHIANA Page 2

BANTY KUMAR SANGRA

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE,LUDHIANA Page 3

1.1 Project Details 10

1.2 Location of Project 11

1.3 About Project 12

1.4 Necessity of Project 13

CHAPTER 2 About the Company 14

2.1 Company Profile 14

2.3 Current Projects 16

2.4 Recent Developments 17

CHAPTER 3 Training Activities 19

3.1 Site work 19

3.1.3 Construction of pavement 27

CHAPTER 4 Structural Work 38

4.1 Construction of Major Bridge 38

4.1.1 Theory of Bridge 38-39

4.1.2 Raft Foundation 40

4.2 Construction of Drainage 45

4.2.1 Side Ditch 45

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE,LUDHIANA Page 4

4.3 Highway Design 53

CHAPTER 5 Theory About Mechanical Process 56

5.1 Excavation And Backfilling 56-57

CHAPTER 6 Lab Work (Quality Assurance & Quality 60

6.2 Project Quality Plan 60

6.3.1 Soil Tests 61

6.3.2 Asphalt Tests 77

6.3.3 Concrete Tests 81

6.3.4 Field Tests 87

CHAPTER 7 Batching Plant 89

7.4 Report of Mix Design 93

8.1 Safety Appliances 98

CHAPTER 9 Benefit of Training 101

CHAPTER 10 References 109

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE,LUDHIANA Page 5

NHDP:- National Highway Development Project

NHAI:- National Highway Authority of India

LOA:- Letter of Acceptance

EPC:- Engineering, Procurement and Construction

J&K:- Jammu and Kashmir

NH:- National Highway

UBC:- Ultimate Bearing Capacity

PCC:- Plain Cement Concrete

DSC:- Design and Supervision Consultancy

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE,LUDHIANA Page 6

Figure No. Figure Name Page no.

Figure 1.1 Map showing new NH from Udhmapur to Banihal 11

Figure 1.2 Map showing old NH from Udhampur to Ramban 11

Figure 3.1 Surveying work 22

Figure 3.2 Cutting of road 22

Figure 3.3 Subgrade construction 26

Figure 3.4 Sub base layer 29

Figure 3.5 Type of rollers 36

Figure 4.1 Plan view of bridge cutting a long curve 38